Tanzania

3.1. Prehistory and Early Migrations

Tanzania is one of the oldest continuously inhabited areas on Earth, with fossil remains of humans and hominids dating back to the Quaternary period. The Olduvai Gorge in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, contains a significant collection of hominid fossils and stone tools, documenting early human evolution and technological development. Fossils of Homo habilis, dating back 2.5 to 2 million years, have been found here, confirmed by researchers like Louis Leakey.

The indigenous populations of eastern Africa are thought to include the linguistically isolated Hadza and Sandawe, who have traditionally been hunter-gatherers. The first wave of migration into Tanzania involved Southern Cushitic speakers, ancestral to the Iraqw, Gorowa, and Burunge, who moved south from present-day Ethiopia and Somalia. Linguistic evidence suggests that Eastern Cushitic peoples also migrated into Tanzania from north of Lake Turkana in two movements around 4,000 and 2,000 years ago.

Archaeological evidence supports the conclusion that Southern Nilotes, including the Datoog, moved south from the present-day South Sudan-Ethiopia border region into central northern Tanzania between 2,900 and 2,400 years ago. These movements occurred around the same time as the settlement of iron-making Mashariki Bantu speakers from West Africa in the Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika areas, as part of the centuries-long Bantu expansion. The Bantu peoples introduced West African planting traditions, with yams as a primary staple. They subsequently migrated across the rest of Tanzania between 2,300 and 1,700 years ago. Eastern Nilotic peoples, including the Maasai, represent a more recent migration from present-day South Sudan within the past 500 to 1,500 years.

The peoples of Tanzania have a long history associated with iron and steel production. The Pare people were major producers of sought-after iron for communities in the mountain regions of northeastern Tanzania. The Haya people, on the western shores of Lake Victoria, invented a type of high-heat blast furnace over 1,500 years ago, which allowed them to forge carbon steel at temperatures exceeding 35.275999999999996 K °F ^{(1.82 K °C)}.

3.2. Medieval Period and Swahili Civilization

From the early first millennium AD, travelers and merchants from the Persian Gulf and India began visiting the East African coast. Islam was practiced by some on the Swahili Coast as early as the 8th or 9th century AD. Bantu-speakers built farming and trading villages along the Tanzanian coast. Archaeological finds at Fukuchani, on the northwest coast of Zanzibar, indicate a settled agricultural and fishing community from the 6th century CE at the latest, with evidence of timber buildings, shell beads, and limited long-distance trade.

The growth in Egyptian and Persian shipping, particularly after the Fatimid Caliphate relocated to Fustat (Cairo), revitalized Indian Ocean trade. Swahili agriculturalists built increasingly dense settlements, forming the earliest Swahili city-states. The Kilwa Sultanate, centered on the island of Kilwa, became a major medieval city-state in Tanzania, controlling a number of smaller ports stretching down to modern-day Mozambique. Sofala became a major gold emporium, and Kilwa grew rich from this trade, strategically located at the southern end of the Indian Ocean monsoons. Kilwa's main rivals were Mombasa and Malindi in modern-day Kenya. Kilwa remained a dominant power in East Africa until the arrival of the Portuguese at the end of the 15th century. In 1498, the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama reached the East African coast, marking the beginning of European influence. Portugal subsequently conquered Kilwa in 1505 and controlled coastal areas for about two centuries.

3.3. Omani Influence and the Sultanate of Zanzibar

By the late 17th century, Omani Arabs began to challenge Portuguese dominance. In 1698, Oman successfully ousted the Portuguese from Mombasa and subsequently extended their control over Zanzibar and other coastal areas. In the 19th century, under Sultan Said bin Sultan, Oman's influence in East Africa peaked. In the 1830s (specifically 1840), Sultan Said moved his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar City (Stone Town), transforming Zanzibar into a major center for the slave trade and the cultivation of cloves and other spices. During this period, between 65% and 90% of the Arab-Swahili population of Zanzibar was enslaved. Notorious slave traders like Tippu Tip, himself of mixed Arab-African descent, operated extensive trade networks reaching deep into the mainland, contributing to the suffering and exploitation of many indigenous African populations. The Nyamwezi traders, under leaders like Msiri and Mirambo, also participated in this trade. It is recorded that 718,000 slaves were exported from the Swahili coast during the 19th century, with 769,000 retained on the coast. Slavery was officially abolished in Zanzibar in the 1890s, largely due to British pressure. After Said bin Sultan's death in 1856, his empire was divided, and his son Majid bin Said became the first Sultan of an independent Sultanate of Zanzibar.

3.4. European Colonial Era

The late 19th century saw the Scramble for Africa, during which European powers partitioned the continent. The Tanzanian region became a focal point of Anglo-German rivalry.

3.4.1. German East Africa

In the 1880s, Carl Peters, a German colonial adventurer, secured treaties with local chiefs in the interior of mainland Tanzania. These treaties formed the basis for Germany's claim to the region, which was formalized in 1885 with the establishment of the German East Africa Protectorate, administered by the German East Africa Company. In 1890, the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty between Britain and Germany defined their respective spheres of influence: Britain gained control over Zanzibar as a protectorate, while Germany consolidated its hold on the mainland (Tanganyika) and coastal areas. German colonial rule was characterized by efforts to establish plantations, build infrastructure like the Central Line railway (Tanganjikabahn) from Dar es Salaam to Kigoma, and impose administrative control.
German rule faced significant indigenous resistance. The Hehe, under Chief Mkwawa, engaged in prolonged guerrilla warfare from 1891 to 1898. The most significant uprising was the Maji Maji Rebellion (1905-1907), a widespread revolt by several ethnic groups in southern German East Africa against forced labor (especially in cotton cultivation) and harsh colonial policies. The rebellion, inspired by a belief that magic water (maji) would protect warriors from German bullets, was brutally suppressed. The German scorched-earth tactics, combined with famine, resulted in an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 African deaths, a devastating blow to the local population and a stark example of colonial brutality. This event prompted some reforms in German colonial administration.
During World War I, German East Africa became a major theater of operations (the East African Campaign). General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck led a small, predominantly African (Askari) force that skillfully evaded and engaged larger Allied forces until the end of the war.

3.4.2. British Rule and Tanganyika Territory

After Germany's defeat in World War I, German East Africa was dismantled. The League of Nations mandated the territory to the Allied powers. The northwestern provinces of Ruanda-Urundi were assigned to Belgium, the small Kionga Triangle to Portugal (as part of Mozambique), and the bulk of the territory, renamed Tanganyika, became a British mandate territory in 1922. British rule was formalized, and indirect rule through existing traditional authorities was implemented in many areas.
Under British administration, socio-economic developments continued, though often skewed towards benefiting the colonial power and settler communities. Infrastructure, such as railways and roads, was expanded, and cash crop production (coffee, cotton, sisal) was encouraged. However, Africans faced land alienation, racial discrimination, and limited political participation. During World War II, about 100,000 Tanganyikans joined the Allied forces, serving in various campaigns, including the East African campaign, Madagascar, and Burma. Tanganyika also became an important source of food and raw materials for the war effort, leading to increased export income but also causing inflation.
After World War II, Tanganyika became a UN Trust Territory under British administration, with independence as the eventual goal. Nationalist sentiments grew, and political organizations emerged.

3.5. Independence and Unification

The movement towards independence gained momentum in the post-World War II era, shaped by global anti-colonial sentiment and local activism. This period culminated in the formation of the United Republic of Tanzania through the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar.

3.5.1. Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa, and Nation-Building

Julius Nyerere emerged as the leading figure in Tanganyika's independence movement. In 1954, he transformed the Tanganyika African Association into the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), a political party dedicated to achieving national sovereignty. TANU rapidly gained widespread support. Nyerere became Chief Minister in 1960 and then Prime Minister when Tanganyika achieved independence peacefully on December 9, 1961, within the Commonwealth of Nations, with Elizabeth II as Queen of Tanganyika. On December 9, 1962, Tanganyika became a republic, with Nyerere as its first president.

Meanwhile, Zanzibar, which had been a British protectorate since 1890 with the Sultan as its nominal ruler, gained independence on December 10, 1963. However, the Arab-dominated government was overthrown just a month later, on January 12, 1964, in the violent Zanzibar Revolution. The revolution, led by the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP), resulted in the establishment of the People's Republic of Zanzibar and the massacre of thousands of Arab and South Asian Zanzibaris, an event that highlights the deep-seated ethnic and class tensions of the colonial era.

On April 26, 1964, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, which was renamed the United Republic of Tanzania on October 29, 1964. Nyerere became the president of the new union, while Abeid Karume, leader of the ASP, became Vice-President and head of Zanzibar's autonomous government. The union, though sometimes contentious, was driven by shared Pan-Africanist ideals and Nyerere's vision of African unity.

Nyerere's presidency was defined by the policy of Ujamaa (meaning "familyhood" or "socialism" in Swahili), formally adopted in the Arusha Declaration of 1967. Ujamaa aimed to create a self-reliant socialist state based on collective agriculture (vijiji vya ujamaa - Ujamaa villages), nationalization of key industries and financial institutions, and the promotion of social equality and national unity. Efforts were made to build a national identity transcending Tanzania's over 120 ethnic groups, with Swahili promoted as the national language. While Ujamaa achieved successes in education, healthcare, and fostering national cohesion, its economic policies, particularly forced villagization, led to agricultural decline, food shortages, and economic hardship for many, representing a complex legacy where noble social goals clashed with authoritarian implementation and economic mismanagement.

In foreign policy, Tanzania under Nyerere was a prominent advocate of Pan-Africanism, non-alignment, and supported liberation movements in Southern Africa against colonial rule and apartheid (e.g., FRELIMO in Mozambique, ZANU in Zimbabwe, SWAPO in Namibia, and the ANC in South Africa). Tanzania also played a key role in the Frontline States. In 1978-79, Tanzania went to war with Uganda after Idi Amin's forces invaded Tanzanian territory. The Tanzanian army, along with Ugandan exiles, successfully ousted Amin, a significant intervention that, while costly, was widely seen as a defense of sovereignty and a blow against tyranny in the region.

4.1. Topography and Hydrology

Tanzania's topography is marked by significant variations. The northeast is mountainous and densely forested, home to Mount Kilimanjaro, which at 19 K ft ^{(5.90 K m)} is Africa's highest peak and the world's highest single free-standing mountain. Nearby is Mount Meru, an active stratovolcano. The Great Rift Valley runs through parts of Tanzania, creating dramatic escarpments and deep depressions that host several of the African Great Lakes. Central Tanzania consists of a large plateau, characterized by plains and arable land.

Tanzania shares three of Africa's Great Lakes. To the north and west lies Lake Victoria, the continent's largest lake by area and the world's second-largest freshwater lake. To the west, along the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, is Lake Tanganyika, the continent's deepest lake and the second-deepest in the world, known for its unique fish species. To the southwest lies Lake Malawi (also known as Lake Nyasa). Major rivers include the Rufiji River, Pangani River, Great Ruaha River, and the Malagarasi River. The Kalambo Falls, on the Kalambo River at the Zambian border, is the second-highest uninterrupted waterfall in Africa.

The eastern shore of Tanzania faces the Indian Ocean with a coastline of approximately 0.9 K mile ^{(1.42 K km)}. This coastal area is generally hot and humid. Offshore islands include the Zanzibar Archipelago (comprising Unguja (Zanzibar Island), Pemba, and smaller islands) and Mafia Island.

4.2. Climate

Tanzania's climate varies considerably due to its diverse topography. In the highlands, temperatures typically range between 50 °F ^{(10 °C)} and 68 °F ^{(20 °C)} during the cold and hot seasons, respectively. The rest of the country generally experiences temperatures rarely falling below 68 °F ^{(20 °C)}. The hottest period is usually between November and February, with temperatures ranging from 77 °F ^{(25 °C)} to 87.8 °F ^{(31 °C)}, while the coldest period occurs between May and August, with temperatures from 59 °F ^{(15 °C)} to 68 °F ^{(20 °C)}. The annual average temperature is around 68 °F ^{(20 °C)}. High mountainous regions, like Kilimanjaro, have cooler, alpine climates.

Tanzania experiences two major rainfall patterns. A uni-modal pattern (October-April) is characteristic of the southern, central, and western parts of the country. A bi-modal pattern (October-December, known as the Vuli or short rains, and March-May, known as the Masika or long rains) is found in the north, from Lake Victoria eastward to the coast. This bi-modal rainfall is caused by the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

Climate change is increasingly impacting Tanzania, leading to rising temperatures, a higher likelihood of intense rainfall events causing flooding, and more frequent and severe dry spells resulting in droughts. These changes pose significant threats to agriculture, water resources, human health, and energy production. Sea level rise is also a concern for coastal areas and fisheries. Tanzania developed a National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) in 2007 and a National Climate Change Strategy in 2012 to address these challenges and promote climate resilience and sustainable development. Tropical cyclones, such as Cyclone Hidaya in 2024, can infrequently make landfall, causing severe impacts; historical records of such cyclones date back to 1872.

4.3. Wildlife and Conservation

Tanzania is renowned for its rich biodiversity and vast expanses of wilderness, hosting approximately 20% of Africa's large mammal population. The country has dedicated about 38% of its land area to conservation, encompassing 21 national parks, numerous game reserves, forest reserves, one conservation area (Ngorongoro Conservation Area), and three marine parks.

Iconic national parks include the Serengeti National Park, famous for the annual great migration of millions of wildebeest, zebras, and other ungulates; the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, a UNESCO World Heritage Site featuring the Ngorongoro Crater, the world's largest intact volcanic caldera teeming with wildlife; Kilimanjaro National Park, protecting Africa's highest peak and its unique ecosystems; Tarangire National Park, known for its large elephant herds and baobab trees; and Lake Manyara National Park, famous for its tree-climbing lions and diverse birdlife. Gombe Stream National Park in western Tanzania is the site of Jane Goodall's pioneering long-term research on chimpanzee behavior, which began in 1960. The Selous Game Reserve (now largely incorporated into Nyerere National Park) is one of the largest faunal reserves in the world. The Menai Bay Conservation Area is Zanzibar's largest marine protected area. The Masai giraffe is the national animal of Tanzania.

The country is home to about 130 amphibian and over 275 reptile species, many of which are endemic. Tanzania also boasts the largest lion population in the world.
Despite significant conservation efforts, Tanzania faces challenges such as poaching (especially of elephants for ivory and rhinos for their horns), habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and human settlement, human-wildlife conflict, and the impacts of climate change. Sustainable management of these natural resources is crucial for both biodiversity conservation and the country's tourism-dependent economy, requiring a balance between conservation goals and the socio-economic needs of local communities. Tanzania had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.13/10, ranking it 54th globally out of 172 countries.

5.1. Government

Tanzania is a unitary republic based on the Constitution of 1977, which has been amended multiple times. The government is structured around the principle of separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The ruling party, Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM), has been in power since its formation in 1977 (and its predecessor, TANU, since independence in 1961), making it one of Africa's longest-serving ruling parties. Until 1992, Tanzania was a one-party state. The transition to a multi-party system in 1992 allowed for the emergence of opposition parties, with Chadema (Chama cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo - Party for Democracy and Progress) being the main opposition. Governance challenges include strengthening democratic institutions, combating corruption, and ensuring political freedoms.

5.1.1. Executive Branch

The President of Tanzania is both the head of state and head of government. The president is elected by direct popular vote for a five-year term and is limited to two terms. The current president is Samia Suluhu Hassan, who assumed office in March 2021 following the death of President John Magufuli. The president appoints a Vice-President (currently Philip Mpango), who is elected on the same ticket. The president also appoints the Prime Minister (currently Kassim Majaliwa), who is the leader of government business in the National Assembly, and the Cabinet ministers, primarily from among the members of the National Assembly. The executive branch is responsible for implementing laws, managing national affairs, and conducting foreign policy. Law enforcement in Tanzania is administered by the Tanzania Police Force, which falls under the executive branch.

5.1.3. Judicial Branch

Tanzania's legal system is based on English common law, customary law, and, in Zanzibar, Islamic law for certain civil matters. The judiciary is structured in a hierarchy of courts. On the mainland, this includes:

• Primary Courts: Deal with minor civil and criminal cases, often applying customary law.
• District Courts and Resident Magistrates' Courts: Have broader jurisdiction.
• High Court: Has unlimited jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters and hears appeals from lower courts. It has specialized divisions for commercial, labor, and land matters.
• Court of Appeal: The highest appellate court for both mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar (except for Islamic law cases from Zanzibar's Kadhi's Appeal Courts).

Zanzibar has a parallel court system for non-union matters, including Kadhi's Courts for Islamic family law, Primary Courts, Magistrates' Courts, and a High Court of Zanzibar. Judicial independence is a constitutional principle, but challenges remain in ensuring access to justice, reducing case backlogs, and combating corruption within the judiciary. The Chief Justice of Tanzania heads the judiciary. Judges are appointed by the President in consultation with judicial service commissions. Tanzania is a party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.

5.2. Zanzibar

Zanzibar, consisting of the islands of Unguja and Pemba, has a semi-autonomous status within the union. It maintains its own Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar, headed by the President of Zanzibar, who is elected by Zanzibari voters. Zanzibar has its own unicameral legislature, the Zanzibar House of Representatives, which deals with non-union matters specific to the islands. The Revolutionary Council serves as Zanzibar's cabinet. The relationship between the union government and Zanzibar's government is defined by the Articles of Union, which specify matters handled by the union (e.g., defense, foreign affairs, currency) and those reserved for Zanzibar (e.g., internal security, local administration, aspects of law). Zanzibar's politics have often been contentious, with close elections and disputes between the ruling CCM and opposition parties like the Alliance for Change and Transparency-Wazalendo (ACT-Wazalendo). The constitution of Zanzibar requires the party that comes in second in the polls to join a coalition government with the winning party.

5.3. Administrative Divisions

Tanzania is divided into thirty-one regions (mikoa), with twenty-six on the mainland and five in Zanzibar (three on Unguja, two on Pemba). Each region is headed by a Regional Commissioner appointed by the President. Regions are further subdivided into districts (wilaya), also known as local government authorities. As of 2021, there were 184 districts. These districts include urban units (city councils, municipal councils, town councils) and rural units (district councils). Urban units are subdivided into wards and sub-wards (mitaa), while non-urban units are subdivided into village councils or township authorities, and then into hamlets (vitongoji).
Local government was abolished in 1972 and replaced by direct central rule but was reintroduced in the early 1980s. A Local Government Reform Programme enacted in 1999 aimed at political, financial, and administrative decentralization, though the central government retains significant overriding powers. The city of Dar es Salaam has a unique structure with a city council whose jurisdiction overlaps three municipal councils.

5.4. Foreign Relations

Tanzania's foreign policy has historically been guided by principles of non-alignment, Pan-African unity, support for decolonization, and good neighborliness. Since the 2001 New Foreign Policy, there has been an increasing emphasis on economic diplomacy and development. Key objectives include protecting national interests, promoting peace and security, and fostering regional integration and global cooperation.
Tanzania is an active member of major international and regional organizations, including the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU) (and its predecessor, the Organisation of African Unity, OAU), the East African Community (EAC), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Tanzania has played a significant role in regional mediation efforts and has hosted important peace talks, such as the Arusha Accords for Rwanda and Burundi. The EAC, headquartered in Arusha, aims for closer economic, social, and political integration among its member states (Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, South Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo), with long-term goals including a monetary union and political federation. Tanzania ratified and joined the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) in 2022. The country maintains diplomatic relations with numerous countries worldwide, balancing partnerships with Western nations, China, and other developing countries.

5.5. Military

The Tanzania People's Defence Force (TPDF) (Jeshi la Wananchi wa Tanzania_{Jeshi la Wananchi wa Tanzania}^Swahili, JWTZ) is the armed forces of Tanzania, operating as a people's force under civilian control. It comprises five branches: Land Force (army), Air Force, Naval Command, National Service, and Headquarters. Tanzanian citizens can volunteer for military service from age 15, with compulsory National Service for 18-year-olds upon graduation from advanced secondary school (conscript service obligation was 2 years as of 2004). As of 2023, the TPDF had approximately 25,000 active personnel. The primary roles of the TPDF include defending Tanzania's sovereignty and territorial integrity, supporting civil authorities in maintaining order, and participating in international peacekeeping operations. Tanzania has contributed troops to UN and AU peacekeeping missions in various African countries. Historically, the TPDF played a crucial role in the Uganda-Tanzania War (1978-1979), which led to the overthrow of Ugandan dictator Idi Amin. Tanzania was ranked the 65th most peaceful country in the world according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.

5.6. Human Rights

The human rights situation in Tanzania presents a mixed picture, with constitutional guarantees often facing challenges in practice. From a center-left perspective emphasizing social justice and democratic development, several key areas require attention:

• Freedoms of Expression, Assembly, and Association: While the constitution provides for these freedoms, they have faced restrictions, particularly under some administrations. Journalists, human rights defenders, and political opposition members have reported harassment, intimidation, and limitations on their work. Media outlets have faced closures or sanctions. The Cybercrimes Act and Media Services Act have been criticized for provisions that could be used to stifle dissent.
• Rights of Minorities:
  • People with albinism face severe discrimination and violence, including killings and mutilations, driven by superstitious beliefs that their body parts bring wealth or good luck in witchcraft practices (muti). Tanzania has one ofthe highest rates of such attacks in Africa. While the government has taken steps to address this, including banning witchdoctors and prosecuting perpetrators, the threat remains significant, necessitating stronger protection and public education.
  • LGBTQ+ individuals face significant legal and social discrimination. Same-sex sexual conduct is criminalized, with penalties including life imprisonment. Societal stigma is widespread, with high percentages of the population believing homosexuality should not be accepted. This hostile environment impacts the safety, health, and well-being of LGBTQ+ Tanzanians.
• Gender Equality: While Tanzania has made some progress, such as constitutional quotas for women in Parliament, women continue to face discrimination and inequality in various spheres, including access to education, economic opportunities, and land ownership. Gender-based violence, including domestic violence and female genital mutilation (FGM) (though declining), remains a serious concern.
• Justice System Challenges: Issues within the justice system include lengthy pre-trial detentions, overcrowded prisons, allegations of police brutality, and limited access to legal aid, particularly for vulnerable populations. Ensuring judicial independence and accountability is crucial.
• Political Freedoms and Opposition: Opposition parties have reported challenges in conducting their activities, including restrictions on rallies and arrests of their members, especially around election periods. The conduct of elections has sometimes drawn criticism regarding fairness and transparency.
• Refugee Rights: Tanzania has a long history of hosting refugees from neighboring countries. While generally providing asylum, challenges exist in ensuring adequate protection and resources for refugee populations.

Governmental bodies like the Commission for Human Rights and Good Governance, alongside numerous non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society groups, work to monitor and advocate for human rights improvements. However, in December 2019, Amnesty International reported that the Tanzanian government withdrew the right of NGOs and individuals to directly file cases against it at the Arusha-based African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights, a move seen as a setback for accountability and access to justice. Addressing these human rights challenges is vital for Tanzania's democratic development and social progress.

6.1. Economic Overview

As of 2021, Tanzania's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was estimated at 71.00 B USD (nominal), or 218.50 B USD on a purchasing power parity (PPP) basis. GDP per capita (PPP) was $3,574. The economy experienced relatively strong growth for several years, averaging around 3.5% per capita GDP growth annually from 2009 to 2013. In 2020, the World Bank declared Tanzania's elevation from a low-income country to a lower-middle-income country, as its GNI per capita increased from 1.02 K USD in 2018 to 1.08 K USD in 2019. The economy grew by 4.6% in 2022 and 5.2% in 2023.

Historically, after independence, Tanzania pursued Ujamaa (African socialism), which involved nationalization and collectivized agriculture. This led to economic difficulties, prompting market-oriented reforms starting in the mid-1980s under IMF and World Bank guidance. These reforms included privatization, trade liberalization, and fiscal discipline, contributing to subsequent economic growth. National development plans, such as "Vision 2025," aim to transform Tanzania into a middle-income, semi-industrialized nation.

Structural challenges include a narrow export base, dependence on rain-fed agriculture, infrastructure deficits (especially in energy and transport), and issues of governance and corruption. There has been some controversy regarding the accuracy of official economic statistics, with some analysts questioning the high growth figures reported in certain periods based on discrepancies with other economic indicators like tax revenue and private sector sales. Such concerns highlight the need for transparency and robust data for effective policymaking.

Tanzania's largest trading partners in 2017 for its 5.30 B USD in exports were India, Vietnam, South Africa, Switzerland, and China. Its imports totaled 8.17 B USD, with India, Switzerland, Saudi Arabia, China, and the United Arab Emirates being the biggest partners.

6.2. Major Sectors

The Tanzanian economy is diversified across several key sectors, with agriculture, mining, tourism, and manufacturing playing significant roles.

6.2.1. Agriculture

Agriculture remains the backbone of the Tanzanian economy, accounting for about 24.5% of GDP in 2013 and providing employment for approximately half of the workforce. It is also a major source of export earnings. Key agricultural products include:

• Cash crops: Coffee (including the famous Kilimanjaro coffee), cotton, cashew nuts, sisal, tea, and tobacco. Sugar was the largest cash crop on the mainland in 2013.
• Food crops: Maize (the largest food crop), cassava, sweet potatoes, beans, bananas, rice, and millet.
• Livestock: Beef is the largest meat product, followed by lamb/mutton, chicken, and pork.

The agricultural sector faces numerous challenges, including:

• Dependence on rain-fed agriculture, making it vulnerable to drought and the impacts of climate change.
• Limited access to modern farming inputs, technology, credit, and extension services.
• Inadequate infrastructure, such as rural roads and storage facilities, hindering market access.
• Issues of food security, particularly in drought-prone areas.
• Land tenure complexities and conflicts over land use.

Although Tanzania has an estimated 29.4 million hectares suitable for irrigation, only a small fraction (around 310,745 hectares in 2011) was actually irrigated, highlighting a significant potential for improving productivity and resilience. Promoting sustainable agricultural practices, improving market linkages, and investing in rural infrastructure are crucial for the sector's development and for poverty reduction.

6.2.2. Mining and Energy

Tanzania is rich in mineral resources. Mining contributed 3.3% of GDP in 2013. The main minerals include:

• Gold: The primary mineral export, accounting for 89% of mineral export value in 2013. Tanzania is one of Africa's largest gold producers (46 metric tonnes in 2015).
• Gemstones: Including diamonds (from mines like the Williamson diamond mine) and the unique, violet-blue gemstone tanzanite, found only in Tanzania.
• Other minerals: Coal (used domestically), iron ore, nickel, copper, and various industrial minerals.

The energy sector is critical for economic development.

• Electricity: Access to electricity has been increasing but remains limited, especially in rural areas (35.2% overall access in 2018, up from 15% in 2011). The state-owned Tanzania Electric Supply Company Limited (TANESCO) dominates the sector. Electricity generation relies on a mix of sources:
  • Natural gas: Increasingly important, accounting for 49.7% of generation in 2013.
  • Hydropower: Historically significant (28.9% in 2013), but vulnerable to droughts.
  • Thermal (oil-based): 20.4% in 2013.

  Unreliable electricity supply and rolling blackouts have historically hindered industrial development. The government aims to significantly increase generation capacity, partly through developing its natural gas resources.

  • Natural gas: Significant offshore natural gas reserves have been discovered since 2010 (over 43 trillion cubic feet by end of 2013). Gas from fields like Songo Songo Island and Mnazi Bay is used for power generation and industrial purposes. A 331 mile ^{(532 km)} gas pipeline from Mnazi Bay to Dar es Salaam was built to facilitate this.

  The mining and energy sectors offer substantial economic potential but also pose environmental and social challenges. Ensuring transparent revenue management, mitigating environmental degradation, respecting community rights, and distributing benefits equitably are key concerns for sustainable development.

6.2.4. Tourism

Tourism is a vital sector for Tanzania's economy, contributing significantly to GDP (17.5% in 2016) and foreign exchange earnings (2.00 B USD from international tourists in 2016), and providing substantial employment (11.0% of the labor force in 2013). Tourist arrivals reached 1,284,279 in 2016.
Major tourist attractions include:

• Wildlife Safaris: The "northern circuit" is particularly popular, featuring Serengeti National Park, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tarangire National Park, and Lake Manyara National Park. Selous Game Reserve (now largely Nyerere National Park) in the south also offers vast wilderness experiences.
• Mount Kilimanjaro: Africa's highest peak attracts thousands of climbers annually.
• Zanzibar: The "Spice Islands" offer beautiful beaches, historic Stone Town (a UNESCO World Heritage site), and unique cultural experiences.
• Other attractions include Mafia Island Marine Park, Gombe Stream National Park (chimpanzees), and cultural tourism initiatives.

The government promotes tourism development, but challenges include ensuring sustainability, managing environmental impacts, equitable benefit-sharing with local communities, and maintaining infrastructure. Efforts towards sustainable tourism are crucial to protect the natural and cultural assets that underpin the industry and to ensure that economic benefits contribute to poverty reduction and conservation.

6.3. Finance

The Bank of Tanzania is the country's central bank, responsible for monetary policy, maintaining price stability, issuing the Tanzanian shilling (TZS), and supervising financial institutions. The banking sector includes commercial banks (both local and international), community banks, and other financial institutions. At the end of 2013, the total assets of the Tanzanian banking industry were 19.50 T TZS.
Financial markets are still developing. The Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange (DSE) facilitates the trading of equities and bonds. Efforts are ongoing to improve financial inclusion, extending access to banking services, credit, and insurance to underserved populations, including rural communities and small businesses. Mobile money services have significantly expanded financial access in recent years.

6.4. Transport

Transport infrastructure is crucial for Tanzania's economic development, connecting production areas to markets and facilitating trade and tourism.

• Roads: Road transport is the dominant mode, constituting over 75% of freight traffic and 80% of passenger traffic. The road system, approximately 113 K mile ^{(181.19 K km)} long, is generally in varying condition, with ongoing efforts to upgrade and pave major trunk roads, such as those part of the Cairo-Cape Town Highway. The Dar Rapid Transit (DART) system, a bus rapid transit project, aims to improve urban mobility in Dar es Salaam.
• Railways: Tanzania has two main railway systems:
  • Tanzania Railways Limited (TRL): Operates the Central Line, connecting Dar es Salaam with central and northern Tanzania (e.g., Kigoma on Lake Tanganyika and Mwanza on Lake Victoria).
  • Tanzania-Zambia Railway Authority (TAZARA): Connects Dar es Salaam with Kapiri Mposhi in Zambia, providing an important route for Zambia's copper exports.

  Rail travel has historically faced challenges with aging infrastructure, slow speeds, and operational inefficiencies, though efforts are underway for rehabilitation and modernization, including standard gauge railway projects.

  • Ports: The Port of Dar es Salaam is the principal port, handling the majority of Tanzania's international trade and serving as a gateway for several landlocked neighboring countries. Other ports include Tanga, Mtwara, and Zanzibar.
  • Aviation: Tanzania has four international airports: Julius Nyerere International Airport (Dar es Salaam), Kilimanjaro International Airport, Abeid Amani Karume International Airport (Zanzibar), and Mwanza Airport. There are also numerous smaller airports and airstrips. Airlines serving Tanzania include the national carrier Air Tanzania, as well as private airlines like Precision Air, Fastjet, Coastal Aviation, and ZanAir. Airport infrastructure varies in quality.

  Improving and expanding transport infrastructure is a key government priority to reduce transport costs, enhance connectivity, and support economic growth.

6.5. Communications

The communications sector has been one of the fastest-growing in Tanzania, though its overall contribution to GDP was relatively small (2.4% in 2013).

• Telecommunications: Mobile phone penetration has increased significantly, with 56 mobile subscribers per 100 inhabitants in 2011, a rate slightly above the sub-Saharan average at the time. Fixed-line telephone access remains very limited.
• Internet: Internet usage has been growing rapidly, with approximately 12% of Tanzanians using the internet as of 2011. The country has invested in a national fibre-optic cable network, which has improved connectivity and replaced less reliable satellite services. However, internet bandwidth and affordability can still be challenges, particularly in rural areas.

The growth of ICT is seen as crucial for economic development, facilitating business, education, and access to information.

6.6. Poverty, Inequality, and Food Security

Despite economic growth, Tanzania faces significant challenges related to poverty, inequality, and food security, which are critical areas from a social justice and sustainable development perspective. Approximately 68% of Tanzania's 61.1 million citizens lived below the poverty line of $1.25 a day (an older measure), and in 2015/2016, 57.1% of the population was considered affected by multidimensional poverty. The 2019 World Bank report showed poverty (national basic needs poverty line) reduced from 34.4% in 2007 to 26.4% in 2018, and a further report showed a reduction to 25.7% in 2020. However, the benefits of national economic growth have not always been evenly distributed, often benefiting only a "very few," according to the UNDP.

Poverty and Inequality:

• Poverty is more prevalent in rural areas than in urban centers.
• Inequality exists in income, access to resources (land, credit), and essential services (education, healthcare).
• Low rural sector productivity, stemming from inadequate infrastructure, limited access to farm inputs and technology, and dependence on rain-fed agriculture, contributes to rural poverty.

Food Security and Nutrition:

• Food security remains a persistent issue. Tanzania's Global Hunger Index (GHI) score, while improving from "alarming" (42 in 2000) to 23.2 (still indicating serious hunger levels), highlights ongoing concerns. In 2017, a survey found 84% of rural people suffered food shortages over a 3-month period compared to 64% in cities.
• Malnutrition is a significant problem, especially among children. USAID reported that 16% of children were underweight and 34% experienced stunted growth. Children in rural areas suffer substantially higher rates of malnutrition, though urban-rural disparities in stunting and underweight have narrowed somewhat.
• Periods of drought significantly impact crop production, leading to food price increases for staples like maize and sorghum, which are crucial for the nutrition of the majority.
• Factors contributing to poor nutrition include variance in maternal malnutrition, poor infant feeding practices, inadequate hygiene, poor healthcare services, and unsustainable harvesting of natural resources.

Programmes and Policies:
Numerous governmental and non-governmental initiatives aim to address these issues:

• USAID's "Feed the Future" programs operate in several regions, investing in nutrition, infrastructure, policy, institutional capacity, and agriculture.
• The Tanzanian government's "Kilimo Kwanza" ("Agriculture First") initiative aims to encourage private sector investment in agriculture.
• The World Food Programme (WFP) runs programs like the Supplementary Feeding Programme (SFP) to target acute malnutrition by supplying fortified food to pregnant women and young children, and the Mother and Child Health and Nutrition Programme.
• UNICEF and organizations like Save the Children (through PANITA - Partnership for Nutrition in Tanzania) work on improving nutrition through civil society organizations and integrating nutrition into development plans.
• Social protection programs are in place, but coverage and adequacy can be limited.

Addressing poverty, inequality, and food insecurity requires a multi-faceted approach focusing on pro-poor economic growth, strengthening social safety nets, investing in agriculture and rural development, improving access to education and healthcare, promoting gender equality, and ensuring sustainable resource management. These efforts are central to achieving social justice and sustainable development goals in Tanzania.

7.1. Population

According to the 2022 national census, Tanzania had a population of 61,741,120. This was a significant increase from the 2012 census figure of 44,928,923. The population growth rate is relatively high. A large proportion of the population is young; in 2012, the under-15 age group represented 44.1% of the population.
Population distribution is highly uneven. Most people live on the northern border, the eastern coast, or in highland areas with fertile soil and reliable rainfall. Large parts of the interior, particularly arid and semi-arid regions, are sparsely populated. Density varies from 12/km² in the Katavi Region to 3,133/km² in the Dar es Salaam Region (as of 2012).
Approximately 70% of the population is rural, although urbanization is increasing. Dar es Salaam is the largest city and commercial capital, with a population of 4,364,541 in 2012. Dodoma, the official capital, had a population of 410,956 in 2012. Other major cities include Mwanza, Arusha, Mbeya, and Morogoro.
The child mortality rate has significantly declined since independence (from 335 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1964 to 62 per 1,000 in recent years), but remains a challenge. According to 2010 government statistics, the total fertility rate was 5.4 children born per woman (3.7 in urban mainland, 6.1 in rural mainland, 5.1 in Zanzibar).

7.2. Ethnic Groups

Tanzania is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in Africa, with about 125 distinct ethnic groups. The vast majority (around 99%) of Tanzanians are of native African descent, predominantly of Bantu origin. Some of the largest ethnic groups include the Sukuma, Nyamwezi, Chagga, and Haya, each with populations exceeding one million. Other groups include the Maasai, Gogo, Ha, Hehe, and Makonde. The indigenous Hadza and Sandawe are notable for their unique languages and traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyles.
Despite this diversity, ethnic divisions have generally remained less pronounced in Tanzania compared to many other African nations. This is often attributed to the unifying influence of the Swahili language, shared national identity fostered since independence under Julius Nyerere, and policies aimed at preventing tribalism in politics.
Minority populations include citizens of Indian, Arab, and European descent, who are often prominent in business and commerce. There is also a community of Chinese descent. Many Zanzibaris identify as Shirazi, claiming Persian ancestry, reflecting historical trade links. During the Zanzibar Revolution of 1964, thousands of Arabs and Indians were massacred. As of 1994, the Asian community numbered 50,000 on the mainland and 4,000 on Zanzibar. An estimated 70,000 Arabs and 10,000 Europeans lived in Tanzania at that time. By 2015, the Indian community was estimated at 60,000.
A serious human rights issue is the persecution of people with albinism, who have been victims of violence, mutilation, and killings due to superstitious beliefs that their body parts possess magical properties for wealth. The government has taken measures against this, but the threat persists.

7.3. Languages

Tanzania is remarkable for its linguistic diversity, with over 100 languages spoken, representing all four major African language families: Bantu, Cushitic, Nilotic, and Khoisan (represented by the Hadza and Sandawe languages, whose click consonants are a distinctive feature).

There is no de jure (legally mandated) official language. However, Swahili (Kiswahili) serves as the national language and is a powerful unifying force. It is used extensively in government, parliamentary debate, lower courts, primary education, and as a lingua franca across ethnic groups. Approximately 10% of Tanzanians speak Swahili as a first language, but up to 90% speak it as a second language. The promotion of Swahili since independence, particularly under Julius Nyerere's Ujamaa policies, aimed to foster national unity and identity. This has contributed to the decline of some smaller indigenous languages, especially in urban areas where children increasingly speak Swahili as their first language.

English also holds significant status. It is widely used in foreign trade, diplomacy, higher courts, and as the medium of instruction in secondary and higher education. Many educated Tanzanians are trilingual, speaking their ethnic community language, Swahili, and English. The government has, at times, announced plans to transition to Swahili as the medium of instruction in all levels of education, but English remains important, particularly in higher education and international contexts.

Arabic is spoken in Zanzibar, reflecting its historical and cultural ties with the Arab world.

Ethnic community languages (ECLs) are generally not used as languages of instruction in formal education, nor are they taught as subjects, though they may be used unofficially in early primary education. There are limited media broadcasts or publications in ECLs. This language policy, while successful in promoting national unity through Swahili, raises concerns about the preservation of linguistic diversity and the potential loss of cultural heritage embodied in indigenous languages.

7.4. Religion

Tanzania is a secular state, and its constitution guarantees freedom of religion. Official government statistics on religious affiliation have not been collected in censuses since 1967, to avoid politicizing religious identities. However, estimates from various sources provide a general picture.

The two main religions are Christianity and Islam.

• Christianity**: Estimates suggest that Christians form the largest religious group, around 61-63% of the population. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest Christian denomination (about 51% of Christians). Protestant denominations are also significant, including Lutherans and Moravians (reflecting German missionary history), and Anglicans (reflecting British missionary history). Pentecostal and Adventist churches have seen considerable growth. The East African Revival (Walokole movement) has influenced many of these groups. Jehovah's Witnesses also have a presence.
• Islam**: Muslims are estimated to constitute about 34-35% of the population. Islam is the dominant religion in Zanzibar (nearly 100% Muslim) and has a strong presence in coastal areas and some inland urban centers. The majority of Tanzanian Muslims are Sunni, with significant minorities of Shia (many of Khoja Indian descent) and Ahmadiyya Muslims. Sufi orders also exist.

Interfaith relations in Tanzania are generally peaceful, and religious tolerance is an important aspect of national identity. Major Christian and Muslim holidays are recognized as public holidays. However, there have been sporadic incidents of religious tension, particularly in Zanzibar and some coastal areas, sometimes linked to political or socio-economic grievances. Maintaining religious harmony is a key priority for the government and civil society.

7.5. Education

Education in Tanzania is a critical area for development, with the government striving to improve access, quality, and equity. The literacy rate for people aged 15 and over was 77.9% in 2015 (83.2% for males, 73.1% for females).

The education system is structured as follows:

• Primary Education**: Seven years, typically starting at age 7. It is officially compulsory and, since 2001, tuition-free, which has significantly increased enrollment rates (97% completion in 2020: 98.4% female, 95.5% male). The language of instruction is Swahili.
• Secondary Education**: Divided into Ordinary Level (Form 1-4, four years) and Advanced Level (Form 5-6, two years). The language of instruction is English. Completion rates are lower than primary: 28.3% completed secondary in 2020 (30% female, 27% male). Access to secondary education, particularly in rural areas and for girls, remains a challenge.
• Tertiary Education**: Includes universities, technical colleges, and teacher training colleges. Major public universities include the University of Dar es Salaam, Sokoine University of Agriculture (Morogoro), and the University of Dodoma. Tertiary completion was 8% in 2020 (7% female, 8.5% male).

Key challenges in the education sector include:

• Quality**: Overcrowded classrooms, shortage of qualified teachers (especially in science and mathematics), inadequate teaching materials and infrastructure.
• Access and Equity**: Disparities in access and quality between urban and rural areas, and between public and private schools. Girls, children with disabilities, and those from poor families often face greater barriers.
• Language of Instruction**: The switch from Swahili in primary to English in secondary education can be a barrier for many students. There has been ongoing debate about transitioning to Swahili as the medium of instruction at all levels.
• Vocational Training**: Need for greater emphasis on technical and vocational education and training (TVET) to equip youth with relevant job skills.

Educational reforms aim to address these challenges by expanding infrastructure, improving teacher training, revising curricula, and increasing funding. The Tanzania Library Services Board operates a network of public libraries to support education and literacy. Ensuring quality education for all is crucial for Tanzania's socio-economic development and for empowering its youthful population.

7.6. Healthcare

Healthcare in Tanzania faces significant challenges, although progress has been made in some areas. Life expectancy at birth was approximately 61 years as of 2012.

Key public health issues include:

• Infectious Diseases**:
  • Malaria: A leading cause of morbidity and mortality, especially among children under five. There were approximately 11.5 million clinical cases in 2008. Prevalence varies geographically.
  • HIV/AIDS: While prevalence rates have declined, HIV/AIDS remains a major public health concern. An estimated 1.4 million people were living with HIV in 2007.
  • Tuberculosis (TB): Often co-occurs with HIV.
  • Diarrheal diseases, respiratory infections, and neglected tropical diseases are also prevalent.
• Maternal and Child Health**:
  • The under-five mortality rate was 54 per 1,000 live births in 2012. Leading causes of death in children under five in 2010 were prematurity, malaria, diarrhea, HIV, and measles.
  • The maternal mortality rate was estimated at 410 per 100,000 live births in 2013. Access to skilled birth attendance and emergency obstetric care is limited in many areas.
• Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)**: Increasingly a concern, including cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancers.
• Nutrition**: Malnutrition, including stunting and micronutrient deficiencies, is widespread, particularly among children and women.

The healthcare system comprises public and private providers. Public healthcare is delivered through a network of dispensaries, health centers, district hospitals, regional hospitals, and national/referral hospitals. Challenges include:

• Shortages of healthcare workers, especially in rural areas.
• Inadequate funding and resources.
• Limited availability of essential medicines and medical supplies.
• Weak health infrastructure.
• Geographical barriers to access.

According to 2012 data, 53% of the population used improved drinking water sources, and only 12% used improved sanitation facilities, contributing to the burden of waterborne diseases. Female genital mutilation (FGM) affected 15% of women in 2010, with regional variations. Male circumcision was more prevalent (72% of men in 2010).
Public health initiatives focus on disease prevention (e.g., immunization, malaria control through bed nets and spraying), maternal and child health services, HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment, and strengthening the health system. Recently, Tanzania has also faced outbreaks like the Marburg virus, requiring robust public health responses. Improving access to quality healthcare for all Tanzanians, particularly vulnerable populations, is essential for social justice and national development.

7.7. Women

The status of women in Tanzania reflects a complex interplay of legal frameworks promoting equality, traditional societal norms, and ongoing efforts to address gender disparities. From a social justice perspective, ensuring women's rights and empowerment is crucial for the country's overall development.

• Legal Status and Political Representation**:

• Socio-Economic Participation**:

• Health and Well-being**:

• Education**:

• Challenges and Efforts**:

Addressing these challenges requires continued efforts to enforce laws protecting women's rights, challenge discriminatory social norms, improve women's access to education, healthcare, and economic resources, and ensure their full participation in all aspects of society.

9.1. Media

Tanzania's media landscape includes print, broadcast, and online platforms.

• Newspapers**: Numerous daily and weekly newspapers are published in both Swahili and English. Major titles include Daily News, The Citizen, Mwananchi, and Nipashe.
• Broadcasting**: Radio is the most widespread medium, with numerous public, private, and community radio stations. The Tanzania Broadcasting Corporation (TBC) is the state broadcaster. Television also has a significant viewership, with both state-run TBC1 and private channels.
• Internet Media**: Online news portals, blogs, and social media are increasingly important sources of information and platforms for public discourse.

Media freedom in Tanzania has varied over time. While the constitution provides for freedom of expression, laws such as the Cybercrimes Act and the Media Services Act have been criticized by human rights groups for potentially restricting media freedom and leading to self-censorship. There have been instances of harassment of journalists and closure of media outlets, particularly during periods of political sensitivity. Promoting a free and responsible media is crucial for democratic accountability and public participation.

9.2. Music

Music is an integral part of Tanzanian culture, with diverse traditional and contemporary genres.

• Ngoma: This is a broad term referring to traditional music and dance, varying widely among different ethnic groups. It often involves drumming, singing, and community participation, and is performed at social events, ceremonies, and festivals.
• Taarab: Originating in Zanzibar and coastal areas, Taarab is a poetic sung Swahili music, often accompanied by an orchestra that may include instruments like the oud, qanun, violin, accordion, and percussion. It has influences from Arabic, Indian, and African musical traditions. Modern Taarab incorporates contemporary elements.
• Dansi: This refers to urban jazz or band music that became popular in the mid-20th century, influenced by Congolese rumba, jazz, and local rhythms.
• Kwaya: Choir music, initially associated with churches, has become a popular secular form as well, performed at various social and political events.
• Bongo Flava: This is Tanzania's most popular contemporary music genre, emerging in the early 2000s. It is a fusion of hip hop, R&B, reggae, dancehall, Afrobeat, and traditional Tanzanian rhythms, with lyrics often in Swahili. Bongo Flava artists have gained regional and international recognition.
• Singeli: A newer, fast-paced electronic dance music genre that originated in the unplanned communities (uswahilini) of Dar es Salaam in the mid-2000s and has become mainstream since 2020. It typically features an MC performing over rapid taarab-influenced beats (200-300 BPM).

The Baraza la Sanaa la Taifa (BASATA), or National Arts Council, plays a role in promoting and regulating music and other arts. Historically, Radio Tanzania Dar es Salaam (RTD) was instrumental in recording and broadcasting Tanzanian music. The Broadcasting Services Act of 1993 allowed for private broadcast networks and recording studios, contributing to the diversification of the music scene.

9.3. Literature

Tanzania's literary culture is primarily oral, with rich traditions of folktales, poems, riddles, proverbs, and songs in Swahili and various ethnic languages. This oral literature, however, faces challenges from modernization and changing social structures.
Written literature in Tanzania is predominantly in Swahili and English.

• Shaaban Robert (1909-1962) is widely considered the father of modern Swahili literature, known for his poetry, essays, and novels.
• Other notable writers include Aniceti Kitereza (known for his epic novel in Kikerewe, later translated into Swahili), Muhammed Said Abdulla (pioneer of Swahili detective fiction), Euphrase Kezilahabi (poet and novelist), Abdulrazak Gurnah (winner of the 2021 Nobel Prize in Literature, whose works often explore themes of colonialism, displacement, and identity, though he writes in English and resides in the UK), Penina O. Mlama (playwright), and Ebrahim Hussein (playwright).

Access to books can be limited and expensive in Tanzania, impacting the development of a widespread reading culture.

9.4. Art and Sculpture

Tanzanian art is diverse, with several forms achieving international recognition.

• Tingatinga: This vibrant and distinctive style of painting originated with Edward Said Tingatinga in Dar es Salaam in the late 1960s. Tingatinga paintings are characterized by their bright enamel colors on canvas, often depicting animals, birds, people, or daily life in a stylized, decorative manner. After Tingatinga's death in 1972, his style was adopted and developed by other artists, becoming a popular genre, especially for tourists.
• Makonde sculpture: The Makonde people, primarily from southeastern Tanzania and northern Mozambique, are renowned for their intricate wood carvings. Traditional Makonde sculptures often depict ancestral spirits (shetani) or explore themes of family, community, and mythology. Modern Makonde art has evolved to include more abstract and contemporary forms, often using ebony wood.

George Lilanga (1934-2005) was another influential Tanzanian artist, known for his playful and colorful paintings and sculptures, often depicting shetani figures in a style related to Makonde traditions but with a unique modern sensibility.
Historically, formal European art training was limited, leading some aspiring artists to pursue studies abroad.

9.5. Sports

Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Tanzania. The Tanzanian Premier League is the top professional league, with Young Africans S.C. and Simba S.C. (both based in Dar es Salaam) being the most popular and successful clubs. The Tanzania national football team, nicknamed the "Taifa Stars," competes in regional and international competitions. The Tanzania Football Federation is the governing body.
Other popular sports include:

• Basketball**
• Netball**
• Boxing**
• Volleyball**
• Athletics (track and field)**: Tanzania has produced some notable long-distance runners who have achieved success in international events, including the Olympic Games.
• Rugby union**

The National Sports Council (Baraza la Michezo la Taifa), under the Ministry of Information, Youth, Sports and Culture, is the governing body for sports in the country.

9.6. Cinema

Tanzania has a developing film industry, often referred to as "Bongo Movie." These films, typically low-budget and produced in Swahili, cover a range of genres including drama, comedy, and action, and are popular locally and in neighboring Swahili-speaking countries. The industry faces challenges related to funding, production quality, and distribution.
Tanzania also hosts the Zanzibar International Film Festival (ZIFF), one of East Africa's largest cultural events, showcasing films from across Africa and the dhow countries (countries of the Indian Ocean rim).

9.7. Cuisine

Tanzanian cuisine is diverse, reflecting its ethnic variety and historical influences.

• Staple Foods**:
  • Ugali: A stiff porridge made from maize flour (most common), millet, sorghum, or cassava flour. It is a national staple, typically eaten with the hands and served with stews or side dishes.
  • Rice (wali): Widely consumed, especially in coastal areas and Zanzibar. Often cooked with coconut milk (wali wa nazi) or spices (pilau).
  • Plantains (ndizi) and bananas: Cooked green bananas (ndizi-nyama, often stewed with meat) are a specialty in some regions, particularly around Kilimanjaro.
  • Cassava (mihogo) and sweet potatoes (viazi vitamu): Important root crops.
  • Chapati: An unleavened flatbread of Indian origin, popular throughout East Africa.
• Common Dishes and Ingredients**:
  • Stews (mchuzi) made with meat (beef, goat, chicken), fish, or beans are common accompaniments to ugali or rice.
  • Leafy green vegetables (mboga za majani), such as spinach, collard greens, or cassava leaves, are often cooked with coconut milk or groundnuts.
  • Pilau and biryani, rice dishes with Indian and Arab influences, are popular, especially in coastal regions and Zanzibar.
  • Nyama choma (grilled meat, usually goat or beef) is a popular celebratory food.
  • Coastal cuisine features abundant seafood and the use of spices like cloves, cinnamon, cardamom, and cumin, reflecting historical trade links. Coconut milk is a common ingredient.
  • Fruits like mangoes, pineapples, papayas, and bananas are widely available.
• Snacks and Street Foods**: Include maandazi (sweet fried dough), samosas, grilled maize (mahindi choma), and cassava chips.
• Beverages**: Chai (tea), often brewed with milk and spices (chai masala), is a popular drink. Coffee is also widely consumed. Local beers and traditional brews are also common.

Food customs often involve communal eating, and hospitality is highly valued.

9.8. World Heritage Sites

Tanzania is home to seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites, recognized for their outstanding universal value:

• Ngorongoro Conservation Area** (1979, extended 2010; Natural, later reclassified as Mixed Cultural and Natural): Encompasses the Ngorongoro Crater, Olduvai Gorge, and vast grasslands, significant for both wildlife and hominid fossils.
• Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Ruins of Songo Mnara** (1981; Cultural): Remains of two great East African ports that were centers of the Swahili coastal civilization and Indian Ocean trade from the 13th to 16th centuries.
• Serengeti National Park** (1981; Natural): Famous for its annual migration of over 1.5 million wildebeest and 250,000 zebra, and its high concentration of predators.
• Selous Game Reserve** (1982; Natural) (now largely Nyerere National Park): One of the largest faunal reserves in the world, known for its diverse wildlife and undisturbed nature. (Currently on the List of World Heritage in Danger).
• Kilimanjaro National Park** (1987; Natural): Protects Africa's highest peak, Mount Kilimanjaro, and its unique afro-alpine ecosystems.
• Stone Town of Zanzibar** (2000; Cultural): The historic heart of Zanzibar City, showcasing a rich cultural fusion of African, Arab, Indian, and European influences in its architecture and urban fabric.
• Kondoa Rock-Art Sites** (2006; Cultural): A collection of over 150 rock shelters featuring ancient paintings depicting human figures, animals, and symbolic designs, spanning several millennia.

These sites highlight Tanzania's rich natural and cultural heritage, attracting tourists and researchers from around the world, and underscoring the importance of conservation efforts.

9.9. Festivals and Public Holidays

Tanzania observes a number of national and religious holidays, reflecting its diverse cultural and historical heritage.

• National Public Holidays include:**
  • January 1**: New Year's Day
  • January 12**: Zanzibar Revolution Day (commemorates the 1964 revolution in Zanzibar)
  • April 26**: Union Day (celebrates the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964)
  • May 1**: Workers' Day (International Labour Day)
  • July 7**: Saba Saba Day (Peasants' Day, formerly commemorating the founding of TANU party)
  • August 8**: Nane Nane Day (Farmers' Day, agricultural exhibitions are common)
  • October 14**: Nyerere Day (commemorates the death of Julius Nyerere, the nation's first president, in 1999)
  • December 9**: Independence Day (celebrates Tanganyika's independence in 1961)
  • December 25**: Christmas Day
  • December 26**: Boxing Day
  • Religious Holidays** (dates vary according to lunar calendars):
    • Christian**: Good Friday, Easter Monday
    • Muslim**: Eid al-Fitr (end of Ramadan), Eid al-Adha (Feast of Sacrifice), Mawlid (Prophet Muhammad's Birthday)

    In addition to these official holidays, numerous local cultural festivals and events are celebrated by different ethnic groups throughout the country, showcasing traditional music, dance, crafts, and customs. These events play an important role in preserving cultural heritage and fostering community cohesion.