Uganda

2.1. Pre-colonial era

The earliest inhabitants of what is now Uganda were hunter-gatherers. About 3,000 years ago, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated from Central Africa and West Africa, settling in the southern parts of the country. These groups brought with them skills in ironworking and new ideas of social and political organization. Nilotic speakers, including Luo and Ateker groups, entered from the north, likely beginning around 120 AD, primarily settling in the northern and eastern regions as pastoralists and subsistence farmers. By 1500 AD, many of these groups had assimilated into Bantu-speaking cultures south of Mount Elgon, the Nile River, and Lake Kyoga.

Oral traditions and archaeological studies indicate that the Empire of Kitara emerged around the 14th and 15th centuries, covering a significant part of the Great Lakes region, from Lake Albert and Lake Kyoga in the north to Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika in the south. Kitara is considered an antecedent of later kingdoms such as Tooro, Ankole, and Busoga. Around the 16th century, Luo groups invaded the Kitara region and, assimilating with the local Bantu society, established the Babiito dynasty, which ruled the Bunyoro-Kitara kingdom. Bunyoro became a dominant power in the region, but by the 19th century, the Buganda kingdom rose to prominence, challenging Bunyoro's supremacy and leading to frequent conflicts.

Arab traders from the Indian Ocean coast began to arrive in the interior of East Africa, including present-day Uganda, in the 1830s, primarily for trade in ivory and enslaved people. In the late 1860s, Bunyoro faced threats from Egyptian-sponsored agents from the north. In 1869, Ismail Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt, seeking to annex territories around the great lakes, sent British explorer Samuel Baker on a military expedition to northern Uganda. Baker's mission was ostensibly to suppress the slave trade and open up commerce, but the Banyoro resisted his advances, leading to conflict. Baker's negative portrayal of the Banyoro in his widely read book influenced subsequent British attitudes.

British explorers, searching for the source of the Nile, arrived in the 1860s. John Hanning Speke was the first European to visit Buganda in 1862. British Anglican missionaries arrived in Buganda in 1877, followed by French Catholic missionaries in 1879. These missionary activities led to religious conversions and rivalries at the Bugandan court. The succession of Mwanga II, who was initially hostile to foreign influence, resulted in the persecution and martyrdom of Christian converts (the Uganda Martyrs) in 1885-1886.

From 1886, Buganda experienced a series of religious wars, initially between Muslims and Christians, and then from 1890, between British-backed Protestant ("ba-Ingleza") and French-backed Catholic ("ba-Fransa") factions. The Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC), chartered in 1888 to negotiate trade agreements and assert British influence, found itself embroiled in these conflicts. Facing financial difficulties and civil unrest, the IBEAC struggled to maintain control, prompting the British government to intervene more directly.

2.2. Uganda Protectorate (1894-1962)

The Protectorate of Uganda was established by the British Empire in 1894. This followed the transfer of administration rights from the Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC) to the British government in 1893, after internal religious wars in Buganda had rendered the company financially unstable. The British initially declared a protectorate over the Kingdom of Buganda. Subsequently, through treaties and military actions, the protectorate was extended to include other kingdoms like Toro (1900), Ankole (1901), and Bunyoro (1933), as well as other territories, eventually forming an area roughly corresponding to present-day Uganda. Bunyoro, which had resisted British encroachment, lost a significant portion of its territory to Buganda as a reward for the latter's collaboration with the British.

The status of a protectorate, as opposed to a colony like neighboring Kenya, meant that Uganda retained a degree of self-government, particularly within the traditional kingdoms, under a system of indirect rule. The 1900 Buganda Agreement formalized the relationship between Britain and Buganda, granting Buganda considerable autonomy and privileges, which solidified its prominent position within the protectorate and sowed seeds for future political tensions.

During the 1890s, around 32,000 indentured labourers from British India were brought to East Africa to construct the Uganda Railway, which reached Kisumu on Lake Victoria in 1901 and was later extended to Kampala in 1931. While most returned home, about 6,724 Indians remained, many becoming traders and playing a significant role in commerce and cotton ginning.

From 1900 to 1920, a devastating sleeping sickness epidemic swept through the southern part of Uganda, particularly along the northern shores of Lake Victoria, killing over 250,000 people. Colonial authorities implemented policies focused on cash crop production, primarily cotton and later coffee, which integrated Uganda into the global capitalist economy but also led to socio-economic transformations and regional inequalities. Education was largely left to missionary societies.

World War II saw the recruitment of 77,143 Ugandan soldiers into the King's African Rifles, serving in various campaigns. The post-war period witnessed the rise of nationalist movements and demands for independence. Political parties emerged, often with ethnic or religious bases. The relationship between Buganda and the central colonial administration, as well as with other ethnic groups, remained a contentious issue. Buganda sought to preserve its special status and autonomy, sometimes advocating for separate independence, which clashed with the vision of a unified Ugandan state held by nationalist leaders like Milton Obote of the Uganda People's Congress (UPC).

Constitutional conferences in London in the late 1950s and early 1960s aimed to resolve these issues and pave the way for independence. A compromise was reached where Buganda would have a federal status, and other kingdoms a semi-federal status, within an independent Uganda.

2.3. Post-independence

Uganda's journey after independence in 1962 has been characterized by periods of political upheaval, authoritarian rule, and violent conflict, interspersed with efforts at nation-building and economic recovery. The country has grappled with issues of ethnic tensions, the role of traditional kingdoms, and the establishment of stable democratic institutions.

2.3.2. Idi Amin regime (1971-1979)

On January 25, 1971, while Milton Obote was attending a Commonwealth summit in Singapore, Major General Idi Amin seized power in a military coup. Amin's rule, which lasted for eight years, was a period of extreme brutality, economic decline, and international isolation. He established a totalitarian dictatorship, relying heavily on the military and intelligence services to suppress dissent.

His regime was responsible for widespread human rights violations, including extrajudicial killings, torture, and disappearances. Estimates of those killed range from 80,000 to 500,000. Amin particularly targeted specific ethnic groups perceived as loyal to Obote, such as the Acholi and Langi, as well as intellectuals, judges, clergy, and anyone suspected of opposition.

In August 1972, Amin ordered the expulsion of Uganda's Asian population (primarily of Indian and Pakistani descent), who numbered around 80,000. They were given 90 days to leave the country, and their businesses and properties were expropriated and handed over to Amin's supporters, leading to severe economic disruption and collapse. The "economic war" declared by Amin led to shortages of essential goods, hyperinflation, and the deterioration of infrastructure. Production of key export crops like coffee and cotton plummeted.

Amin's erratic behavior and foreign policy decisions, such as breaking diplomatic ties with Britain and Israel and aligning with Libya and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), further isolated Uganda. In June 1976, an Air France flight hijacked by Palestinian and German terrorists was allowed to land at Entebbe Airport. The subsequent rescue mission by Israeli commandos to free the hostages was a major international incident.

Amin's regime finally collapsed during the Uganda-Tanzania War. In October 1978, Amin launched an invasion of Tanzania's Kagera Salient. Tanzanian forces, supported by Ugandan exile groups forming the Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA), counter-attacked and invaded Uganda. Kampala fell in April 1979, and Amin fled the country, eventually finding asylum in Saudi Arabia, where he died in 2003.

2.3.3. Ugandan Bush War and second Obote presidency (1979-1986)

Following the overthrow of Idi Amin in April 1979, Uganda entered another period of instability and conflict. The Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF), a coalition of anti-Amin forces, formed an interim government led by Professor Yusuf Lule. However, Lule was quickly ousted after just 68 days due to internal power struggles within the UNLF. He was replaced by Godfrey Binaisa, who also faced challenges in uniting the disparate factions. Binaisa himself was overthrown in May 1980 by the Military Commission of the UNLF, headed by Paulo Muwanga, which then organized general elections in December 1980.

The elections were highly controversial and widely believed to have been rigged in favor of Milton Obote's Uganda People's Congress (UPC). Obote returned to power for a second term as president. His second presidency (often referred to as Obote II) was marred by continued human rights abuses, extrajudicial killings, and a brutal counter-insurgency campaign against various rebel groups. The economy remained in a dire state.

One of the main opposition groups to Obote's rule was the National Resistance Army (NRA), led by Yoweri Museveni, who had been a minister in the UNLF government and disputed the 1980 election results. In February 1981, Museveni and the NRA launched a guerrilla war against the Obote II government, known as the Ugandan Bush War or "Luwero War." The war was fought primarily in the Luwero Triangle region north of Kampala and was characterized by extreme violence and atrocities committed by both government forces and, to a lesser extent, rebel groups. The Obote government's forces, the Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA), were accused of widespread killings, torture, and looting, leading to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of civilians.

The NRA gradually gained strength and popular support, particularly in southern and western Uganda. In July 1985, Obote was overthrown for a second time in a military coup led by senior UNLA officers from the Acholi ethnic group, Brigadier Bazilio Olara-Okello and General Tito Okello. Tito Okello became head of state, but his military junta was unable to consolidate power or end the civil war. Peace talks between Okello's government and the NRA in Nairobi, Kenya, resulted in a short-lived peace agreement in December 1985. However, the ceasefire quickly broke down, and the NRA continued its advance.

2.3.4. Yoweri Museveni era (1986-present)

In January 1986, the National Resistance Army (NRA), led by Yoweri Museveni, captured Kampala and overthrew the government of Tito Okello, marking the end of the Ugandan Bush War. Museveni was sworn in as President on January 29, 1986, and his National Resistance Movement (NRM) established a new government.

Initially, Museveni's government brought a period of relative stability and economic recovery to much of the country after years of conflict. The NRM implemented a "no-party" or "Movement" political system, arguing it was necessary to reduce sectarian violence and build national unity. Political parties were restricted in their activities, though they were not formally banned. A new constitution was promulgated in 1995.

However, the Museveni era has been characterized by his long-term rule and increasing concerns about democratic backsliding and human rights. Presidential term limits were abolished by Parliament in 2005, allowing Museveni to run for further terms. Subsequent presidential elections, including those in 2006, 2011, 2016, and 2021, have been marred by allegations of irregularities, voter intimidation, and the suppression of opposition candidates, most notably Kizza Besigye and later Bobi Wine. The government has faced criticism for restrictions on freedom of speech, assembly, and the press, as well as for the harassment of opposition figures and civil society activists.

Northern Uganda endured a brutal insurgency by the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), led by Joseph Kony, from the late 1980s until the mid-2000s. The LRA committed widespread atrocities, including mass killings, abductions of children for use as soldiers and sex slaves, and displacement of millions of people. The Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF), the national army, also faced accusations of human rights abuses during the conflict. While the LRA was largely pushed out of Uganda by 2006, its remnants continue to operate in neighboring countries.

Uganda has been involved in regional conflicts, notably the First (1996-1997) and Second Congo War (1998-2003) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Ugandan troops occupied parts of eastern DRC, leading to accusations of resource plunder and human rights violations. In 2005, the International Court of Justice ruled that Uganda had illegally invaded the DRC and violated human rights. Uganda has also played a role in peacekeeping missions, such as in Somalia as part of AMISOM.

Socio-economically, Uganda has experienced economic growth, particularly in the early years of Museveni's rule, with market-oriented reforms and poverty reduction efforts. However, corruption remains a significant challenge, affecting public service delivery and development. Progress has been made in areas like HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment, and increased access to education through Universal Primary Education (UPE) and Universal Secondary Education (USE) policies. Nevertheless, the country continues to grapple with high levels of poverty, youth unemployment, and inadequate infrastructure.

Human rights issues, including reports of torture, extrajudicial killings, and restrictions on political freedoms, persist. The legal status and societal treatment of LGBT individuals have drawn significant international condemnation, particularly with the passage of harsh anti-homosexuality legislation, such as the Anti-Homosexuality Act, 2023.

As of the early 2020s, President Museveni remains in power, making him one of Africa's longest-serving leaders. The political landscape is dominated by the NRM, though opposition parties continue to challenge its rule amidst a constrained democratic space. The country faces ongoing challenges in balancing development with good governance, respect for human rights, and the consolidation of democratic institutions.

3.1. Topography and climate

Uganda's landscape is predominantly a plateau, part of the larger East African Plateau, with an average altitude of around 3.6 K ft ^{(1.10 K m)} above sea level. The plateau is interspersed with hills, valleys, and numerous lakes.

Mountain ranges are found along its eastern and western borders. The most significant is the Rwenzori Mountains (also known as the "Mountains of the Moon") on the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This range includes Uganda's highest peak, Margherita Peak on Mount Stanley, which stands at 17 K ft ^{(5.11 K m)} (older sources may cite Alexandra peak at 17 K ft ^{(5.09 K m)} as the highest point in Uganda). The Rwenzori Mountains are block mountains and are home to glaciers, despite their proximity to the equator.

Other mountainous areas include Mount Elgon (14 K ft ^{(4.32 K m)}), an extinct shield volcano on the border with Kenya, and the Virunga Mountains in the southwest, which are volcanic and include peaks like Mount Muhabura. Volcanic features, such as crater lakes, are common in western Uganda.

Uganda has a tropical climate, but it is moderated by its altitude. Temperatures are relatively consistent throughout the year, generally ranging from 68 °F ^{(20 °C)} to 86 °F ^{(30 °C)}. The country experiences two main rainy seasons: March to May and October to November. The northern regions are generally drier and hotter than the south. The northeast, particularly the Karamoja region, is semi-arid. The areas around Lake Victoria receive substantial rainfall throughout the year, contributing to their fertility.

3.2. Lakes and rivers

Uganda is renowned for its abundant water resources, including some of Africa's largest lakes and the source of the White Nile.

Lake Victoria, the world's second-largest freshwater lake by surface area and the largest tropical lake, dominates southern Uganda. Uganda controls a significant portion of its northern shores and numerous islands within it, including the Ssese Islands. The lake is crucial for fishing, transportation, and influences the local climate.

Lake Kyoga is a large, shallow lake complex located in the center of the country, surrounded by extensive swamps. It is part of the Nile system, fed by the Victoria Nile.

Lake Albert and Lake Edward lie on the western border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, within the Albertine Rift, a branch of the East African Rift. These are deep rift valley lakes. Lake George, a smaller lake, is connected to Lake Edward by the Kazinga Channel.

The Nile River system is central to Uganda's hydrology. The Victoria Nile flows out of Lake Victoria at Jinja, passes through Lake Kyoga, and then flows into the northern end of Lake Albert. From Lake Albert, it continues north as the Albert Nile, entering South Sudan. An area in eastern Uganda is drained by the Suam River, which flows into Lake Turkana. The extreme northeastern part of Uganda drains into the Lotikipi Basin, primarily in Kenya.

3.3. Biodiversity and conservation

Uganda boasts remarkable biodiversity due to its varied habitats, ranging from tropical rainforests and savannas to wetlands and montane ecosystems. It is home to a vast array of flora and fauna.

The country has ten national parks and several other protected areas, including wildlife reserves and forest reserves, managed by the Uganda Wildlife Authority and the National Forestry Authority. Two of its national parks are UNESCO World Heritage Sites:

• Bwindi Impenetrable National Park: Famous for its population of endangered mountain gorillas, estimated to be about half of the world's remaining population. It also harbors rich biodiversity, including numerous bird and butterfly species.
• Rwenzori Mountains National Park: Protects the alpine and montane ecosystems of the Rwenzori Mountains, known for their unique Afro-alpine flora.

Other prominent national parks include:

• Queen Elizabeth National Park: Known for its diverse wildlife, including tree-climbing lions, elephants, hippos, and a wide variety of bird species. It features crater lakes and the Kazinga Channel.
• Murchison Falls National Park: Uganda's largest national park, characterized by the powerful Murchison Falls on the Victoria Nile, and home to elephants, giraffes, lions, hippos, and crocodiles.
• Kibale National Park: Renowned for its primate populations, especially chimpanzees, and other monkey species.
• Kidepo Valley National Park: Located in the remote northeast, offering a wilderness experience with unique wildlife like cheetahs and ostriches.
• Lake Mburo National Park: A compact park known for zebras, impalas, elands, and various bird species.
• Mgahinga Gorilla National Park: Part of the Virunga Conservation Area, home to mountain gorillas and golden monkeys.
• Mount Elgon National Park: Protects the ecosystems of Mount Elgon, including its caldera and caves.
• Semuliki National Park: Contains lowland tropical rainforest and is known for its Sempaya Hot Springs and diverse birdlife, including central African species.

Uganda is a significant destination for birdwatching, with over 1,073 recorded bird species, including the iconic grey crowned crane (the national bird), shoebill stork, and numerous Albertine Rift endemics. Mammalian wildlife includes the "Big Five" (lion, leopard, elephant, buffalo, rhinoceros - though rhinos are being reintroduced in sanctuaries), as well as hippos, giraffes, zebras, various antelope species (like the Ugandan kob, the national animal), chimpanzees, and other primates.

Conservation efforts face challenges such as habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and human settlement, poaching, human-wildlife conflict, and the impacts of climate change. The government and various non-governmental organizations are involved in initiatives to protect ecosystems, conserve wildlife, and promote sustainable tourism. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.36/10, ranking it 128th globally out of 172 countries. Jackfruit trees are also found throughout the country.

4.1. Government structure

The government of Uganda is divided into three branches: the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary.

The Executive:
The President is both the head of state and head of government, as well as the Commander-in-Chief of the Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF). The president is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term. Originally, the 1995 constitution imposed a two-term limit for the presidency, but this was removed in 2005. In 2017, the presidential age limit of 75 was also controversially removed. Yoweri Museveni has been the president since 1986.
The president appoints a Vice President and a Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is the leader of government business in Parliament and assists the president in coordinating the work of the Cabinet. The Cabinet, appointed by the president from among members of Parliament or other qualified individuals (subject to parliamentary approval), is responsible for formulating and implementing government policy.

The Legislature:
The Parliament is unicameral. As of the 11th Parliament (2021-2026), it has 557 members. These include:

• Directly elected constituency representatives.
• District Woman Representatives (one for each district).
• Representatives of special interest groups: the UPDF (10 seats), youth (5 seats), workers (5 seats), and persons with disabilities (5 seats).
• 18 ex officio members (ministers who are not elected MPs, though they do not have voting rights).

Members of Parliament serve five-year terms. Parliament's primary functions are to make laws, scrutinize government policies and expenditure, and represent the electorate. The current Speaker of Parliament is Anita Among.

The Judiciary:
The judiciary is, in principle, independent and is responsible for interpreting and applying the law. It consists of the Supreme Court (the highest appellate court), the Court of Appeal (which also sits as the Constitutional Court), the High Court (with original jurisdiction in major civil and criminal cases and appellate jurisdiction from lower courts), and magistrates' courts. Judges are appointed by the president on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission and subject to parliamentary approval. Despite constitutional guarantees of independence, the judiciary has at times faced pressure and interference, particularly in politically sensitive cases.

The dominant political party is the National Resistance Movement (NRM), which originated as a liberation movement and has been in power since 1986. Other political parties exist, such as the Forum for Democratic Change (FDC), the National Unity Platform (NUP), the Democratic Party (DP), and the Uganda People's Congress (UPC), but they operate in a political environment often described as constrained, with reports of harassment and intimidation of opposition figures.

4.2. Administrative divisions

Uganda is divided into a hierarchical system of administrative units. As of 2022, the country is divided into four main Regions: Central, Eastern, Northern, and Western. These regions are primarily geographical groupings and do not have autonomous administrative or political power.

Below the regions, the primary administrative units are the districts. The number of districts has increased significantly over the years, from 33 in the early 1990s to 136 as of 2022 (including the capital city, Kampala, which has a special status equivalent to a district). The creation of new districts has often been attributed to political motivations, such as gerrymandering or extending patronage, rather than purely administrative efficiency, leading to concerns about the fragmentation of governance and increased administrative costs.

Districts are further subdivided into counties, sub-counties, parishes, and villages (LC1, the lowest administrative unit). Urban areas within districts can be designated as city councils (for newly created cities), municipal councils, or town councils, each with its own local government structure. Local governments (LCs, or Local Councils) at various levels are responsible for service delivery and local development, though they often face challenges related to funding, capacity, and accountability.

Parallel to the state administrative structures, five traditional Bantu kingdoms have been restored and are recognized by the constitution, though primarily with cultural rather than political powers. These are Buganda, Bunyoro, Toro, Busoga, and Rwenzururu. The Kabaka (King) of Buganda remains a significant cultural figure. The restoration of Ankole kingdom has been a subject of debate and has not yet been officially recognized due to internal divisions. Several other chiefdoms are also officially recognized. These traditional institutions play a role in cultural preservation and community cohesion but are expected to operate within the framework of the national constitution.

4.3. Foreign relations

Uganda maintains diplomatic relations with numerous countries and is a member of various international and regional organizations. Its foreign policy has generally focused on regional security, economic cooperation, and attracting foreign aid and investment.

Uganda is an active member of the East African Community (EAC), alongside Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Somalia. The EAC aims to deepen economic, political, social, and cultural integration, with a long-term goal of forming a political federation. Uganda participates in the EAC's common market and customs union.

The country is also a founding member of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), an eight-country bloc in the Horn of Africa, Nile Valley, and the African Great Lakes region, which focuses on peace, security, and development. Uganda is a member of the African Union (AU), the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Nations (UN), the Non-Aligned Movement, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).

Relations with neighboring countries have been complex. Uganda has played a significant role in regional security dynamics, sometimes controversially. It has been involved in conflicts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), leading to strained relations at times and an International Court of Justice ruling against Uganda for illegal invasion and human rights violations during the Second Congo War. Relations with Rwanda have fluctuated between close alliance and rivalry. Uganda has hosted a large number of refugees from South Sudan, the DRC, and other neighboring countries, making it one of the largest refugee-hosting nations in Africa. This has generally been praised internationally but also places a strain on resources.

Uganda has also contributed troops to AU peacekeeping missions, notably in Somalia (AMISOM, now ATMIS), playing a key role in efforts to stabilize the country.

Relations with Western donor countries and institutions like the World Bank and International Monetary Fund have been crucial for Uganda's development aid and budget support. However, these relationships have sometimes been strained by concerns over governance, democracy, human rights (particularly LGBT rights), and corruption in Uganda. Some donors have periodically withheld aid in response to these concerns. Uganda also maintains relations with other international partners, including China, which has become a significant source of infrastructure investment and loans.

4.4. Military

The Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF) is the armed forces of Uganda. It was established following the victory of the National Resistance Army (NRA) in 1986, with the NRA forming its core. The President of Uganda is the Commander-in-Chief of the UPDF.

The UPDF consists of land forces (army) and an air wing. Being a landlocked country, Uganda does not have a navy, though it maintains marine units for patrolling its lakes, particularly Lake Victoria and Lake Albert. The estimated active military personnel strength is around 45,000 to 50,000.

The primary roles of the UPDF are to defend Uganda's sovereignty and territorial integrity, support civil authorities in maintaining law and order, and participate in regional and international peace support operations.

Domestically, the UPDF was heavily involved in combating various insurgencies, most notably the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) in northern Uganda, which lasted for over two decades. It has also dealt with other rebel groups like the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) in western Uganda and, more recently, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).

Internationally, the UPDF has been significantly involved in regional security matters. It played a major role in the First and Second Congo Wars in the DRC. Uganda has been a major troop contributor to the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM, now ATMIS), playing a critical part in efforts against Al-Shabaab. The UPDF has also conducted operations against the LRA in South Sudan, the DRC, and the Central African Republic, often with international support. More recently, it has engaged in joint operations with the DRC military against the ADF in eastern DRC.

The military has historically played a significant role in Ugandan politics, and the NRM government has strong ties to the UPDF. Military officers have held positions in government, and the UPDF has representation in Parliament. While the UPDF has contributed to regional stability in some instances, its operations, both domestic and international, have at times been accompanied by accusations of human rights abuses and illicit resource exploitation, particularly during its involvement in the DRC. The government generally denies these allegations or attributes them to individual misconduct. Defense spending constitutes a significant portion of the national budget.

4.5. Corruption

Corruption is a pervasive and deeply entrenched problem in Uganda, affecting all levels of government and society, and significantly hindering national development, governance, and the equitable distribution of resources. Despite government pronouncements and the establishment of anti-corruption institutions, Uganda consistently ranks poorly on global corruption indices.

According to Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index, Uganda is typically rated as one of the most corrupt countries in the world. For instance, in 2016, it ranked 151st out of 176 countries. The World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators have also reflected severe challenges in controlling corruption. Estimates suggest that Uganda loses substantial amounts of public funds to corruption annually; a 2012 U.S. State Department report cited an annual loss of 768.90 B UGX (approximately 286.00 M USD at the time).

Corruption manifests in various forms, including bribery, embezzlement of public funds, influence peddling, nepotism, and procurement fraud. High-profile corruption scandals have frequently emerged, often involving senior government officials. One notable case was the 2012 embezzlement of 12.60 M USD in donor funds from the Office of the Prime Minister, which was intended for rebuilding northern Uganda and the impoverished Karamoja region. This scandal led several European donor countries to suspend aid. In December 2024, leaked documents reportedly exposed further scandals within the Prime Minister's Office, including allegations of distributing rotten food, excessive spending, and land grabbing.

Petty corruption, such as demands for small bribes for public services, affects ordinary citizens daily. Grand corruption, involving large sums and high-level officials, often goes unpunished, leading to a perception of impunity for the well-connected. This has been described as "letting the big fish swim." Public procurement is a particularly high-risk area, with non-transparent deals and under-the-table payments often reported.

The discovery of oil reserves has raised concerns that potential oil revenues could exacerbate corruption if transparency and accountability mechanisms are not robust. The Petroleum Bill of 2012, intended to govern the sector, faced criticism from some analysts who feared it could give excessive control over oil revenues to the executive with insufficient oversight.

Anti-corruption bodies such as the Inspectorate of Government (IG), the Directorate of Public Prosecutions (DPP), and the Anti-Corruption Court exist, but their effectiveness has been hampered by political interference, inadequate funding, and limited capacity to prosecute high-level cases successfully. Civil society organizations and the media play a role in exposing corruption, but they sometimes face pressure and restrictions, such as those imposed by the Non-Governmental Organizations (Amendment) Act of 2006.

The impact of corruption on Uganda is significant. It diverts resources from essential public services like healthcare, education, and infrastructure, undermines the rule of law, erodes public trust in government, and deters foreign investment. Addressing corruption effectively remains a critical challenge for Uganda's democratic development and socio-economic progress.

4.6. Human rights

The human rights situation in Uganda is a significant concern, with numerous reports from local and international organizations detailing abuses and limitations on fundamental freedoms. While the 1995 Constitution provides for a range of human rights, their practical enjoyment is often undermined by government actions, weak institutional oversight, and a culture of impunity.

Political Freedoms and Civil Liberties:
Restrictions on freedom of assembly, association, and expression are common, particularly concerning political opposition and critical voices. Opposition rallies are often dispersed, sometimes violently, and opposition leaders and supporters have faced arrest, intimidation, and prosecution. The Public Order Management Act of 2013 was widely criticized for granting police broad powers to restrict public gatherings. Media outlets critical of the government have reported harassment, and journalists have faced arrest and intimidation.

Use of Torture and Extrajudicial Killings:
Security forces, including the police and military, have been implicated in acts of torture, cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment, and extrajudicial killings, especially against political opponents, criminal suspects, and during counter-insurgency operations. While torture is prohibited by the constitution, reports of its use in detention facilities persist. Accountability for such abuses is often lacking. The African Center for Treatment and Rehabilitation for Torture Victims has registered numerous allegations against various security agencies.

Conflict in Northern Uganda:
The long-running conflict with the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) in northern Uganda resulted in severe human rights abuses by both the LRA (including massacres, abductions, and use of child soldiers) and, at times, by government forces during counter-insurgency operations. Millions were internally displaced, living in dire conditions in camps. While the LRA is no longer active in Uganda, the legacy of the conflict, including the need for justice and reparations for victims, remains.

Child Labor and Trafficking:
Child labour is prevalent, particularly in agriculture (e.g., tobacco farms, where children face health hazards), domestic service (where they risk sexual abuse), and other informal sectors. Trafficking of children for labor and sexual exploitation also occurs. While the constitution prohibits slavery and forced labor, enforcement remains a challenge.

Refugee Rights:
Uganda hosts one of the largest refugee populations in Africa, and its progressive refugee policy has been generally commended. However, there have been occasional reports of violations of refugee rights, including challenges in providing adequate services and protection in refugee settlements.

Justice System and Impunity:
The justice system faces challenges, including case backlogs, limited resources, and concerns about its independence in politically sensitive cases. Impunity for human rights violations committed by security forces and high-ranking officials remains a significant problem. Investigations into killings associated with events like the 2009 Kayunga riots or the 2011 "Walk to Work" demonstrations have been criticized as inadequate.

The government often defends its human rights record, attributing problems to isolated incidents or the need to maintain public order. However, the consistent pattern of abuses raises serious questions about the commitment to upholding fundamental human rights and fostering democratic development.

4.6.1. LGBT rights

The legal status and societal treatment of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Uganda are matters of grave concern and have drawn widespread international condemnation. Homosexuality is criminalized under colonial-era laws, and societal discrimination and hostility towards LGBT individuals are rampant, often fueled by political and religious leaders.

Historically, homosexual acts have been illegal. In recent decades, there has been a significant push for even more stringent anti-LGBT legislation. In 2007, the Red Pepper newspaper published a list of allegedly gay men, leading to harassment. In 2010, the tabloid newspaper Rolling Stone (unrelated to the US magazine) published a front-page article with the names, addresses, and photographs of 100 alleged homosexuals under the headline "Hang Them," inciting violence. Gay rights activist David Kato was murdered in January 2011, shortly after winning a court case against the newspaper.

The Anti-Homosexuality Bill of 2009, introduced by MP David Bahati, initially proposed the death penalty for "aggravated homosexuality" and sought to criminalize the "promotion" of homosexuality. After international pressure, a revised version, the Anti-Homosexuality Act, 2014, was passed in December 2013 and signed into law by President Museveni in February 2014. This Act imposed life imprisonment for "aggravated homosexuality" and criminalized "promoting" homosexuality. It was met with strong international condemnation, leading some donor countries to suspend aid and the World Bank to postpone a loan. In August 2014, the Constitutional Court of Uganda annulled the Act on procedural grounds (lack of parliamentary quorum), not on its substantive human rights implications.

Despite the 2014 Act's annulment, existing penal code provisions criminalizing "carnal knowledge against the order of nature" remained in force. LGBT individuals continued to face arrest, discrimination in employment, housing, healthcare, and education, as well as social stigma and violence.

Anti-Homosexuality Act, 2023
On March 21, 2023, the Ugandan Parliament passed a new, even harsher Anti-Homosexuality Act, 2023. This bill, championed by MP Asuman Basalirwa, introduced severe penalties, including life imprisonment for homosexual acts and the death penalty for "aggravated homosexuality" (which includes repeat offenses, same-sex acts with minors or disabled persons, or when the perpetrator is HIV-positive). It also criminalizes identifying as LGBTQ+, "promoting" homosexuality (with penalties of up to 20 years in prison), and failing to report homosexual acts.

President Museveni signed a slightly amended version of the bill into law on May 29, 2023, despite strong international condemnation from the United Nations, the United States, the European Union, Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, and numerous human rights organizations. They warned of its severe impact on human rights, public health (particularly HIV/AIDS programs), and Uganda's international relations. The US announced visa restrictions and a review of aid. The World Bank suspended new public financing to Uganda, citing concerns that the law contradicts its values.

The 2023 Act has created a climate of fear and persecution for LGBT Ugandans, forcing many into hiding, to flee the country, or to self-censor. It has also had a chilling effect on human rights defenders and organizations working on LGBT issues or providing services to LGBT individuals. The law's impact on public health is particularly concerning, as it may deter LGBT individuals from seeking essential health services, including HIV testing and treatment, for fear of arrest or discrimination. The Act represents a significant setback for human rights and democratic development in Uganda.

5.1. Economic overview and major industries

Historically, Uganda's economy was heavily reliant on agriculture, particularly export crops like coffee, cotton, and tea. While agriculture remains a vital sector, employing a large portion of the workforce (around 70-80%), its share of GDP has declined as the services sector has grown. In 2007, services accounted for 52% of GDP, surpassing agriculture (which was 56% in 1986).

Agriculture:
Key agricultural exports include coffee (Uganda is a major African producer), tea, cotton, tobacco, flowers, and fish (from Lake Victoria). Food crops for domestic consumption include plantains (matoke, a staple food), cassava, sweet potatoes, millet, sorghum, corn, beans, and vegetables. The sector is dominated by smallholder farmers. Challenges include reliance on rain-fed agriculture, limited access to credit and modern inputs, and post-harvest losses.

Services:
The services sector is diverse and includes wholesale and retail trade, telecommunications, financial services, tourism, transport, and real estate. Telecommunications has seen rapid growth with the expansion of mobile phone networks and internet access. Tourism is a significant foreign exchange earner, driven by Uganda's national parks, wildlife (especially mountain gorillas), and diverse landscapes.

Industry and Mining:
The industrial sector includes manufacturing, construction, and mining. Manufacturing is largely focused on processing agricultural products (e.g., sugar, beverages, tobacco, textiles) and producing goods for the domestic market (e.g., cement, plastics, soap).
Mining has historically included copper (Kilembe mines, largely defunct but with revival plans) and cobalt. The most significant recent development is the discovery of commercially viable oil reserves in the Albertine Graben region, estimated at several billion barrels. Production is anticipated to begin in the mid-2020s, with plans for a refinery and an export pipeline (the East African Crude Oil Pipeline (EACOP)) through Tanzania to the port of Tanga. This development is expected to significantly boost government revenue but also presents challenges related to governance, environmental protection, and equitable benefit-sharing.

Economic Growth and Challenges:
Uganda experienced strong economic growth from the late 1980s through the 2000s, following structural adjustment programs supported by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank. Real GDP growth averaged around 6-7% annually for much of this period. Growth has moderated in more recent years but remains generally positive. In fiscal year 2015-16, GDP growth was 4.6% in real terms.
Despite growth, Uganda faces challenges including high population growth, poverty (though it has declined), youth unemployment, corruption, and infrastructure deficits. Inflation has fluctuated; for example, it was 4.6% in November 2016, and 3.4% for the fiscal year 2017/18.
Uganda benefits from remittances from its diaspora, estimated at around 1.10 B USD in 2016. The country is a member of the East African Community (EAC), aiming for deeper regional economic integration. The Uganda Securities Exchange, established in 1996, facilitates capital market activities.

In 2015, major export merchandise included: coffee (402.63 M USD), oil re-exports (131.25 M USD), base metals and products (120.00 M USD), fish (117.56 M USD), maize (90.97 M USD), cement (80.13 M USD), tobacco (73.13 M USD), tea (69.94 M USD), sugar (66.43 M USD), hides and skins (62.71 M USD), cocoa beans (55.67 M USD), beans (53.88 M USD), sesame (52.20 M USD), and flowers (51.44 M USD).

5.2. Poverty

Despite periods of economic growth, poverty remains a significant challenge in Uganda. While the national poverty rate has declined considerably since the early 1990s (from 56% in 1992 to 24.5% in 2009, and further to around 21.4% by 2016/17 based on national poverty lines), a substantial portion of the population still lives in poverty, particularly in rural areas and certain regions like the north and northeast. In 2012, 37.8% of the population lived on less than 1.25 USD a day (PPP).

Poverty in Uganda is multi-dimensional, encompassing low income, limited access to essential services like healthcare and education, food insecurity, and vulnerability to shocks. Rural areas, where about 84% of Ugandans live, are disproportionately affected. Many rural households depend on subsistence agriculture, which is often rain-fed and vulnerable to climate change and price fluctuations.

Causes and Contributing Factors:

• Limited access to productive assets:** Such as land, credit, and quality education.
• High population growth rate:** Puts pressure on resources and service delivery.
• Underemployment and unemployment:** Especially among the youth.
• Regional disparities:** Poverty is more prevalent in northern and eastern Uganda, regions historically affected by conflict and marginalization.
• Gender inequality:** Women, particularly in rural areas, often have less access to education, land, and economic opportunities, and bear a heavy burden of unpaid care work. The average Ugandan woman spends about 9 hours a day on domestic tasks. In 2005, 26% of households were female-headed, often due to HIV/AIDS-related deaths of men.
• Health shocks:** Illness can push households into poverty due to healthcare costs and lost income. HIV/AIDS has had a significant socio-economic impact.
• Conflict and insecurity:** Past conflicts, especially in the north, have devastated livelihoods and infrastructure.
• Weak governance and corruption:** Divert resources that could be used for poverty reduction programs.

Poverty Alleviation Efforts:
The Ugandan government, with support from international partners, has implemented various poverty reduction strategies and programs. These include:

• Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP):** Uganda's main strategy paper for fighting poverty in the late 1990s and 2000s.
• National Development Plans (NDPs):** Successive five-year plans guiding development and poverty reduction efforts.
• Social protection:** Such as cash transfers for vulnerable groups (e.g., the elderly, through programs like SAGE - Social Assistance Grants for Empowerment).
• Investment in education and health:** Policies like Universal Primary Education (UPE) and Universal Secondary Education (USE) aimed to increase access, though quality remains a challenge. Elimination of user fees at state health facilities in 2001 increased visits, especially by the poor.
• Agricultural modernization programs:** Aimed at increasing productivity and commercialization.
• Infrastructure development:** To improve connectivity and market access.

Despite these efforts, ensuring that economic growth is inclusive and translates into sustainable poverty reduction for all segments of the population remains a key policy challenge. Addressing structural inequalities, improving human capital, creating productive employment, and strengthening governance are crucial for achieving greater social equity and improving living standards.

5.3. Infrastructure

Uganda's infrastructure development is critical for its economic growth and poverty reduction efforts. However, the country faces significant gaps in various sectors, including transportation, energy, communications, and water and sanitation. The government has prioritized infrastructure development in its national plans, often with support from international partners and loans.

5.3.1. Transportation

Road transportation is the dominant mode of transport in Uganda, handling about 95% of freight and passenger traffic.

• Roads: The total road network is approximately 80 K mile ^{(129.47 K km)}. Only a small percentage (about 4% or 3.3 K mile ^{(5.30 K km)}) is paved. National roads, managed by the Uganda National Roads Authority (UNRA), constitute about 14 K mile ^{(22.01 K km)} (17%) but carry over 80% of total traffic. District, urban, and community roads make up the rest. Significant investments have been made in upgrading and expanding the paved road network, but many rural roads remain in poor condition, hindering access to markets and services. In Uganda there are 83,000 private cars, equating to 2.94 cars per 1,000 inhabitants.

• Railways: Uganda's railway system, approximately 0.8 K mile ^{(1.26 K km)} long, has historically been important but has suffered from neglect and underinvestment. Key lines include the main line from Kampala to Tororo (connecting to the Kenyan system and the port of Mombasa), the western line from Kampala to Kasese, and the northern line from Tororo to Pakwach. Efforts are underway to rehabilitate and revitalize the railway network, including the development of a Standard Gauge Railway (SGR) as part of a regional initiative, though progress has been slow. Uganda traditionally depends on Kenya for access to the Indian Ocean port of Mombasa. Efforts have intensified to establish a second access route to the sea via the lakeside ports of Bukasa in Uganda and Musoma in Tanzania, connected by railway to Arusha and the port of Tanga.

• Air Transport: Entebbe International Airport, located near Kampala, is Uganda's primary international airport. In 2017, it handled 1.53 million passengers. A second international airport, Hoima International Airport (also known as Kabaale International Airport), is under construction, primarily to support the developing oil industry in the Albertine Graben. There are also several smaller airfields across the country.
• Water Transport: Lake Victoria and other lakes support some freight and passenger transport, though this is less developed. Ferry services operate on Lake Victoria.

5.3.3. Energy

Uganda has diverse energy resources, but access to electricity, particularly in rural areas, remains limited.

• Hydropower: Hydropower is the primary source of electricity generation, with major dams on the Nile River, such as Nalubaale (Owen Falls), Kiira, Bujagali, Isimba, and Karuma.
• Oil and Gas: Significant oil reserves have been discovered in the Albertine Graben. Plans are in place for oil production, a domestic refinery, and the East African Crude Oil Pipeline (EACOP) for export. Natural gas has also been found.
• Biomass: Biomass (wood fuel and charcoal) remains the dominant source of energy for cooking for the majority of the population, contributing to deforestation and indoor air pollution.
• Solar: Uganda has high solar energy potential, and the use of solar power, especially for off-grid solutions, is increasing.
• Other Sources: Geothermal and peat resources also exist but are less developed.

Electricity generation capacity has increased, but the transmission and distribution network requires further expansion and upgrading. Umeme is the main electricity distribution company. The Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA) oversees the sector. Power Africa initiatives aim to support the sector's development.

5.3.4. Water supply and sanitation

Access to safe drinking water and improved sanitation facilities has improved but remains a challenge, especially in rural areas and urban informal settlements.

• Water Supply: While progress has been made, a significant portion of the population (around 38% in 2010 according to one source, though figures vary) still lacks access to an improved water source. The National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) is responsible for water and sewerage services in urban areas and larger towns, and has been recognized for reforms that improved performance. Rural water supply often relies on boreholes, protected springs, and rainwater harvesting.
• Sanitation: Access to improved sanitation lags behind water supply. Government figures in 2011 indicated 70% coverage in rural areas and 81% in urban areas, but UN figures were much lower (e.g., 34% overall for improved sanitation). Open defecation remains a problem in some areas.

The government, through the Ministry of Water and Environment, has implemented various programs to improve water and sanitation coverage, often with donor support. The sector was a key area under the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP). A comprehensive expenditure framework coordinates funding from various sources.

7.1. Ethnic groups

Uganda is a multi-ethnic country with over 50 recognized indigenous communities. These groups can broadly be categorized into Bantu, Nilotic, and Central Sudanic linguistic and cultural clusters.
According to the 2014 census, the largest ethnic groups include:

• Baganda: 16.5% - Primarily in the Central region, their language is Luganda.
• Banyankole: 9.6% - Western region.
• Basoga: 8.8% - Eastern region.
• Bakiga: 7.1% - Southwestern region.
• Iteso: 7.0% - Eastern and Northeastern regions (Nilotic).
• Langi: 6.3% - Northern region (Nilotic).
• Bagisu (Masaba): 4.9% - Eastern region, around Mount Elgon.
• Acholi: 4.4% - Northern region (Nilotic).
• Lugbara: 3.3% - Northwestern region (Central Sudanic).
• Other groups collectively make up 32.1%, including the Banyoro, Batooro, Alur, Karamojong, Bakonjo, Madi, and smaller communities.

The Ugandan Asian community, primarily of Indian origin, numbered around 80,000 before their expulsion by Idi Amin in 1972. Many returned after Amin's ouster and play a significant role in commerce, though their numbers are smaller (around 15,000-25,000). There is also a small population of Europeans and Arabs. Ethnic identity can be a factor in political and social dynamics, though the government officially promotes national unity.

7.2. Languages

Uganda has a rich linguistic diversity, with over 40 indigenous languages spoken.

• Official Languages: English, inherited from the colonial era, is the primary official language used in government, education, and formal commerce. In 2005, Swahili was designated as the second official language. While Swahili is widely spoken in the African Great Lakes region and is used by security forces in Uganda, its adoption and use by the general populace, particularly in the Bantu-speaking southern and western regions, has been limited. Efforts are being made to promote its teaching and use.
• Indigenous Languages:
  • Bantu languages** are predominant in the central, southern, and western parts of the country. The most widely spoken indigenous language is Luganda, the language of the Baganda people, which serves as a lingua franca in Kampala and much of the Central region. Other significant Bantu languages include Runyankore-Rukiga, Runyoro-Rutooro, Lusoga, Lumasaba (Lugisu).
  • Nilotic languages** are spoken in the northern and eastern regions. These include Luo languages (Acholi, Lango, Alur) and Eastern Nilotic languages (Ateso, Karimojong).
  • Central Sudanic languages** are spoken in the northwest, including Lugbara and Madi.

  Ugandan Sign Language is also used. Many Ugandans are multilingual, speaking English, a local language, and sometimes Swahili or another regional language.

7.3. Religion

Religious freedom is constitutionally guaranteed, and Uganda has a diverse religious landscape.
According to the 2014 census and more recent estimates (e.g., 2024 census preliminary data for Christianity and Islam proportions):

• Christianity is the dominant religion, adhered to by approximately 81.7% of the population (2024 census).
  • Roman Catholics constitute the largest single Christian denomination, around 39.3% (down from 41.6% in 2002).
  • The Church of Uganda (Anglican) is the second largest, with about 32% (down from 35.9% in 2002).
  • Evangelical, Pentecostal, and Born-Again churches have shown significant growth, accounting for around 11.1% in 2014 (up from 4.7% in 2002).
  • Other Christian groups include Seventh-day Adventists, Orthodox Christians, and Jehovah's Witnesses.
• Islam is the second-largest religion, with Muslims representing about 13.2-14% of the population (13.7% in 2014, up from 12.1% in 2002). The majority of Muslims are Sunni.
• Traditional Indigenous Beliefs: Around 0.1% of the population primarily adheres to traditional African religions, a significant decrease from 1% in 2002, though elements of traditional beliefs often coexist with Christianity and Islam for many.
• Other Religions: This category (around 1.6% in 2024, or 1.4% in 2014) includes faiths such as Baháʼí, Hinduism, and others.
• No Religion/Unspecified: About 3.5% reported no religion in the 2024 census (0.2% had no religious affiliation in 2014).

Religious institutions play a significant role in Ugandan society, including in education, healthcare, and social services. Inter-religious relations are generally peaceful.

7.4. Largest cities and towns

Uganda is undergoing rapid urbanization, though the majority of the population still lives in rural areas.

• Kampala: The capital and largest city, located in the Central Region near Lake Victoria. It is the political, economic, and cultural hub of Uganda. The population of Kampala city proper was approximately 1.5 million according to the 2014 census, with the Kampala Metropolitan Area (including surrounding towns like Nansana, Kira, and Ssabagabo/Makindye-Ssabagabo in Wakiso District) having a much larger population (around 8.5 million estimated for the capital region in broader contexts).
• Nansana: A large municipality in Wakiso District, part of the Kampala Metropolitan Area. Population in 2014 was 365,857.
• Kira: Another major municipality in Wakiso District, also part of Greater Kampala. Population in 2014 was 317,428.
• Ssabagabo (Makindye-Ssabagabo): A municipality in Wakiso District, bordering Kampala. Population in 2014 was 282,664.
• Mbarara: A major city in the Western Region, an important economic and educational center. Population in 2014 was 195,160. It was elevated to city status in 2020.
• Mukono: A town in the Central Region, east of Kampala, and an important commercial and educational center. Population in 2014 was 162,744.
• Gulu: The main urban center in the Northern Region, historically affected by conflict but undergoing recovery and development. Population in 2014 was 149,802. It was elevated to city status in 2020.
• Lugazi: A town in Buikwe District, known for its sugar estates. Population in 2014 was 114,163.
• Kasese: A town in the Western Region, near the Rwenzori Mountains and Queen Elizabeth National Park. Population in 2014 was 103,293.
• Masaka: A city in the Central Region, south-west of Kampala. Population in 2014 was 101,557. It was elevated to city status in 2020.

Other significant urban centers include Jinja (historically an industrial town and source of the Nile), Entebbe (location of the international airport and State House), Lira, Soroti, Arua, Mbale, and Fort Portal. Several of these have also been elevated to city status as part of a government decentralization and urbanization strategy.

10.1. Crime and law enforcement

Crime is a significant concern in Uganda, encompassing a range of offenses from petty theft and robbery to more serious violent crimes, corruption, and transnational crime. The effectiveness of law enforcement and the broader justice system in addressing crime faces numerous challenges.

The Uganda Police Force (UPF):
The UPF is the national police force responsible for maintaining law and order, protecting life and property, preventing and detecting crime, and enforcing laws. The head of the UPF is the Inspector General of Police (IGP). As of May 2024, Abbas Byakagaba was appointed IGP, replacing Geoffrey Tumusiime. Recruitment into the force is done periodically.

The UPF has often been criticized for issues such as:

• Corruption:** Bribery and extortion by police officers are commonly reported.
• Human rights abuses:** Including excessive use of force, torture, and arbitrary arrests, particularly in handling political protests or criminal suspects.
• Lack of resources and capacity:** The force often lacks adequate funding, equipment, training, and personnel to effectively police the country, especially in rural areas.
• Politicization:** The police have been accused of being used to suppress political dissent and harass opposition members.

Crime Issues:

• Common crimes:** Include theft, burglary, robbery (sometimes armed), assault, and fraud.
• Violent crime:** While not as high as in some other regional countries, incidents of murder, armed robbery, and carjackings occur.
• Organized crime:** Including drug trafficking, human trafficking, and wildlife poaching.
• Cybercrime:** Is a growing concern with increased internet penetration.
• Rebel activity:** Historically, groups like the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) and the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) have committed serious crimes and atrocities. The ADF, an affiliate of Al-Shabaab (though this link is complex and sometimes debated in terms of direct command), continues to pose a threat, primarily operating from the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo but also carrying out attacks within Uganda.
• Land conflicts and disputes:** Can sometimes escalate into violence.
• Child sacrifice:** Though rare, horrific cases of child sacrifice linked to traditional beliefs or witchcraft for wealth or power have been reported, sparking public outrage and police investigations.

Broader Law Enforcement System:
The justice system, including courts and prisons, also faces challenges:

• Overcrowded prisons:** And poor prison conditions.
• Slow judicial processes:** Leading to long pre-trial detention periods.
• Limited access to justice:** Especially for the poor and those in rural areas.

Efforts to reform the police and the broader justice sector are ongoing, often with support from development partners, focusing on improving professionalism, accountability, and respect for human rights. Community policing initiatives have also been introduced. However, deep-rooted systemic issues and a culture of impunity for some offenses remain significant obstacles.

11.1. Media

The media landscape in Uganda includes print, broadcast (radio and television), and online platforms.

• Newspapers: Popular English-language dailies include the state-owned New Vision and the privately-owned Daily Monitor. There are also newspapers in local languages, such as Bukedde (Luganda). Other publications include The Observer (tri-weekly) and East African Business Week. The tabloid Red Pepper was known for its sensationalist content.
• Radio: Radio is the most accessible mass medium, especially in rural areas, with numerous FM stations broadcasting in English and various local languages. They offer news, music, talk shows, and community programming.
• Television: Several television stations operate, including the national broadcaster, Uganda Broadcasting Corporation (UBC), and private stations like NTV, NBS Television, Sanyuka TV, Baba TV, Top TV, and Spark TV.
• Online Media: Online news websites, blogs, and social media are increasingly important sources of information and platforms for discussion, though internet penetration is still developing.

The media operates under the regulation of the Uganda Communications Commission (UCC). While there is a degree of media freedom, journalists and media houses critical of the government have sometimes faced pressure, intimidation, and legal challenges. Issues of professionalism, funding, and training also affect the media sector.

11.2. Sports

Sports are an important part of Ugandan culture, with several disciplines gaining popularity and achieving international recognition.

• Football (Soccer): This is the most popular sport in Uganda.

The Uganda national football team, nicknamed "The Cranes," is governed by the Federation of Uganda Football Associations (FUFA). They have never qualified for the FIFA World Cup finals, but their best performance in the Africa Cup of Nations was finishing second in the 1978 tournament. Domestic club football is organized through the Uganda Premier League. Prominent clubs include SC Villa (most national league titles, and reached the final of the African Cup of Champions Clubs in 1991), KCCA FC (second most league wins), and Simba SC (reached the African Cup of Champions Clubs final in 1972).

• Athletics: Uganda has produced several world-class athletes, particularly in long-distance running.
  • John Akii-Bua won Uganda's first Olympic gold medal in the 400 metres hurdles at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, setting a world record.
  • Dorcus Inzikuru won the 3000m steeplechase at the 2005 World Championships and the 2006 Commonwealth Games.
  • Stephen Kiprotich won the marathon gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London and the 2013 World Championships.
  • Joshua Cheptegei has achieved significant success, winning multiple World Championship and Commonwealth Games gold medals in 5,000m and 10,000m events, and holding world records.
  • Halimah Nakaayi won the 800 meters at the 2019 World Championships.
  • Davis Kamoga won a bronze medal in the 400m at the 1996 Summer Olympics and a silver at the 1997 World Championships in Athletics.
• Boxing: Uganda has a strong tradition in boxing. The national team is called "The Bombers." Ugandan boxers have won several Olympic medals, including Eridadi Mukwanga (silver, 1968), Leo Rwabwogo (bronze, 1968; silver, 1972), and John Mugabi (silver, 1980). Other notable boxers include Cornelius Boza-Edwards, Ayub Kalule, Kassim Ouma, Justin Juuko, Joseph Nsubuga, and Sam Rukundo.
• Cricket: The Uganda national cricket team was part of the East Africa team that participated in the 1975 Cricket World Cup. More recently, Uganda qualified for the 2024 ICC Men's T20 World Cup.
• Basketball:

The Uganda national basketball team, nicknamed "The Silverbacks," has gained prominence, making its debut at the FIBA Africa Championship (AfroBasket) in 2015.

• Netball: The Uganda national netball team, "The She-Cranes," has performed well in international competitions, including the Netball World Cup.
• Little League Baseball: Teams from Uganda have qualified for the Little League World Series in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, showcasing growing interest in the sport.

Uganda participates in the Olympic Games and the Commonwealth Games, earning medals primarily in athletics and boxing.

11.3. Cinema

The Ugandan film industry, often dubbed "Ugawood" or sometimes "Kinna-Uganda" (derived from a Luganda word meaning "cinema" or "movie"), is relatively young but has been growing dynamically. It faces challenges but also shows considerable potential.
The industry gained wider local recognition around 2005 with films like Feelings Struggle, directed by Hajji Ashraf Ssemwogerere. Ugandan cinema is characterized by low-budget productions, often action-packed or focusing on social dramas, and distributed through DVDs and local video halls ("bibanda"). Wakaliwood, based in Wakaliga, Kampala, and led by filmmaker Isaac Nabwana (director of Who Killed Captain Alex?), has gained international cult status for its ultra-low-budget, highly energetic action-comedy films.

Challenges for the Ugandan film industry include:

• Funding:** Limited access to finance for film production.
• Technical Skills:** Need for improvement in areas like scriptwriting, acting, directing, and post-production.
• Distribution and Marketing:** Lack of formal distribution channels and effective marketing strategies.
• Competition:** From established film industries like Nigeria's Nollywood, Hollywood, and other international productions.
• Lack of Government Support:** Insufficient government investment and supportive policies for the film sector, although bodies like the Uganda Communications Commission (UCC) have made efforts to promote local content on television.
• Infrastructure:** Few dedicated film schools or well-equipped production facilities.

Despite these hurdles, there is a growing number of filmmakers and film festivals aimed at promoting Ugandan cinema, such as the Amakula International Film Festival, Pearl International Film Festival, and Maisha Film Lab (founded by Mira Nair, which supports emerging East African filmmakers). Efforts to increase local content quotas on television could also boost the industry. Ugandan films often explore contemporary social issues, cultural themes, and historical narratives, contributing to a unique cinematic voice.

11.4. Cuisine

Ugandan cuisine consists of traditional and modern cooking styles, practices, foods and dishes in Uganda, with English, Arab, Asian and especially Indian influences. Like the cuisines of most countries, it varies in complexity, from the most basic, a starchy filler with a sauce of beans or meat, to several-course meals served in upper-class homes and high-end restaurants.

Most ethnic groups in Uganda have their own specialty dishes or delicacies. Many dishes include various vegetables, potatoes, yams, bananas and other tropical fruits. Chicken, pork, fish (usually fresh, but there is also a dried variety, reconstituted for stewing), beef, goat and mutton are all commonly eaten, although among the rural poor, meats are consumed less than in other areas, and mostly eaten in the form of bushmeat.

Staple Foods:

• Matoke**: Steamed and mashed green cooking bananas, a staple food in much of central and southern Uganda. It is often served with a sauce of groundnuts (peanuts), beans, meat, or fish.
• Ugali (Posho)**: A stiff porridge made from maize (corn) flour, common throughout East Africa.
• Cassava, Sweet Potatoes, Millet, Sorghum**: These are also important starchy staples in various regions. Millet bread (kalo or atap) is common in the north and east.
• Rice and Chapati**: Influenced by Asian cuisine, rice and chapati (an unleavened flatbread) are widely consumed.

Sauces and Stews:
Staple foods are typically accompanied by sauces or stews made from:

• Beans**
• Groundnuts (G-nut sauce)**: A creamy sauce made from pounded peanuts.
• Meat**: Beef, goat, chicken, or mutton stews.
• Fish**: Fresh fish (like tilapia or Nile perch from the lakes) or dried/smoked fish. Mukene (silver cyprinid, a small dried fish) is also common.
• Greens**: Various types of leafy green vegetables.

Other Notable Foods and Dishes:

• Luwombo**: A traditional dish where meat (chicken, beef, or goat) or fish is steamed in banana leaves with groundnut sauce and vegetables.
• Muchomo**: Roasted meat, often goat or beef, typically sold by roadside vendors or at social gatherings.
• Rolex (Ugandan street food)|Rolex**: A popular street food consisting of a chapati rolled with fried eggs and sometimes vegetables like cabbage, tomatoes, and onions.
• Grasshoppers (Nsenene)**: A seasonal delicacy, fried or roasted.
• Fruits**: Uganda has an abundance of tropical fruits, including bananas (many varieties), pineapples, mangoes, passion fruit, jackfruit, and avocados.

Beverages:

• Tea (Chai)**: Widely consumed, often milky and sweet.
• Coffee**: Uganda is a major coffee producer, and coffee is also consumed locally.
• Local Brews**: Traditional fermented beverages made from bananas (e.g., tonto, mwenge), millet, or sorghum are common in rural areas.
• Waragi**: A generic term for domestically distilled gin, which can vary widely in quality and safety. Commercially produced Waragi is also available.

Ugandan culinary traditions reflect the agricultural bounty of the land and the cultural practices of its diverse peoples.

11.5. World Heritage Sites

Uganda is home to three sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, recognized for their outstanding universal value.

• Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Natural Heritage, inscribed 1994):

Located in southwestern Uganda, Bwindi is renowned for its exceptional biodiversity, particularly its population of endangered mountain gorillas. It harbors nearly half of the world's remaining mountain gorillas. The park's dense tropical rainforest also contains numerous other primate species, over 350 bird species (including many Albertine Rift endemics), and a vast array of butterflies and plant life. Its rugged terrain and ecological importance make it a critical conservation area.

• Rwenzori Mountains National Park (Natural Heritage, inscribed 1994):

This park protects the higher altitudes of the Rwenzori Mountains, also known as the "Mountains of the Moon." Situated on the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the park features glaciers, snow-capped peaks (including Margherita Peak on Mount Stanley, Africa's third-highest), waterfalls, lakes, and unique Afro-alpine vegetation, such as giant heathers, groundsels, and lobelias. Its stunning landscapes and distinct ecosystems contribute to its World Heritage status.

• Kasubi Tombs (Tombs of Buganda Kings at Kasubi) (Cultural Heritage, inscribed 2001):

Located on Kasubi Hill in Kampala, these tombs are the burial site of four Kabakas (Kings) of the Buganda Kingdom: Muteesa I, Mwanga II, Daudi Chwa II, and Sir Edward Mutesa II. The main tomb building, Muzibu Azaala Mpanga, is a masterpiece of Ganda traditional architecture, constructed primarily from organic materials like wood, thatch, reed, wattle, and daub. It represents a significant spiritual, cultural, and political site for the Baganda people. The site was severely damaged by fire in March 2010 but has been undergoing reconstruction efforts. It was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger from 2010 to 2023, and after successful restoration efforts, it was removed from the danger list.

These World Heritage Sites highlight Uganda's rich natural and cultural heritage, attracting tourism and underscoring the importance of conservation and preservation efforts.