Malawi

3.1. Pre-colonial Era

The area of present-day Malawi was initially inhabited by small populations of hunter-gatherer groups, likely of San origin, whose presence is evidenced by rock art found in sites like the Chongoni Rock Art Area. Around the 10th century CE, waves of Bantu-speaking peoples began migrating into the region from the north as part of the larger Bantu expansion. While many Bantu groups continued southward, some settled in the fertile lands around Lake Malawi and established agricultural communities.

By the 15th century, these groups, predominantly Chewa-speaking, consolidated to form the Maravi Empire (also known as the Malawi or Maravi Kingdom). The empire, at its zenith, stretched from north of what is now Nkhotakota to the Zambezi River in the south, and from Lake Malawi eastward to the Luangwa River in present-day Zambia. The term "Maravi" itself, meaning "flames," is thought to have given the country its name. The Maravi rulers, titled Kalonga, controlled a significant network of trade, particularly in ivory, and to a lesser extent, slaves, with Swahili-Arab traders on the coast and later with the Portuguese. Other kingdoms, such as the Nkhamanga Kingdom among the Tumbuka in the north, also flourished during this period.

Around 1600, the Maravi Empire was largely unified, and its people began more intensive interaction with Portuguese traders and military personnel. However, internal succession disputes and pressure from other migrating groups, such as the Yao from the east (who became heavily involved in the slave and ivory trade) and the Ngoni (a militaristic group fleeing Shaka Zulu's Mfecane from the south in the 19th century), led to the gradual decline and fragmentation of the Maravi Empire by the 1700s. The Indian Ocean slave trade intensified in the mid-1800s, with Nkhotakota becoming a major slave trading post from which an estimated 20,000 people per year were transported to ports like Kilwa for sale.

3.2. Colonial Period

The colonial history of Malawi began with European exploration and missionary activity in the mid-19th century. David Livingstone, the Scottish missionary and explorer, reached Lake Malawi (then called Lake Nyasa) in 1859. He identified the Shire Highlands, south of the lake, as a promising area for European settlement and missionary work due to its fertile land and relatively cooler climate. Following Livingstone's reports, several Anglican and Presbyterian missions were established in the 1860s and 1870s. The African Lakes Company was founded in 1878 to develop trade and transport, working closely with the missions. A small mission and trading settlement were established at Blantyre in 1876, named after Livingstone's birthplace, and a British Consul took up residence there in 1883.

The interest of the Portuguese government in the region prompted the British to assert control to prevent Portuguese occupation. In 1889, a British protectorate was proclaimed over the Shire Highlands. This was extended in 1891 to encompass the whole of present-day Malawi, and the territory was named the British Central Africa Protectorate. Harry Johnston was appointed as the first commissioner and consul-general, tasked with establishing an administration, suppressing the slave trade, and making treaties with local rulers. In 1907, the protectorate was renamed Nyasaland.

Colonial rule was established with a minimal administrative presence, often referred to as the "Thin White Line." In 1891, the colonial government had a budget of only £10,000, supporting a handful of European civilians and military officers, along with Sikh and Zanzibari personnel, to administer a territory of around 36 K mile^{2 (94.00 K km2)} with a population estimated at one to two million. The British introduced cash crop agriculture, particularly tobacco and tea, primarily on European-owned estates. This led to significant socio-economic changes, including the imposition of hut taxes which forced many Malawian men into wage labor on estates or in neighboring territories like Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa. Land alienation for European estates created resentment among the local population.

Resistance to colonial rule emerged, most notably the uprising led by John Chilembwe in 1915. Chilembwe, an American-educated Baptist pastor, protested against colonial injustices, forced labor, and the recruitment of Malawians into the British army during World War I. Though the uprising was quickly suppressed and Chilembwe was killed, it became a symbol of early nationalist resistance.

In 1944, the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) was formed by educated Africans to advocate for their interests and oppose discriminatory colonial policies. A significant turning point was the imposition of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953, which forcibly linked Nyasaland with Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe). This federation was deeply unpopular in Nyasaland, as Africans feared it would entrench white settler domination from Southern Rhodesia. The NAC, under leaders like Hastings Banda (who returned to Nyasaland in 1958 after decades abroad), spearheaded the opposition to the Federation. Banda's charismatic leadership mobilized widespread support. Following a state of emergency declared by the colonial government in 1959 due to unrest, Banda and other NAC leaders were imprisoned. However, political pressure continued, and Banda was released in 1960 to participate in constitutional talks.

3.3. Hastings Banda Era

The era of Hastings Kamuzu Banda's dominance in Malawian politics began even before formal independence. After his release from prison in 1960, Banda, a European-trained medical doctor who had spent decades abroad, quickly became the paramount leader of the nationalist movement. In the 1961 Legislative Council elections, his Malawi Congress Party (MCP) won an overwhelming majority. Banda became Prime Minister in 1963, the same year the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was dissolved, largely due to pressure from African nationalists in Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia. On July 6, 1964, Nyasaland gained independence from British rule, renaming itself Malawi.

Initially, Malawi was a Commonwealth realm with Queen Elizabeth II as head of state, represented by a Governor-General. However, in 1966, Malawi adopted a new constitution, becoming a republic with Banda as its first president. The new constitution also formally declared Malawi a one-party state with the MCP as the sole legal party. This move consolidated Banda's power significantly. In 1970, he was appointed Chancellor of the newly established University of Malawi, and in 1971, the MCP declared him President for life.

Banda's rule, spanning nearly three decades, was characterized by a highly authoritarian and paternalistic style. He established a pervasive system of social control through the MCP, its youth wing (the Malawi Young Pioneers), and women's organizations (the Chitukuko Cha Amayi m'Malawi - CCAM). Dissent was ruthlessly suppressed, and political opponents were imprisoned, exiled, or disappeared. Freedom of speech, press, and association were severely curtailed. Strict dress codes (e.g., prohibiting women from wearing trousers or short skirts, and men from having long hair) and censorship of media and arts were enforced. His regime was responsible for numerous human rights abuses, creating an atmosphere of fear and conformity.

Economically, Banda pursued a policy of state-led capitalism, focusing on agricultural development, particularly estate agriculture for export crops like tobacco, tea, and sugar. Infrastructure projects, such as the construction of a new capital city at Lilongwe (moving it from Zomba) and the development of roads and the Kamuzu International Airport, were undertaken. For a period, Malawi experienced modest economic growth, and Banda's Malawi was sometimes cited as an example of stability and agricultural progress in post-colonial Africa. However, this development often benefited a small elite connected to the regime, and rural poverty remained widespread. His foreign policy was notably pro-Western during the Cold War. Unusually for an African leader of that time, Banda maintained diplomatic relations with apartheid-era South Africa, which provided significant economic aid and investment, as well as with Portugal during its colonial wars in neighboring Mozambique. This stance isolated Malawi from many other African nations.

Despite the tight control, opposition to Banda's rule grew, particularly in the late 1980s and early 1990s, fueled by internal discontent over economic hardship and human rights abuses, as well as external pressure from Western donor nations and international organizations following the end of the Cold War.

3.4. Multi-party Democracy Era

The transition to multi-party democracy in Malawi began in the early 1990s, driven by both internal and external pressures. Domestically, years of Hastings Banda's authoritarian rule under the Malawi Congress Party (MCP) had led to suppressed dissent and widespread human rights abuses. Economically, despite initial successes, the benefits were not widely shared, and poverty remained entrenched. Externally, the end of the Cold War diminished the West's tolerance for autocratic, anti-communist allies, and international donors began to condition aid on political and economic reforms, including respect for human rights and democratic governance.

A pivotal moment came in March 1992 when Malawian Catholic bishops issued a pastoral letter, "Living Our Faith," criticizing the government's human rights record and lack of political freedom. This act of defiance emboldened others. Student protests and strikes by workers followed. Under increasing pressure, President Banda agreed to a referendum on June 14, 1993, in which Malawians voted overwhelmingly in favor of adopting a multi-party system.

Following the referendum, a new constitution was drafted, and the life presidency was abolished. The first multi-party general elections were held on May 17, 1994. Bakili Muluzi, leader of the newly formed United Democratic Front (UDF) and a former MCP cabinet minister, defeated Hastings Banda. This marked a peaceful end to Banda's nearly 30-year rule and ushered in a new democratic era. Muluzi was re-elected in 1999. His presidency saw an expansion of civil liberties, but was also plagued by allegations of corruption and economic mismanagement. An attempt to amend the constitution to allow him a third term failed due to public and parliamentary opposition.

In the 2004 general election, Bingu wa Mutharika, Muluzi's handpicked successor from the UDF, was elected president. Mutharika soon broke with Muluzi and formed his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), in 2005. His first term was marked by strong economic growth, largely attributed to favorable weather conditions and an agricultural subsidy program that boosted food production. He was re-elected by a landslide in the 2009 election. However, his second term saw a rise in autocratic tendencies, suppression of dissent, and a deteriorating human rights record. Economic problems, including fuel and foreign exchange shortages, led to widespread protests in July 2011, which were met with a violent government crackdown resulting in several deaths.

President Mutharika died of a heart attack in April 2012. After a brief period of uncertainty and an alleged attempt by some cabinet members to prevent her succession, Vice-President Joyce Banda (no relation to Hastings Banda) assumed the presidency, becoming Malawi's first female head of state. She initially enjoyed popular support and implemented some reforms, but her administration was soon embroiled in a major corruption scandal known as "Cashgate", where large sums of public money were systematically looted.

In the 2014 general election, Joyce Banda was defeated, coming in third. Peter Mutharika, the brother of the late Bingu wa Mutharika and leader of the DPP, was elected president. His presidency faced ongoing economic challenges and continued concerns about corruption. Peter Mutharika was narrowly re-elected in the 2019 general election. However, the opposition, led by Lazarus Chakwera of the MCP and Saulos Chilima of the UTM Party, challenged the results in court, alleging widespread irregularities and fraud.

In a landmark decision in February 2020, the Malawian Constitutional Court annulled the 2019 presidential election results and ordered a fresh election. The Supreme Court upheld this decision in May 2020. The court-ordered presidential election re-run was held on June 23, 2020. Lazarus Chakwera, leading the Tonse Alliance (a coalition of opposition parties), defeated Peter Mutharika and was sworn in as the new president. This was a significant moment for democratic consolidation in Malawi and Africa, as it marked one of the few times an election result was overturned by the judiciary leading to a change in power. Since then, Malawi has continued to navigate its democratic path, facing ongoing socio-economic challenges while striving to strengthen its institutions and uphold human rights.

4.1. Topography and Hydrology

Malawi lies between latitudes 9° and 18°S, and longitudes 32° and 36°E. The most prominent geographical feature is the Great Rift Valley, an extensive trough that runs through the country from north to south. Within this valley lies Lake Malawi (also known as Lake Nyasa), the third-largest lake in Africa and one of the African Great Lakes. It accounts for over 20% of Malawi's total area, stretching approximately 360 mile ^{(580 km)} in length and up to 47 mile ^{(75 km)} in width. The lake's surface is about 1499 ft ^{(457 m)} above sea level, but it is very deep, reaching a maximum depth of over 2297 ft ^{(700 m)}, meaning its floor is well below sea level in some parts. Lake Malawi is renowned for its rich biodiversity, particularly its hundreds of endemic cichlid fish species.

The Shire River is the largest river in Malawi and the only outlet of Lake Malawi. It flows southwards from the lake's southern end, through the Shire Highlands, and eventually joins the Zambezi River in Mozambique. Other significant rivers include the Ruo River, a tributary of the Shire, and rivers like the Songwe, Dwangwa, Bua, and Lilongwe, which flow into Lake Malawi. Lake Malombe is a smaller lake located on the Shire River, south of Lake Malawi. In the southeast, near the Mozambican border, are the shallow lakes of Chilwa and Chiuta.

To the west of the Rift Valley, the land rises to form high plateaus, generally ranging from 2953 ft ^{(900 m)} to 3.9 K ft ^{(1.20 K m)} above sea level. In the north, the Nyika Plateau reaches elevations of up to 8.5 K ft ^{(2.60 K m)}. The Viphya Mountains run parallel to Lake Malawi in the north-central region. In the south, the Shire Highlands are a significant plateau area. The highest point in Malawi is Sapitwa Peak on the Mulanje Mountain in the southeast, reaching an elevation of 9.8 K ft ^{(3.00 K m)}. The Zomba Plateau, near the former capital Zomba, is another prominent massif, rising to over 6.6 K ft ^{(2.00 K m)}.

4.2. Climate

Malawi has a subtropical climate that is significantly influenced by altitude and its proximity to Lake Malawi. The climate is generally characterized by a rainy season and a dry season.
The rainy season typically runs from November to April. During this period, temperatures are warm to hot, and the country receives most of its annual rainfall, often accompanied by equatorial rains and thunderstorms. The intensity of rainfall and storms usually peaks around late March.
The dry season extends from May to October. Rainfall rapidly diminishes after March. From May to September, cool, wet mists, known as Chiperoni, can drift from the highlands into the plateaus, particularly in the southern regions. During these months, there is very little to no rainfall.
Temperatures vary considerably with altitude. The low-lying areas, especially along the Shire Valley in the south and the shores of Lake Malawi, experience hot and humid conditions, with average temperatures often exceeding 77 °F ^{(25 °C)}. The highland areas, such as the Nyika Plateau and Zomba Plateau, are much cooler and temperate, with temperatures sometimes dropping to near freezing during the coolest months (June and July). Lilongwe, the capital, located on a central plateau, has a more moderate climate.
Lake Malawi has a moderating effect on the climate of the surrounding areas, making them generally warmer in winter and cooler in summer than they would otherwise be. Annual rainfall varies across the country, with the highlands generally receiving more precipitation (up to 0.1 K in ^{(2.00 K mm)} or more) than the lower-lying rift valley areas (around 31 in ^{(800 mm)}). Malawi is also susceptible to extreme weather events, including droughts and floods, which can significantly impact agriculture and livelihoods.

4.3. Flora and Fauna

Malawi possesses a rich biodiversity, though it faces challenges from habitat loss and human population growth. The country's varied topography and climate support a range of ecosystems, from montane grasslands and forests to miombo woodlands, savannas, and wetlands.
Indigenous animal life includes a variety of mammals. Elephants, hippos, antelope species (such as sable antelope, roan antelope, and eland), buffaloes, and several big cat species like lions and leopards can be found, particularly in protected areas. Other mammals include various monkey species, warthogs, hyenas, rhinos (reintroduced in some reserves), and numerous species of bats.
Malawi is home to a great diversity of birds, with over 650 species recorded. These include birds of prey like eagles and falcons, colorful parrots, waterfowl, large waders, owls, and a multitude of songbirds. Lake Malawi and its associated wetlands are particularly important habitats for waterbirds.
Lake Malawi is globally renowned for its exceptional aquatic biodiversity, particularly its fish fauna. It is home to an estimated 700 to 1,000 species of cichlid fish, the vast majority of which are endemic to the lake, making it a key site for the study of evolutionary biology. The lake also supports other fish species, mollusks, and crustaceans.
The flora of Malawi is diverse, with over 5,500 plant species recorded. Miombo woodland, characterized by Brachystegia trees, is a dominant vegetation type. Montane regions like the Nyika and Mulanje plateaus feature unique Afromontane grasslands, heathlands, and patches of evergreen forest, including the endemic Mulanje cedar (Widdringtonia whytei). Other vegetation types include mopane woodlands in hotter, drier areas, and various types of savanna and riverine forests.
Conservation efforts are underway to protect Malawi's natural heritage. The country has several national parks, including Lake Malawi National Park (a UNESCO World Heritage Site recognized for its cichlid diversity), Nyika National Park, Liwonde National Park, Majete Wildlife Reserve, and Kasungu National Park. These parks and reserves aim to protect wildlife populations and their habitats. However, challenges such as poaching, deforestation for agriculture and fuelwood, human-wildlife conflict, and the impacts of climate change persist. Environmental issues linked to development, such as soil erosion and water pollution, also require ongoing attention. Malawi had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.74/10, ranking it 96th globally out of 172 countries.

5.1. Government and Political System

Malawi operates as a unitary presidential republic. The current constitution was enacted on May 18, 1995. The government is structured into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial, ensuring a separation of powers.

The executive branch is headed by the President, who is both the head of state and head of government. The President is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is limited to two consecutive terms. The President appoints the Vice-President, who is elected on the same ticket. The President also appoints the Cabinet, whose members are responsible for various government ministries and can be drawn from both within and outside the legislature. The Cabinet assists the President in administering the country and implementing government policies. The current President is Lazarus Chakwera, who assumed office in June 2020.

The legislative branch consists of a unicameral National Assembly. It comprises 193 members who are elected by first-past-the-post in single-member constituencies for five-year terms. The National Assembly is responsible for enacting laws, overseeing the budget, and holding the executive branch accountable. Although the Malawian constitution provides for the establishment of a Senate of 80 seats to represent traditional leaders, geographic districts, and special interest groups (including disabled persons, youth, and women), it has not yet been implemented in practice.

The judicial branch is independent and based on the English common law model. It is headed by the Supreme Court of Appeal, which is the highest court. Below it is the High Court, which has general, constitutional, and commercial divisions. There are also an Industrial Relations Court and Magistrates' Courts, the latter divided into five grades and including Child Justice Courts. The judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws and administering justice. The judicial system has undergone several changes since independence, with varying use of conventional and traditional courts.

Local government is administered through districts, which are further subdivided into traditional authorities and administrative wards. Regional administrators and district commissioners are appointed by the central government. Local elections were held in 2000 for the first time in the multi-party era, but subsequent local elections faced cancellations and delays, impacting grassroots democratic participation.

5.2. Political Parties and Elections

Malawi has a multi-party system, with several political parties actively participating in the political landscape. The major political parties include:

• Malawi Congress Party (MCP): One of the oldest parties, it was the ruling party under Hastings Banda during the one-party era. It has a strong support base, particularly in the Central Region, and is currently the leading party in the Tonse Alliance government under President Lazarus Chakwera. Its ideology is generally described as conservative or nationalist.
• Democratic Progressive Party (DPP): Founded by former President Bingu wa Mutharika, the DPP has a significant following, especially in the Southern Region. It has been in power for several terms and is currently the main opposition party. Its ideology is generally considered liberal conservative.
• United Democratic Front (UDF): This party, led by Bakili Muluzi, was the first to win elections after the transition to democracy in 1994. Its support base is traditionally strong in the Southern Region, particularly among the Yao ethnic group. Its ideology is broadly liberal.
• People's Party (PP): Founded by former President Joyce Banda, this party emerged as a significant force, though its influence has varied.
• UTM Party: Formed by former Vice-President Saulos Chilima, it gained prominence in the lead-up to the 2019 and 2020 elections, often campaigning on an anti-corruption platform.

Other smaller parties also exist and sometimes form coalitions. Party affiliations can be fluid, and regional and ethnic loyalties often play a significant role in voting patterns.

Elections in Malawi are held for the presidency and the National Assembly every five years. Suffrage is universal at 18 years of age. The Malawi Electoral Commission (MEC) is responsible for organizing and overseeing elections.
Recent major elections have highlighted both the progress and challenges of Malawi's democratic process:

• The 2014 general election saw Peter Mutharika (DPP) defeat incumbent Joyce Banda (PP).
• The 2019 general election initially declared Peter Mutharika the winner. However, the results were challenged in court by opposition leaders Lazarus Chakwera (MCP) and Saulos Chilima (UTM) due to widespread irregularities and fraud.
• In a historic ruling in February 2020, the Constitutional Court annulled the 2019 presidential election results and ordered a fresh election. This decision was upheld by the Supreme Court.
• The court-ordered presidential election re-run in June 2020 resulted in a victory for Lazarus Chakwera, leading the Tonse Alliance. This was a significant moment for judicial independence and democratic accountability in Africa.

Challenges to democratic processes in Malawi include political polarization, allegations of corruption, vote-buying, occasional political violence, and the need for ongoing electoral reforms to enhance transparency and fairness. The central government budget for 2021/2022 was approximately 2.30 T MWK.

5.3. Human Rights

The human rights situation in Malawi has seen improvements since the transition to a multi-party democracy in 1994, but significant challenges remain. The Constitution of Malawi guarantees fundamental human rights and freedoms. However, international observers and local human rights organizations have noted ongoing issues.

Significant human rights concerns include:

• Police brutality and excessive use of force: Reports of excessive force by police and security forces, sometimes with impunity, have been documented. Prison conditions are often harsh, overcrowded, and can be life-threatening due to poor sanitation and inadequate medical care.
• Rule of Law and Access to Justice: While the judiciary has shown independence in some high-profile cases, challenges such as lengthy pretrial detentions, arbitrary arrests, and limited access to justice for ordinary citizens, especially in rural areas, persist.
• Freedom of Expression and Press: While generally respected, there have been instances of restrictions on freedom of speech and freedom of the press, including intimidation or harassment of journalists and activists critical of the government.
• Corruption: Corruption within the government and security forces remains a major issue, undermining public trust and diverting resources from essential services. The Anti-Corruption Bureau (ACB) operates, but its effectiveness has faced challenges.
• Violence against women and gender inequality: Gender-based violence, including domestic violence and sexual abuse, is prevalent. Women often face discrimination in accessing education, economic opportunities, and political participation. Malawi has historically had a high rate of child marriage, although legal reforms raised the minimum age of marriage from 15 to 18 in 2015. The maternal mortality rate remains high.
• LGBT Rights: Homosexual acts remain criminalized under Malawian law, though there has been a moratorium on arrests and prosecutions for consensual same-sex acts since 2012, which was reinforced in 2015 pending a review of anti-gay laws. Societal discrimination against LGBT individuals is widespread. In a notable development, the first Pride parade in Malawi was held in Lilongwe on June 26, 2021.
• Rights of Minorities and Vulnerable Groups: Persons with albinism have faced extreme violence, including abductions and killings, driven by superstitious beliefs that their body parts bring wealth or good luck. Child labour and human trafficking are also serious concerns. Accusations of witchcraft can lead to violence and abuse, particularly against elderly women and children.
• Socio-economic rights: Widespread poverty limits access to adequate food, water, healthcare, and education for a large portion of the population.

Domestic efforts to improve human rights include the work of the Malawi Human Rights Commission (an independent national human rights institution), various civil society organizations, and legal reforms. International partners and organizations also play a role in monitoring the human rights situation and supporting improvement initiatives. The Ibrahim Index of African Governance in 2012 ranked Malawi 7th out of countries in sub-Saharan Africa, with higher scores for safety and rule of law but lower scores for sustainable economic opportunity and educational opportunities.

6.1. Major Cities

Malawi's urban centers serve as hubs for administration, commerce, education, and culture, though the majority of the population remains rural.

• Lilongwe:

q=Lilongwe|position=right

• Location: Central Region.
• Population: Approximately 989,318 (2018 census). It is the largest city in Malawi.
• Economic Functions: As the capital city since 1975, Lilongwe is the administrative and political center of Malawi. It hosts government ministries, parliament, and diplomatic missions. It has a growing commercial sector, driven by services, retail, and light industry. It is also an important center for tobacco sales.
• Cultural Significance: Lilongwe is a relatively modern city, planned with distinct Old Town and New Town (Capital Hill) areas. It reflects a blend of traditional Malawian life with modern urban development. It hosts the Kamuzu International Airport.

• Blantyre:

q=Blantyre|position=right

• Location: Southern Region, in the Shire Highlands.
• Population: Approximately 800,264 (2018 census). It is Malawi's second-largest city.
• Economic Functions: Blantyre is the main commercial and industrial hub of Malawi. It hosts the Malawi Stock Exchange and is home to many businesses, manufacturing industries (food processing, brewing, textiles), and financial institutions. It serves as a major transportation and distribution center for the southern region.
• Cultural Significance: Founded in 1876, Blantyre is one of the oldest urban centers and was the colonial administrative and commercial capital. It has a more historical character than Lilongwe, with several colonial-era buildings. It is home to the University of Malawi's Polytechnic and College of Medicine. Chileka International Airport serves Blantyre.

• Mzuzu:
  • Location: Northern Region.
  • Population: Approximately 221,272 (2018 census). It is the third-largest city and the capital of the Northern Region.
  • Economic Functions: Mzuzu serves as the administrative, commercial, and educational center for the Northern Region. It is an important hub for agriculture from the surrounding areas (coffee, tea, timber, rubber). It has seen growth in services and small-scale industries.
  • Cultural Significance: Mzuzu is home to Mzuzu University, established in 1997, which has contributed to its development. It is a gateway to northern Malawi's attractions, including the Nyika Plateau.
  • Zomba:
    • Location: Southern Region, at the foot of the Zomba Plateau.
    • Population: Approximately 105,013 (2018 census).
    • Economic Functions: Zomba was the capital of British Central Africa and then Nyasaland, and later Malawi until 1975. While no longer the political capital, it remains an important administrative and educational center. It hosts the main campus of the University of Malawi (Chancellor College) and several government institutions. Agriculture from the surrounding fertile lands is also significant.
    • Cultural Significance: Zomba has a rich colonial history and is known for its beautiful setting and pleasant climate due to the Zomba Plateau. It retains a somewhat colonial atmosphere with historical buildings.

    Other notable urban centers include Karonga in the north, a historical trading post; Kasungu in the central region, known for tobacco farming; Mangochi at the southern end of Lake Malawi, a popular tourist destination; and Salima, another lakeside town with tourism and agricultural activities. Liwonde, in the Southern Region, is an important transport hub and gateway to Liwonde National Park.

7.1. Major Bilateral Relations

Malawi maintains diplomatic ties with numerous countries globally, with particular emphasis on its neighbors, former colonial powers, and key development partners.

• Neighboring African Countries:
  • Mozambique: Relations have generally been cooperative, though historical periods saw strains, particularly during Mozambique's civil war when Malawi hosted a large number of refugees. Disputes over the use of the Zambezi River and an inter-country electrical grid have occasionally surfaced. Border demarcation and management remain areas of ongoing discussion.
  • Zambia: Relations are generally cordial, with shared cultural ties and cooperation on regional issues. Trade and cross-border movement are significant.
  • Tanzania: While generally friendly, there has been a long-standing, though currently dormant, dispute over the border on Lake Malawi (Lake Nyasa), with Tanzania claiming sovereignty over half the lake, while Malawi claims the entire lake up to the Tanzanian shoreline, based on colonial-era agreements.
  • United Kingdom: As the former colonial power, the UK has historically been a significant partner. Relations remain strong, with cooperation in development aid, education, and governance. However, there have been occasional strains, such as in 2011 when the British ambassador was expelled after a leaked diplomatic cable criticized then-President Mutharika, leading to a temporary suspension of budgetary aid by the UK.
  • United States: The US is a major development partner for Malawi, providing substantial aid in areas such as health (particularly HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment through PEPFAR), education, agriculture, and democratic governance. The Peace Corps, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and USAID have active programs in Malawi. Relations strengthened after Malawi's transition to democracy.
  • China: Malawi established diplomatic ties with the People's Republic of China in 2007, severing relations with Taiwan (Republic of China). Since then, Chinese investment and aid have increased significantly, focusing on infrastructure projects such as the parliament building, roads, and educational institutions. This shift has been part of a broader trend of growing Chinese influence in Africa. Concerns have sometimes been raised regarding labor practices by some Chinese companies and the impact of Chinese businesses on local enterprises.
  • South Africa: Historically, Malawi maintained close relations with South Africa, even during the apartheid era, a stance that was controversial among other African nations. This was largely driven by economic necessity, as South Africa was a major employer of Malawian migrant labor and a source of investment. Post-apartheid, relations have remained strong, with South Africa being a key trading partner and investor.
  • Other Development Partners: Malawi receives aid and maintains cooperative relationships with various other countries, including Germany, Canada, Japan, Norway, and Ireland, as well as institutions like the European Union.

  Malawi has also served as a haven for refugees from conflicts in neighboring countries, particularly Mozambique and Rwanda, since 1985. While this has placed a strain on the economy, it has also drawn significant international humanitarian aid.

7.2. Activities in International Organizations

Malawi is an active member of numerous international and regional organizations, reflecting its commitment to multilateralism and international cooperation.

• United Nations (UN): Malawi joined the UN shortly after independence in 1964. It participates in various UN agencies and programs, contributing to discussions on global issues such as poverty reduction, sustainable development, climate change, and health. Malawi has also contributed troops to UN peacekeeping missions. In 2017, Malawi signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

• African Union (AU): As a member of the AU, Malawi participates in efforts to promote peace, security, and economic integration on the African continent. It adheres to AU principles on governance, democracy, and human rights.

• Southern African Development Community (SADC): Malawi is a founding member of SADC and plays an active role in this regional economic community, which aims to foster socio-economic development, cooperation, and integration among Southern African states. Malawi often aligns its policies with SADC protocols on trade, security, and political cooperation.

• Commonwealth of Nations: Malawi has been a member of the Commonwealth since independence. It benefits from cooperation in areas such as democratic development, good governance, human rights, and technical assistance.

• Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA): Malawi is also a member of COMESA, another regional economic bloc focused on promoting trade and economic integration among its member states in Eastern and Southern Africa.

• World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF): Malawi works closely with these international financial institutions for development assistance, policy advice, and financial support, particularly for poverty reduction strategies and macroeconomic stability.

• World Health Organization (WHO): Malawi collaborates with the WHO on public health initiatives, disease control, and strengthening its healthcare system.

Malawi was the first country in southern Africa to receive peacekeeping training under the African Crisis Response Initiative (ACRI). The country generally advocates for peaceful solutions to conflicts and supports international efforts on human rights and sustainable development. According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Malawi is ranked the 79th most peaceful country in the world (out of 163).

9.1. Agriculture

Agriculture is the backbone of the Malawian economy. It employs over 80% of the population, primarily in subsistence farming, and contributes to roughly one-third of the GDP and about 90% of export earnings.

• Major Crops:
  • Tobacco: Historically Malawi's most important cash crop and largest export earner, accounting for a significant percentage of export revenues (jumping from 53% to 70% between 2007 and 2008). The country is a major producer of burley leaf tobacco. However, the industry faces challenges from declining global tobacco prices and international anti-smoking campaigns.
  • Tea: Another significant export crop, primarily grown on large estates in the Shire Highlands.
  • Sugarcane: Grown on estates and by smallholders, sugar is an important export and also supplies the domestic market.
  • Maize (Corn): The primary staple food crop, grown by most smallholder farmers for subsistence. Production levels are highly dependent on rainfall and access to inputs like fertilizer.
  • Other Crops: Include cotton, potatoes, sorghum, groundnuts (peanuts), beans, cassava, sweet potatoes, rice, and various fruits and vegetables. Efforts are being made to diversify into other cash crops like spices (e.g., paprika) and macadamia nuts.
• Agricultural Technology and Policies: The level of agricultural technology is generally low, with limited use of irrigation, mechanization, and modern farming practices among smallholders. The government has implemented fertilizer subsidy programs, such as the Farm Input Subsidy Programme (FISP) and its successor, the Affordable Inputs Program (AIP), to boost maize production and enhance food security. These programs have had mixed success and have been subject to debates about sustainability and targeting. Malawi invests a significant portion of its GDP in agriculture, reportedly more than many other African countries (around 28% of GDP in some estimates).
• Challenges: The agricultural sector is highly vulnerable to droughts, floods, and pest outbreaks (like armyworms). Land degradation, deforestation, and small landholding sizes also constrain productivity. Issues related to labor rights, particularly concerning child labor and conditions for tenant farmers on tobacco estates, have been raised. Food security remains a persistent challenge, with seasonal hunger affecting many rural households.

9.2. Industry and Mining

Malawi's industrial sector is relatively small and underdeveloped, contributing about 19% to GDP (with manufacturing around 11%). It is largely focused on the processing of agricultural products.

• Manufacturing: Key manufacturing activities include tobacco, tea, and sugar processing; sawmill products; cement production; and the manufacturing of basic consumer goods such as food products, beverages, textiles, and footwear. Most industries are located in Blantyre and Lilongwe.
• Mining: The mining sector is small but has potential. Malawi has deposits of uranium, bauxite, coal, limestone, phosphates, and rare-earth elements. The Kayelekera Uranium Mine in northern Malawi began production in 2009 and became a significant export for a few years, but operations were suspended in 2014 due to low global uranium prices and high operational costs. Exploration for other minerals, including oil and gas in Lake Malawi, is ongoing. The government aims to develop the mining sector to diversify the economy.
• Economic Diversification: Efforts towards economic diversification aim to reduce reliance on agriculture, particularly tobacco. This includes promoting manufacturing, agro-processing, tourism, and developing the mining sector. However, progress has been slow due to challenges such as poor infrastructure, limited access to finance, and an unfavorable business environment. Environmental and social impacts of industrial and mining activities, such as pollution and land use conflicts, are also considerations that require careful management.

9.3. Infrastructure

Malawi's infrastructure is generally underdeveloped, posing a significant constraint to economic growth and social development. Efforts are ongoing to improve key sectors, often with support from international donors.

• Transport:
  • Roads: The road network is the primary mode of transport for passengers and freight. As of 2003, Malawi had approximately 9.6 K mile ^{(15.45 K km)} of roadways, of which about 4.3 K mile ^{(6.96 K km)} were paved. Many rural roads are unpaved and can become impassable during the rainy season. The M1 road is a major north-south artery.
  • Railways: Malawi has about 495 mile ^{(797 km)} of narrow-gauge railway lines. The main lines connect central and southern Malawi to Mozambican ports (Nacala and Beira), providing crucial access to the sea for this landlocked country. However, the railway system has suffered from underinvestment and poor maintenance, though rehabilitation efforts have been undertaken.
  • Aviation: Malawi has 31 airports, with seven having paved runways. The main international airports are Kamuzu International Airport in Lilongwe and Chileka International Airport in Blantyre. Air transport is important for international travel, tourism, and high-value cargo.
  • Waterways: Approximately 435 mile ^{(700 km)} of waterways on Lake Malawi and along the Shire River are used for transport, mainly by small vessels and ferries connecting lakeside communities.
  • Telecommunications:
    • The telecommunications sector has seen significant growth, particularly in mobile phone penetration. As of 2022, there were an estimated 10.23 million mobile phone connections. Internet penetration stood at around 4.03 million users in 2022.
    • Fixed-line telephone services are less common, with a higher concentration in urban areas.
    • The Malawi Communications Regulatory Authority (MACRA) regulates radio, television, and postal services. There is one government-run radio station (Malawi Broadcasting Corporation) and several private radio stations. Television broadcasting has expanded, with about 20 TV stations available on the country's digital network (MDBNL) by 2016. Access to reliable and affordable internet remains a challenge, particularly in rural areas.
    • Energy (Electricity):
      • Access to electricity is limited, especially in rural areas. As of 2012, only a small percentage of the population had access to electricity.
      • Hydropower is the main source of electricity generation, primarily from plants on the Shire River. This reliance makes the power supply vulnerable to droughts and fluctuations in water levels.
      • Frequent power outages (load shedding) are common and hamper economic activity.
      • The government is exploring other energy sources, including solar, wind, and potentially coal, to diversify the energy mix and increase generation capacity. Malawi does not make significant use of natural gas and imports all its petroleum products. In 2008, Malawi began testing cars running solely on ethanol, produced domestically, to reduce fuel import dependency.

      Addressing infrastructure deficits, particularly in transport and energy, is a key priority for the Malawian government to support economic growth, improve service delivery, and reduce poverty, with a focus on ensuring equitable access for all regions and populations.

9.4. Science and Technology

Malawi has been making efforts to integrate science, technology, and innovation (STI) into its national development agenda, recognizing its potential to drive economic growth and social progress. However, the national innovation system is still in its early stages of development.

• Research Trends and Output:
  • Malawi devoted approximately 1.06% of its GDP to research and development (R&D) in 2010, a relatively high ratio for an African country. This translated to about $7.8 per researcher (in purchasing power parity dollars).
  • In terms of scientific publications, Malawian scientists had the third-largest output in Southern Africa in 2014, with 322 articles cataloged in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, nearly triple the number from 2005. Relative to GDP, Malawi's publication rate in mainstream journals was higher than many countries of similar population size.
  • The country was ranked 107th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, an improvement from 118th in 2019.

  

  

  • Policy Framework:
    • Malawi's first science and technology policy dates back to 1991, revised in 2002 as the National Science and Technology Policy. This policy envisaged the establishment of a National Commission for Science and Technology (NCST) to advise the government on STI-led development.
    • The Science and Technology Act of 2003 provided for the creation of the NCST, which became operational in 2011. The NCST secretariat resulted from a merger of the Department of Science and Technology and the National Research Council.
    • The Act also established a Science and Technology Fund for research financing, though its operationalization faced delays.
    • The NCST has reviewed the Strategic Plan for Science, Technology, and Innovation (2011-2015).
    • The government has introduced fiscal incentives, such as tax breaks, to attract foreign investment, much of which flowed to infrastructure (62%) and the energy sector (33%) in 2012.
    • A National Export Strategy was adopted in 2013 to diversify exports, focusing on clusters like oilseed products, sugarcane products, and manufacturing.
    • Role in Social Development:
      • Science and technology are seen as crucial for addressing key development challenges in Malawi, including improving agricultural productivity, enhancing healthcare delivery, managing natural resources sustainably, and expanding access to education and information.
      • Emphasis is placed on areas like agricultural research, renewable energy technologies, information and communication technologies (ICTs), and biotechnology.
      • Higher education institutions, such as the University of Malawi, Mzuzu University, and the Malawi University of Science and Technology (MUST), play a role in STI research and human capital development, though they often face resource constraints.

      Challenges in building a robust national innovation system include limited funding for R&D, a shortage of skilled researchers and technical personnel, weak linkages between research institutions and industry, and inadequate infrastructure for STI activities.

10.1. Population

Malawi has a population estimated at over 21.2 million people as of 2024 (the English source cites 21,240,689 for 2024, while Indonesian and Vietnamese sources give older figures). The population growth rate is high, estimated at 3.32% according to UN estimates for a prior year (around 2021). This rapid growth places significant pressure on resources and social services. The population is forecast to potentially exceed 47 million by 2050.

Malawi has one of the highest population densities in sub-Saharan Africa. The population is predominantly rural, with around 85% of people living in rural areas, though urbanization is increasing. The age structure is very youthful, with a large proportion of the
population under the age of 15. This presents both a demographic dividend potential and a challenge for providing education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. Population distribution is uneven, with higher densities in the Southern and Central regions compared to the Northern Region.

10.2. Ethnic Groups and Languages

Malawi is home to several indigenous ethnic groups, each with its own distinct cultural characteristics, traditions, and languages. Inter-ethnic relations are generally peaceful, and a sense of Malawian national identity has been growing. The major ethnic groups according to the 2018 census include:

• Chewa: 34.4%
• Lomwe: 18.9%
• Yao: 14.3%
• Tumbuka: 22.2% (Note: some sources list Tumbuka as smaller than Yao or Lomwe; the 2018 census data provided in the English source shows this higher figure. The Japanese source lists Tumbuka as 2nd largest at 22.2% in its chart for 2018 but the text gives 32.6% Chewa. The Indonesian source chart for 1998 showed Tumbuka at 22.8% and Lomwe at 12.5%, Yao 11.1%. There might be variations in how groups are classified or regional demographic shifts.)
• Sena: 3.8%
• Mang'anja: 3.2% (often considered closely related to or part of the Chewa/Nyanja)
• Nyanja: 1.9% (linguistically very close to Chewa)
• Tonga: 1.8%
• Ngonde: 1.0%
• Lambya: 0.6%
• Sukwa: 0.5%
• Others: 1.1%

There are also small populations of Asians (primarily of Indian descent) and Europeans.

Languages:
The official language of Malawi is English, which is used in government, business, and higher education.
Chichewa (also known as Chinyanja) is the national language and is widely spoken throughout the country, particularly in the Central and Southern regions. It is spoken as a mother tongue by over 42% of the population (2018 census) and serves as a lingua franca for many others.
Other major indigenous languages include:

• Chitumbuka: Spoken by about 31.2% (2018 census), primarily in the Northern Region.
• Chiyao: Spoken by about 13.7% (2018 census), mainly in the Southern Region, particularly around the southern end of Lake Malawi.
• Chilomwe: Spoken by the Lomwe people in the southeast.
• Chisena: Spoken by the Sena people in the lower Shire Valley.
• Chitonga: Spoken by the Tonga people in Nkhata Bay District in the north.
• Chinkhonde: Spoken by the Ngonde people in the northern tip.

Numerous other smaller Bantu languages are also spoken. All students in public elementary schools typically receive initial instruction in Chichewa, while English becomes the medium of instruction in later primary years and secondary school. Private schools following American or British curricula may use English as the medium of instruction from an earlier stage.

10.3. Religion

Malawi is a predominantly Christian country, with a significant Muslim minority and adherence to traditional indigenous beliefs also present.
According to the 2018 census and government surveys:

• Christianity: Approximately 77.3% to 87% of the population identifies as Christian.
  • The largest Christian denominations are the Roman Catholic Church (around 19% of Malawians) and the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian (CCAP), to which about 18% belong. The CCAP is the largest Protestant denomination.
  • Other Protestant groups include smaller Presbyterian denominations (like the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Malawi and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church of Malawi), Anglicans, Baptists, evangelicals, Seventh-day Adventists, and Lutherans.
• Islam: Approximately 11.6% to 13.8% of the population is Muslim. Most Muslims are Sunni, belonging to either the Qadriya or Sukkutu (likely a local variant or group) Sufi orders. A smaller number follow the Ahmadiyya movement. Islam is more prevalent in the Southern Region, particularly along the shores of Lake Malawi and among the Yao people.
• Traditional African Religions: About 1.1% explicitly identify with traditional beliefs, though many Christians and Muslims may integrate some traditional practices and beliefs into their faith.
• Other Religions or None: Around 7.8% belong to other religious groups or profess no religion. This includes Jehovah's Witnesses (over 100,000 members), The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (over 2,000 members), the Rastafari movement, Hindus (mainly among the Asian community), and the Baháʼí Faith (around 0.2%). Atheists or those with no religious affiliation make up a small percentage.

Religious freedom is constitutionally guaranteed and generally respected. Religious organizations often play a significant role in providing education and healthcare services in Malawi.

10.4. Education

Education in Malawi has seen progress but faces significant challenges. The government has prioritized education as a key sector for development.

• Structure: The education system generally comprises eight years of primary education, four years of secondary education, and four years of university education (8-4-4 system).
• Primary Education: In 1994, the government introduced Free Primary Education (FPE) for all Malawian children, which significantly increased enrollment rates (from 58% in 1992 to 75% in 2007). The Revised Education Act of 2012 made primary education compulsory. The percentage of students starting standard one and completing standard five increased from 64% in 1992 to 86% in 2006. However, challenges remain, including overcrowded classrooms, a shortage of qualified teachers, inadequate learning materials, and high dropout rates, particularly for girls and in rural areas.
• Secondary Education: Access to secondary education is more limited, with attendance rates around 25%. Fees, distance to schools, and socio-cultural factors contribute to lower enrollment and completion rates at this level, especially for girls.
• Higher Education: Malawi has several public universities, including the University of Malawi (UNIMA, established in 1964 with campuses like Chancellor College in Zomba), Mzuzu University (MZUNI, established in 1999), Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (LUANAR), and the Malawi University of Science and Technology (MUST). There are also private universities, such as Livingstonia University, Malawi Lakeview University, and the Catholic University of Malawi. Entry into public universities is competitive, requiring six credits on the Malawi School Certificate of Education (MSCE), equivalent to O-levels.
• Literacy: Youth literacy (ages 15-24) increased from 68% in 2000 to 75% in 2015. The overall adult literacy rate was estimated at 62.7% in 2003 (76.1% for males, 49.8% for females), indicating a gender gap.
• Challenges and Reforms: Key challenges include inadequate funding, insufficient infrastructure, large class sizes, a shortage of teachers (especially in science and mathematics), and the need to improve the quality and relevance of education. Educational reforms focus on improving access, equity, quality, and efficiency at all levels. The government has invested a significant portion of its GDP in education (around 5.8% in 2003). Improved learning materials, better infrastructure, and school feeding programs have been attributed to some of the progress seen.

10.5. Health

Malawi faces significant public health challenges, reflected in its major health indicators, though progress has been made in some areas.

• Health Indicators: Life expectancy at birth is relatively low, around 50-60 years (figures vary by source and year; e.g., 50.03 years from one source, women's life expectancy rose from 58 in 2010 to 66 in 2017). Infant mortality and under-five mortality rates are high but have been declining. The maternal mortality rate also remains high, although some sources note it as particularly low compared to countries at similar development levels, which seems contradictory and needs careful sourcing (one source indicates Malawi is "performing dismally" on reducing maternal mortality).
• Healthcare System: Malawi has a pluralistic healthcare system with central hospitals, regional hospitals, district hospitals, health centers, and private facilities. The public sector provides free health services and medicines at the point of care, but facilities are often under-resourced and understaffed. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), including faith-based organizations, play a crucial role in healthcare delivery, often charging fees. Private doctors and hospitals offer fee-based services. Health insurance schemes have been established since 2000 but coverage is limited. The country has a small pharmaceutical manufacturing industry with four privately owned companies. Major health facilities include Blantyre Adventist Hospital, Mwaiwathu Private Hospital, and Kamuzu Central Hospital.
• Major Health Issues:
  • HIV/AIDS: Malawi has a high adult prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS (estimated at 9.1% of the population living with the disease in 2015, or around 980,000 adults). It is a leading cause of death and has resulted in a large number of orphans (over half a million in 2015). The epidemic has significantly impacted the labor force and increased government expenditure. However, access to antiretroviral therapy (ART) has expanded, leading to improved survival rates.
  • Malaria: Malaria is endemic and a major cause of morbidity and mortality, especially among children under five and pregnant women. An estimated 6 million people contract malaria annually.
  • Other Infectious Diseases: There is a high risk of other infectious diseases, including bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever, plague, schistosomiasis (bilharzia, particularly from Lake Malawi), and rabies. Tuberculosis is also a significant concern, often co-occurring with HIV.
  • Malnutrition: Chronic malnutrition, particularly stunting in children, is widespread.
• Public Health Policies: Focus on improving access to primary healthcare, maternal and child health services, disease prevention and control (especially for HIV/AIDS, malaria, and TB), and strengthening the health system. Challenges include inadequate funding, a shortage of healthcare professionals (doctors, nurses), and logistical issues in delivering services, especially to rural areas. There were only 260 specialist doctors in 2011 for a population of 15 million.
• Reproductive Health: Abortion is illegal except to save the mother's life. The Penal Code imposes severe penalties for illegal abortions. Female genital mutilation (FGM) is not widespread but is practiced in some local communities.

Progress has been made in decreasing child mortality and the incidence of HIV/AIDS and malaria, but reducing maternal mortality and promoting gender equality in health remain significant challenges.

10.6. Women

The social status and rights of women in Malawi have seen some progress, but significant disparities and challenges persist across various aspects of life.

• Education: While access to primary education for girls is roughly on par with boys at initial enrollment, female students experience consistent declines in attendance and completion rates as age increases, particularly at secondary and tertiary levels. Factors contributing to this include poverty, early marriage, teenage pregnancy, household responsibilities, and socio-cultural norms.
• Health: Women's life expectancy has improved (from approximately 58 in 2010 to 66 in 2017). However, Malawi faces a high maternal mortality rate, although one source notes it as comparatively low for its development level, which requires careful interpretation. Access to quality maternal healthcare, family planning services, and reproductive health information remains a challenge, especially in rural areas. Gender-based violence, including sexual violence, is a significant health concern for women.
• Economic Participation: A higher percentage of the male population is formally employed. While a large number of women are engaged in the informal sector and agriculture, they often face more significant barriers to economic empowerment, including limited access to land, credit, and markets. Wage gaps between men and women persist. Malawi scored 0.664 on the World Economic Forum's Global Gender Gap Report (0-1 scale, where 1 is full equality) in 2020, while Rwanda, a high-ranking sub-Saharan state, scored 0.791.
• Political Involvement: Women's participation in national politics is weaker than men's, often due to cultural stereotypes, limited access to resources, and gatekeeping within political parties. While the national parliament has appointed female members and over 20% of parliamentary seats are held by women (as of one report), achieving greater representation and influence in decision-making bodies remains a goal. Joyce Banda served as Malawi's first female president (2012-2014).
• Rights and Legal Protections: Inheritance rights are legally equal for children and surviving spouses regardless of gender. However, customary practices can sometimes disadvantage women. Laws addressing gender equality and combating violence against women have been enacted, but implementation and enforcement can be weak. Child marriage was historically prevalent, but the legal age of marriage was raised to 18 in 2015.
• Challenges: Women in Malawi continue to face challenges such as high rates of poverty, vulnerability to HIV/AIDS, limited decision-making power within households and communities, and the burden of caregiving. Harmful traditional practices exist in some communities.

Policies and programs by the government and civil society organizations aim to address these gender disparities and promote women's empowerment in line with national and international commitments.

10.7. Food Security and Hunger

Food security is a persistent and critical issue in Malawi, with a large portion of the population, particularly in rural areas, experiencing chronic or seasonal food shortages and hunger.

• Extent of the Problem: Malawi frequently faces food crises, often exacerbated by adverse weather conditions such as droughts and floods, which severely impact agricultural production, especially of the staple food, maize. The Global Hunger Index (GHI) for 2024 indicates a score of 21.9 for Malawi, categorized as a "serious" level of hunger, ranking it 93rd out of 127 countries. Many households, particularly smallholder farming families, experience a "hunger season" in the months leading up to the main harvest (typically January to March).
• Underlying Causes:
  • Poverty: Widespread poverty limits households' ability to purchase food, even when it is available in markets.
  • Reliance on Rain-fed Agriculture: Over 80% of agriculture is rain-fed, making it highly vulnerable to climate variability and change.
  • Small Landholdings: Increasing population pressure has led to diminishing farm sizes, making it difficult for families to produce enough food for subsistence and sale.
  • Limited Crop Diversification: Heavy reliance on maize as the staple crop increases vulnerability. When maize harvests fail, food security is severely compromised.
  • Environmental Degradation: Deforestation and soil erosion reduce agricultural productivity.
  • Economic Factors: High prices for agricultural inputs (like fertilizer and seeds), limited access to credit and markets, and post-harvest losses also contribute to food insecurity.
  • Health Issues: HIV/AIDS has impacted agricultural labor and household productivity.
• Impact on Vulnerable Populations: Food insecurity and hunger disproportionately affect vulnerable groups, including children (leading to malnutrition and stunting, which have long-term health and developmental consequences), pregnant and lactating women, the elderly, and households headed by women or those affected by HIV/AIDS.
• National and International Efforts:
  • The Malawian government has implemented various programs aimed at improving food security, most notably agricultural input subsidy programs (like FISP and AIP) designed to boost maize production.
  • Promotion of crop diversification (e.g., drought-tolerant crops like cassava and sorghum), irrigation development, and improved post-harvest management are also key strategies.
  • Social protection programs, such as cash transfers and food-for-work initiatives, are used to support food-insecure households, especially during lean seasons or crises.
  • International organizations like the World Food Programme (WFP), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and various NGOs play a crucial role in providing food assistance, nutritional support, and technical expertise to address food shortages and build resilience.

  Despite these efforts, achieving sustainable food security for all Malawians remains a major development challenge, requiring integrated approaches that address agricultural productivity, poverty reduction, climate resilience, and nutritional well-being.

11.1. Traditional Arts and Crafts

Traditional Malawian art forms are diverse and hold significant cultural meaning.

• Wood Carving: This is a prominent art form, with artisans creating intricate masks, figurines, chairs, and other objects. Masks, often used in traditional dances and ceremonies like the Gule Wamkulu of the Chewa people, are particularly famous. Carvings often depict human figures, animals, or scenes from daily life and folklore.
• Basketry: Using natural materials like reeds, grasses, and palm leaves, Malawians produce a variety of baskets, mats, hats, and other woven items. These are both functional for household use and sold as crafts.
• Textiles: Traditional textiles include printed fabrics known as chitenje, which are widely worn by women as wraps, skirts, or head coverings, often featuring vibrant colors and patterns. Weaving and dyeing techniques are also part of the textile tradition.
• Pottery: Clay pottery for cooking, storage, and water carrying is a traditional craft, though its use has declined with the availability of modern alternatives.
• Beadwork: Beadwork is used to create jewelry and adorn clothing and other items.

These crafts are not only integral to cultural expression but also provide a source of income for many artisans, particularly in tourist areas and urban centers. Oil painting has also become popular in urban centers, with many items sold to tourists.

11.2. Music and Dance

Music and dance are central to Malawian cultural life and are performed at various social and ceremonial occasions, including initiation rites, rituals, marriage ceremonies, and celebrations.

• Traditional Music: Each ethnic group has its own distinct musical traditions, rhythms, and instruments. Common traditional instruments include various types of drums (e.g., ng'oma), xylophones (valimba or ulimba), rattles, and stringed instruments like the bangwe (a type of zither or board lute) and musical bows. Vocal music, often featuring call-and-response patterns and complex harmonies, is also prominent.
• Traditional Dance: Dance is an integral part of Malawian culture, often conveying stories, social messages, or spiritual beliefs.
  • Gule Wamkulu (Great Dance) of the Chewa is a secret society and ritual dance performed by masked men, representing various spirits and characters. It is recognized by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
  • Other ethnic groups like the Tumbuka, Yao, and Lomwe have their own distinctive dances, such as the Vimbuza healing dance of the Tumbuka, Ingoma war dances of the Ngoni, and Tchopa of the Lomwe.
• Contemporary Music: Modern Malawian music blends traditional rhythms and melodies with influences from other African countries (like Congolese rumba and South African jazz) and international genres (such as reggae, gospel, and hip hop). Popular contemporary artists and genres have emerged, and gospel music enjoys widespread popularity. The National Dance Troupe (formerly the Kwacha Cultural Troupe), formed in 1987, promotes and performs traditional Malawian music and dance.

11.3. Cuisine

Malawian cuisine is centered around a few staple ingredients, with regional variations and local delicacies.

• Nsima: This is the cornerstone of the Malawian diet. It is a thick porridge or stiff paste made from maize (corn) flour, cooked with water until it forms a firm consistency. Nsima is typically eaten with the hands and served with one or more side dishes known as ndiwo (relish). It is commonly eaten for lunch and dinner. Sorghum or cassava flour can also be used to make nsima.
• Ndiwo (Relish): These are the accompaniments to nsima and can vary widely. Common ndiwo include:
  • Vegetables: Cooked leafy greens (like pumpkin leaves, bean leaves, mustard greens), tomatoes, onions, and beans.
  • Meat: Chicken, goat, and beef are popular, though often consumed less frequently due to cost.
  • Fish: Fish from Lake Malawi is a very important part of the diet, especially for communities near the lake. Popular fish include chambo (a type of tilapia, often considered a national dish), usipa (small, sardine-like fish, often dried), and mpasa (lake salmon). Fish is prepared in various ways, including grilled, fried, or cooked in a stew.
• Other Foods: Rice, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and cassava are also consumed. Groundnuts (peanuts) are widely used, often made into a sauce or eaten roasted. Fruits like mangoes, bananas, and papayas are common. In some areas, insects (like termites or grasshoppers) and field mice are considered delicacies.
• Beverages: Tea is a popular beverage, as Malawi is a tea-producing country. Locally brewed traditional beers (like chibuku, made from maize or sorghum) are common, as are commercially produced beers and soft drinks.

11.4. Sports

Sports play an important role in Malawian society, both for recreation and national pride.

• Football (Soccer): This is by far the most popular sport in Malawi, introduced during British colonial rule. The Malawi national football team, known as "The Flames," competes in regional and continental tournaments. While they have not yet qualified for a FIFA World Cup, they have made three appearances in the Africa Cup of Nations, notably reaching the Round of 16 in the 2021 edition. The domestic league, the Malawi Premier Division (founded in 1986), features teams like Mighty Wanderers, Nyasa Big Bullets, Silver Strikers, Blue Eagles, and Civo Sporting (now Civil Service United). Moyale Barracks and Mighty Tigers are also notable teams.
• Netball: Malawi has achieved significant international success in netball. The Malawi national netball team, known as "The Queens," is consistently ranked among the top teams in the world (ranked 6th as of March 2021). Netball is very popular among women and girls. Several Malawian netball players compete in professional leagues internationally.
• Athletics: Track and field events are practiced, though international success has been limited.
• Basketball: Basketball is growing in popularity, particularly in urban areas and among youth, but the national team has yet to participate in major international competitions.
• Other Sports: Other sports played in Malawi include volleyball, boxing, and traditional games.

Malawi participates in international multi-sport events like the Olympic Games and the Commonwealth Games, though it has yet to win an Olympic medal.

11.5. Literature

Malawian literature encompasses both rich oral traditions and a developing body of written works in English and Chichewa.

• Oral Traditions: Storytelling, proverbs, myths, legends, and praise poetry have long been integral to Malawian cultures, passed down through generations. These traditions often serve to educate, entertain, and reinforce social values.
• Modern Literature: Written Malawian literature began to emerge more prominently in the post-colonial era. Key themes often explore the impact of colonialism, the challenges of independence, social and political issues, cultural identity, and rural life.
  • Notable Malawian writers include:
    • Jack Mapanje: A renowned poet whose work often critically addressed political oppression during the Banda era, leading to his imprisonment without trial.
    • Paul Tiyambe Zeleza: A historian, fiction writer, and literary critic whose works cover a wide range of African and diasporic themes.
    • Legson Kayira: Known for his autobiographical novel "I Will Try," which recounts his remarkable journey on foot from Malawi to Khartoum to seek education in America.
    • David Rubadiri: A diplomat, poet, and novelist, considered one of the pioneers of Anglophone African literature.
    • Steve Chimombo: A versatile writer of poetry, plays, and fiction, often drawing on Malawian mythology and oral traditions.
    • Frank Chipasula: Another significant poet whose work often reflects on social and political themes.
  • The development of Malawian literature has been supported by institutions like the University of Malawi and local publishing initiatives, though the publishing industry faces challenges. Literary trends include a focus on realism, social commentary, and an increasing exploration of contemporary issues.

11.6. Mass Media

The mass media landscape in Malawi has evolved significantly since the transition to democracy, with an increase in media outlets and greater, though sometimes challenged, freedom of expression.

• Newspapers: Several daily and weekly newspapers are published in English and Chichewa. Prominent titles include The Nation, The Daily Times, and online news outlets like Nyasa Times (based in the UK and Blantyre) and Malawi24. Newspapers play a crucial role in disseminating information and providing a platform for public discourse and political commentary.
• Radio: Radio remains the most accessible and widely used mass medium in Malawi, particularly in rural areas. The state-owned Malawi Broadcasting Corporation (MBC) operates radio services. Numerous private and community radio stations have also been established, offering diverse programming, including news, music, educational content, and religious broadcasts.
• Television: Television Malawi, also run by MBC, is the national public broadcaster. The number of private television stations has grown, with about 20 TV stations available on the country's digital network (MDBNL) by 2016. Access to television is more common in urban areas.
• Internet: Internet penetration has been increasing but is still relatively low compared to other regions, mainly due to costs and infrastructure limitations. Mobile internet is the primary means of access for many. Social media platforms are increasingly used for communication and information sharing, especially among the youth and urban populations.
• Media Freedom and Regulation: The Malawi Communications Regulatory Authority (MACRA) is responsible for regulating the broadcasting and telecommunications sectors. While the constitution guarantees freedom of expression and the press, there have been instances where journalists and media houses have faced pressure or intimidation, particularly when critical of the government. Issues such as media ownership, professionalism, and sustainability are ongoing topics of discussion. Organizations like the Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA) Malawi advocate for media freedom and ethical journalism.

11.7. World Heritage Sites

Malawi is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, recognized for their outstanding universal value:

• Lake Malawi National Park:
  • Inscription Date: 1984
  • Category: Natural Heritage
  • Value: This was the first freshwater national park in the world to be declared a World Heritage Site. It is located at the southern end of Lake Malawi and was primarily established to protect the lake's unique biodiversity, especially its incredible diversity of fish. Lake Malawi is home to hundreds of species of cichlid fish, the vast majority of which are endemic (found nowhere else in the world). This makes the lake a crucial site for the study of evolution, particularly adaptive radiation. The park encompasses a land area around Cape Maclear, several islands, and the surrounding waters.
  • Chongoni Rock Art Area:
    • Inscription Date: 2006
    • Category: Cultural Heritage
    • Value: Located in the Central Region of Malawi, this site comprises 127 rock shelters and outcrops featuring a rich concentration of rock art. The paintings represent a long tradition, with some attributed to BaTwa hunter-gatherer communities dating back to the Late Stone Age, and others to Chewa agriculturalists from the Late Iron Age up to the 20th century. The Chewa paintings are particularly associated with women's initiation ceremonies, rain-making rituals, and funerary rites, providing valuable insights into their beliefs and social practices. The art forms a living cultural tradition, as some sites are still used for ceremonies.

    These sites highlight Malawi's significant natural and cultural heritage, attracting tourists and researchers and emphasizing the need for their conservation.

11.8. Public Holidays

Malawi observes several national public holidays that reflect its history, culture, and religious traditions. Some of the major public holidays include:

• January 1: New Year's Day
• January 15: John Chilembwe Day
  • Commemorates John Chilembwe, a Baptist pastor and educator who led an uprising against British colonial rule in 1915. He is considered a key figure in the early nationalist movement.
• March 3: Martyrs' Day
  • Honors those who died during the struggle for independence from British colonial rule, particularly those killed during the state of emergency in 1959.
• Good Friday: (Date varies, March/April)
  • Christian holiday observing the crucifixion of Jesus Christ.
• Easter Monday: (Date varies, March/April)
  • Christian holiday following Easter Sunday.
• May 1: Labour Day
• May 14: Kamuzu Day
  • Celebrates the official birthday of Malawi's first president, Hastings Kamuzu Banda.
• July 6: Independence Day
  • Marks Malawi's independence from British rule in 1964. This is a major national celebration.
• Second Monday in October (or October 15 in some sources): Mother's Day
  • The Japanese source lists October 15 and connects it to the International Day of Rural Women. Dates for Mother's Day can vary.
• Eid al-Fitr: (Date varies according to the Islamic lunar calendar)
  • Muslim holiday marking the end of Ramadan.
• December 25: Christmas Day
  • Christian holiday celebrating the birth of Jesus Christ.
• December 26: Boxing Day

It's important to note that if a public holiday falls on a weekend, the following Monday may be declared a public holiday. The exact list and dates can sometimes be subject to official government announcements.