Guinea-Bissau

3.1. Pre-colonial period

The pre-colonial history of Guinea-Bissau is characterized by diverse indigenous societies, the rise and fall of influential regional empires like the Kaabu Empire, and the presence of various local kingdoms and polities such as those of Bissau, the Biafada, and the Bijagos. These entities had complex social structures, trade networks, and varying degrees of political centralization.

3.1.2. Kaabu Empire

The Kaabu Empire, also known as Gabu, was a significant Mandinka kingdom that dominated much of present-day Guinea-Bissau and parts of Senegal and Gambia from the 16th to the 19th century. It originated as a province of the Mali Empire following the conquest of the Senegambia region in the 13th century by Tiramakhan Traore, a general under Sundiata Keita. By the 14th century, much of Guinea-Bissau was under Malian administration, ruled by a farim kaabu (commander of Kaabu).

As the Mali Empire declined from the 14th century, Kaabu asserted its independence by the early 16th century, becoming an independent federation of kingdoms. The ruling classes were composed of elite warriors known as the Nyancho (Ñaanco), who traced their patrilineal lineage to Tiramakhan Traore. The Nyancho were a warrior culture, renowned as excellent cavalrymen and raiders. The Mansaba (king) of Kaabu was based in Kansala, near modern-day Gabú in eastern Guinea-Bissau.

The economy of Kaabu became heavily reliant on the Atlantic slave trade, with warrior classes accumulating wealth through the exchange of enslaved people for imported goods like cloth, beads, metalware, and firearms. An estimated 700 slaves were exported annually from the region during the 17th and 18th centuries, many originating from Kaabu. Trade networks with Arabs and North Africa, dominant until the 14th century, were increasingly supplemented by coastal trade with Europeans from the 15th century onwards.

In the late 18th century, the rise of the Imamate of Futa Jallon to the east posed a formidable challenge to the animist Kaabu. Throughout the first half of the 19th century, civil war erupted as local Fula populations, influenced by Islamic jihads, sought independence from Kaabu rule. This long-running conflict culminated in the Battle of Kansala in 1867, where the Fuladu forces effectively defeated Kaabu, leading to its decline and eventual absorption into Portuguese colonial territories, although some smaller Mandinka kingdoms survived for a period.

3.2. European arrival and Portuguese Guinea

The arrival of Europeans, particularly the Portuguese, from the 15th century onwards marked a profound turning point for the region. This era saw the establishment of trading posts, the devastating impact of the Atlantic slave trade, and the eventual consolidation of Portuguese colonial rule, transforming the socio-economic landscape and leading to prolonged resistance from local populations.

3.2.1. Early European exploration and trade (15th-18th centuries)

The first Europeans to reach the coast of what is now Guinea-Bissau were Venetian explorer Alvise Cadamosto in 1455, and Portuguese explorers Diogo Gomes in 1456 and Duarte Pacheco Pereira in the 1480s. The Flemish explorer Eustache de la Fosse also visited in 1479-1480. Portugal claimed the region, which became an important part of their burgeoning maritime empire.

Initially, Portuguese authorities discouraged settlement on the mainland, but this was largely ignored by lançados and tangomãos - Portuguese and Luso-African traders, adventurers, and exiled individuals who often assimilated into indigenous cultures and customs. They operated independently, often defying Portuguese trade regulations that banned unauthorized entry, trade without royal license, use of unauthorized ports, or assimilation into native communities.

From 1520, trade and settlements on the mainland increased, populated by Portuguese and native traders, as well as some Spanish, Genoese, English, French, and Dutch individuals. Key trading posts were established at Cacheu, Bissau, and Guinala. Trading centers like Toubaboudougou also emerged at the fall lines of major rivers, the furthest navigable points. These posts traded directly with interior peoples for goods such as gum arabic, ivory, hides, civet, dyes, enslaved Africans, and gold. Local African rulers generally resisted European penetration into the interior to maintain their control over trade routes.

Disputes between European traders and local societies became more frequent and serious in the late 1500s as traders sought to exert greater influence. Portugal's trade monopoly was increasingly challenged. After the Iberian Union (1580-1640) unified the crowns of Portugal and Spain, Spain's enemies attacked Portuguese possessions. French, Dutch, and English ships increasingly traded directly with native populations and the independent-minded lançados.

In the early 17th century, the Portuguese government attempted to centralize Guinean trade through Santiago (Cape Verde) and promote mainland settlement while restricting arms sales to locals, but these efforts were largely unsuccessful. After the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, King João IV tried to curtail Spanish trade in Guinea. However, Afro-Portuguese traders and colonists, reliant on European goods, could not deny the free trade demanded by African kings. The Portuguese were never able to maintain the desired monopoly, as the economic interests of native leaders and Afro-European traders often diverged from theirs. During this period, the Mali Empire's influence waned, and local rulers, including the farim of Kaabu and the king of Kassa, began asserting more independence.

In the early 1700s, the Portuguese temporarily abandoned Bissau and retreated to Cacheu after the captain-major was captured and killed by a local king, only returning in the 1750s. The Cacheu and Cape Verde Company ceased operations in 1706. In the 1790s, the British made a brief, unsuccessful attempt to establish a foothold on Bolama Island.

3.2.3. Portuguese colonization and administration (19th-early 20th century)

Until the late 19th century, Portuguese control over their "colony" of Portuguese Guinea was largely confined to coastal forts and trading posts, a presence often described as tenuous. The interior remained largely autonomous under local rulers. The Scramble for Africa in the latter half of the 19th century intensified European colonial competition in the region.

A dispute with Great Britain over Bolama Island was resolved in Portugal's favor in 1870 through the mediation of U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant. However, French encroachment on Portuguese-claimed territories continued, leading to the cession of the Casamance region (now part of Senegal) to France in 1886. In 1879, Portuguese Guinea was administratively separated from Cape Verde and became a distinct colony.

The early 20th century saw Portugal embark on "pacification campaigns" to solidify its sovereignty over the mainland and interior. These campaigns were often brutal and met with fierce resistance from local populations. The final Portuguese military victory over the last major bastion of mainland resistance occurred in 1915 with the conquest of the Papel-ruled Kingdom of Bissau by Portuguese military officer Teixeira Pinto and the Wolof mercenary Abdul Injai. However, resistance continued in various forms. The Bissagos Islands, located off the coast, proved particularly difficult to subdue and were only officially declared "pacified" and fully under Portuguese control in 1936.

Portuguese colonial administration was characterized by underinvestment, limited infrastructure development outside of key strategic areas, and an economic system geared towards resource extraction for the benefit of the metropole. Education and healthcare for the indigenous population were severely neglected. The imposition of forced labor and discriminatory policies fueled resentment and laid the groundwork for future nationalist movements.

3.3. Struggle for Independence

The struggle for independence in Guinea-Bissau was a defining period, marked by the rise of nationalist movements, the charismatic leadership of Amílcar Cabral, and a protracted armed conflict led by the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) against Portuguese colonial rule. This struggle ultimately led to the unilateral declaration of independence and significantly impacted the course of decolonization in Africa.

3.3.2. War of Independence (1963-1973)

After years of planning and preparation, the PAIGC launched the Guinea-Bissau War of Independence on January 23, 1963, with an attack on the Portuguese barracks in Tite, south of Bissau. Unlike guerrilla movements in other Portuguese colonies in Africa, the PAIGC achieved remarkable success early on. Aided by the dense jungle terrain, easy access to borders with allied neighbors (Guinea and Senegal), and substantial military and material support from Cuba, China, the Soviet Union, and several African nations, the PAIGC rapidly extended its control over large portions of the territory.

The PAIGC's strategy involved not only military confrontation but also the establishment of alternative social, political, and economic structures in the liberated zones. They created schools, health clinics, and people's stores, effectively building a state within a state. By the late 1960s, the PAIGC controlled about two-thirds of the countryside. The Portuguese military, despite deploying tens of thousands of troops and employing counter-insurgency tactics, found it increasingly difficult to contain the insurgency. The PAIGC even managed to acquire sophisticated weaponry, including anti-aircraft missiles, which helped to neutralize Portuguese air superiority to some extent.

A major setback for the independence movement occurred on January 20, 1973, when Amílcar Cabral was assassinated in Conakry by dissident PAIGC members, an act widely believed to have been orchestrated or exploited by the Portuguese secret police, PIDE. Despite this loss, the PAIGC, under the leadership of Aristides Pereira (who later became the first president of Cape Verde) and Luís Cabral, continued the struggle.

On September 24, 1973, following elections for a National People's Assembly in the liberated zones, the PAIGC unilaterally declared the independence of Guinea-Bissau in the village of Madina do Boé. This declaration was quickly recognized by numerous UN member states. The ongoing colonial wars, including the one in Guinea-Bissau, were a significant drain on Portugal's resources and a major factor leading to the Carnation Revolution on April 25, 1974, which overthrew the dictatorial regime in Lisbon. The new Portuguese government promptly initiated decolonization processes, and Portugal officially recognized Guinea-Bissau's independence on September 10, 1974.

3.4. Post-Independence era

The period following Guinea-Bissau's hard-won independence has been characterized by persistent political instability, economic hardship, and recurrent challenges to democratic governance and human rights. The initial optimism of liberation gave way to a complex reality of internal power struggles, military interventions, and societal fragility, significantly impacting the nation's development.

3.4.1. Early years and PAIGC rule (1973-1980)

Following the unilateral declaration of independence on September 24, 1973 (now celebrated as Independence Day), and formal recognition by Portugal on September 10, 1974, Luís Cabral, half-brother of the assassinated Amílcar Cabral and co-founder of the PAIGC, became the first President of Guinea-Bissau. The PAIGC established a one-party state, aligning with socialist ideals and receiving support from Eastern Bloc countries and non-aligned nations. Nicolae Ceaușescu's Romania was the first country to formally recognise Guinea-Bissau and sign agreements with PAIGC.

The early years were marked by efforts at nation-building and post-war reconstruction. The new government faced enormous challenges, including a devastated economy, a lack of skilled personnel, and the need to unify a diverse population. Initial progress was made in areas like education, with the establishment of a system for universal school access, free books, and encouragement for girls' education. A new school calendar adapted to rural life was adopted. The national anthem, Esta É a Nossa Pátria Bem Amada (This Is Our Beloved Homeland), was adopted, initially shared with Cape Verde, which PAIGC also governed after its independence in 1975, with the goal of eventual unification of the two nations.

However, economic conditions deteriorated significantly by the late 1970s, leading to widespread discontent. Tensions also arose within the PAIGC, partly due to perceptions of dominance by Cape Verdean elements within the party and government, and concerns over authoritarian tendencies and human rights abuses under Luís Cabral's administration.

3.4.4. 21st century: Continued instability and recent developments

The 21st century in Guinea-Bissau has been characterized by continued political instability, including further coups, assassinations, and the pervasive influence of drug trafficking, which has turned the country into a significant transit point for cocaine from Latin America to Europe, further corrupting state institutions and undermining governance.

Kumba Ialá's presidency (2000-2003) was marked by erratic governance and economic difficulties. In September 2003, he was overthrown in a military coup led by General Veríssimo Correia Seabra. A transitional government organized legislative elections in 2004. In October 2004, a mutiny by soldiers over unpaid wages resulted in the death of General Seabra.

Former President João Bernardo Vieira returned from exile and won the presidential election in 2005. His second term was also plagued by instability. In November 2008, Vieira survived an attack on his residence by members of the armed forces. However, on March 2, 2009, President Vieira was assassinated by soldiers, reportedly in retaliation for the killing of the chief of staff of the armed forces, General Batista Tagme Na Waie, in a bomb explosion the previous day.

Malam Bacai Sanhá won the subsequent presidential election in June 2009. President Sanhá died in office from illness in January 2012. During the ensuing presidential election period, on April 12, 2012, another military coup occurred, derailing the democratic process. Interim President Raimundo Pereira and leading presidential candidate Carlos Gomes Júnior were arrested. General Mamadu Ture Kuruma assumed control during a transitional period.

José Mário Vaz was elected president in the 2014 general election and became the first president since independence to complete a full five-year term, although his tenure was marked by political infighting and frequent changes of prime minister. He was eliminated in the first round of the 2019 presidential election.

Umaro Sissoco Embaló emerged as the victor in the 2019 election and took office in February 2020, becoming the first president elected without the backing of the PAIGC. However, his presidency has also faced challenges. On February 1, 2022, an attempted coup d'état against President Embaló resulted in several deaths. The African Union and ECOWAS condemned the attempt. Days later, on February 7, 2022, Rádio Capital FM, a station critical of the government, was attacked. In 2022, President Embaló visited Ukraine, meeting President Volodymyr Zelenskyy amidst the Russian invasion. In December 2023, another reported coup attempt led Embaló to dissolve the opposition-controlled parliament. On September 11, 2024, President Embaló announced he would not seek a second term in the presidential elections scheduled for November 2025.

These recurrent crises highlight the deep-seated problems of governance, military interference in politics, and the struggle to consolidate democratic institutions and the rule of law in Guinea-Bissau, all of which significantly impact human rights and social stability.

4.1. Topography and terrain

The terrain of Guinea-Bissau is predominantly low-lying coastal plain, with an average elevation of less than 328 ft ^{(100 m)} above sea level. The landscape is characterized by extensive swamps of Guinean mangroves, particularly along the deeply indented coastline and estuaries of its numerous rivers, including the Cacheu, Mansôa, Geba, and Corubal. These rivers are tidal for considerable distances inland.
Further east, the terrain gradually rises to form the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, a transitional zone of savanna and woodland. The highest point in the country is Monte Torin, with an elevation of 860 ft ^{(262 m)}, located in the southeastern part of the country, near the border with Guinea. The country is home to two ecoregions: the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic and Guinean mangroves.

4.2. Climate

Guinea-Bissau has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw), characterized by high temperatures and humidity throughout the year, with distinct wet and dry seasons. The climate is warm all year round with mild temperature fluctuations; it averages 79.34 °F ^{(26.3 °C)}.

The rainy season, influenced by the West African monsoon, typically lasts from June to September or October. During this period, the country receives the vast majority of its annual precipitation. The average annual rainfall in the capital, Bissau, is around 0.1 K in ^{(2.02 K mm)}, with coastal areas generally receiving more rain than the interior.
The dry season extends from December to April. It is characterized by hot, dry Harmattan winds blowing from the Sahara Desert, which can bring hazy conditions and reduce humidity. Temperatures can be high during this period, though nights may be cooler.

4.3. Bijagos Archipelago

The Bijagos Archipelago (Arquipélago dos Bijagós) is a group of approximately 88 islands and islets located off the mainland coast of Guinea-Bissau. Of these, about 20 are significantly populated. The archipelago is renowned for its exceptional biodiversity and unique cultural heritage. In 1996, it was designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.

The islands vary in size and character, featuring mangrove forests, palm groves, savanna, sandy beaches, and extensive intertidal mudflats. They are home to a rich array of wildlife, including sea turtles (notably the green sea turtle, which uses the islands as a major nesting site in Africa), manatees, dolphins, and numerous species of migratory birds. The archipelago is also known for its unique population of saltwater-adapted hippopotamuses, particularly on Orango Island.

The Bijago people, the indigenous inhabitants of the islands, have a distinct culture with strong traditional beliefs and social structures, including matrilineal systems in some communities. Their culture is deeply connected to the natural environment, and they have maintained many traditional practices, including intricate ceremonies and art forms. The relative isolation of the islands has helped preserve both their ecological and cultural distinctiveness.

4.4. Environmental issues

Guinea-Bissau faces several significant environmental challenges that threaten its natural resources and the livelihoods of its population. These issues are often exacerbated by poverty, political instability, and limited institutional capacity for environmental management.

Deforestation is a major concern, driven by slash-and-burn agriculture, unsustainable logging for timber and fuel (charcoal production), and clearing for cashew plantations. This leads to loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, and disruption of hydrological cycles.

Soil erosion results from deforestation and unsustainable agricultural practices, particularly in the inland savanna regions. The loss of topsoil reduces agricultural productivity and can lead to desertification in some areas.

Coastal erosion is an increasing threat, particularly for the low-lying coastal plains and the Bijagos Archipelago, exacerbated by sea-level rise associated with climate change. Mangrove degradation, due to over-harvesting and changes in freshwater flow, also contributes to coastal vulnerability.

Overfishing in Guinea-Bissau's rich coastal waters is a serious problem, driven by both industrial foreign fleets and unregulated local fishing. This depletes fish stocks, threatens marine biodiversity, and impacts the livelihoods of local fishing communities. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) is prevalent.

Loss of biodiversity is a consequence of habitat destruction (deforestation, mangrove degradation), overexploitation of resources (overfishing, poaching), and pollution. The unique ecosystems of the Bijagos Archipelago are particularly vulnerable.

Other environmental concerns include water pollution from agricultural runoff and inadequate sanitation, and the potential impacts of climate change, such as increased frequency of extreme weather events and changes in rainfall patterns, which can affect agriculture and water availability. The country's role as a transit point for drug trafficking also has indirect environmental consequences, as it can undermine governance and divert resources from environmental protection.

5.1. Government structure

The government of Guinea-Bissau operates under a constitution that provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. However, in practice, the military has often exerted significant influence over political affairs.

5.1.1. Executive branch

The executive branch is led by the President, who is the head of state, and the Prime Minister, who is the head of government.
The President is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The President's powers include appointing the Prime Minister (typically the leader of the majority party or coalition in the National People's Assembly), dissolving the Assembly, calling elections, and serving as commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Until José Mário Vaz completed his term in 2019, no president had successfully served a full five-year term since independence.
The Prime Minister, along with the Council of Ministers (cabinet), is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the government and implementation of laws. The relationship between the President and the Prime Minister has often been a source of political tension and instability.

5.2. Political parties and elections

Guinea-Bissau has a multi-party system. The two historically dominant political parties are:

• The African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC): The party that led the struggle for independence, it was the sole legal party until 1991 and has remained a major political force.
• The Party for Social Renewal (PRS): Founded by former President Kumba Ialá, it has been a significant opposition party and has also held power.

Numerous other smaller parties exist and often form coalitions. Elections, both presidential and legislative, have been held periodically, but their legitimacy has sometimes been contested, and the outcomes have not always led to stable governance. Electoral processes have been marred by delays, irregularities, and the looming threat of military intervention. International observers have often monitored elections, describing some as calm and organized, while also noting disturbances.

5.3. Foreign relations

Guinea-Bissau follows a foreign policy of non-alignment and seeks cooperative relationships with various countries and international organizations. It is a member of the United Nations (UN), African Union (AU), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), and La Francophonie.

Key bilateral relationships include those with Portugal (the former colonial power), neighboring countries Senegal and Guinea, as well as Brazil, China, and Cuba. France, Angola, Egypt, Nigeria, Libya, and Russia also maintain diplomatic missions in Bissau. ECOWAS has played a significant role in mediating political crises and deploying peacekeeping forces in Guinea-Bissau. The international community, including the UN and the European Union, has been involved in supporting peace-building efforts, security sector reform, and development, although progress has been hampered by persistent instability. The country's reputation has been damaged by its role as a transit hub for international drug trafficking, which has strained relations with some international partners and raised concerns about state complicity. Guinea-Bissau's foreign policy also addresses human rights issues, often under scrutiny from international bodies due to its internal political situation.

5.4. Military

The Armed Forces of Guinea-Bissau (Forças Armadas Revolucionárias do Povo - FARP) consist of an army, navy, air force, and paramilitary forces (including a public order police). A 2019 estimate put the size of the armed forces at around 4,400 personnel. Military spending is less than 2% of GDP.

The military has historically played a highly influential and often disruptive role in Guinea-Bissau's politics, staging numerous coups and mutinies since independence. This interference has been a primary cause of the country's chronic instability and has undermined democratic development. Efforts at security sector reform, often supported by international partners, have aimed to professionalize the armed forces, reduce their size, and subordinate them to civilian control, but these efforts have had limited success.

National security challenges include internal political instability, border security (particularly with the Casamance region of Senegal), maritime security (including combating illegal fishing and drug trafficking), and the influence of organized crime. In 2018, Guinea-Bissau signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

6.1. Regions and sectors

Guinea-Bissau is divided into eight regions (regiões_regions^Portuguese) and one autonomous sector (sector autónomo_{autonomous sector}^Portuguese), which is the capital city of Bissau. The regions are:

• Bafatá
• Biombo
• Bolama (which includes the Bijagos Archipelago)
• Cacheu
• Gabú
• Oio
• Quinara
• Tombali

The autonomous sector is:

• Bissau

These nine first-level divisions are further subdivided into 37 sectors. The sectors represent the second tier of administrative division. Each region and the autonomous sector has its own administrative structure, though local governance capacity is often limited by resource constraints and centralization of power.

6.2. Major cities

The main urban centers in Guinea-Bissau, while modest in size compared to other West African capitals, serve as important administrative, economic, and cultural hubs.

• Bissau: The capital and largest city, located on the Geba River estuary. It is the country's administrative, port, educational, and commercial center. Population is estimated to be around 492,000 (2015).
• Bafatá: Located in the central part of the country, it is the second-largest town and the birthplace of Amílcar Cabral. It serves as an important regional market town. Population around 38,000 (2015).
• Gabú: The largest town in eastern Guinea-Bissau, historically significant as the center of the Kaabu Empire. It is a key trading hub, particularly for livestock and agricultural products from the interior. Population around 48,000 (2015).
• Bissorã: An important town in the Oio Region, with a population of about 29,500 (2015).
• Bolama: Located on Bolama Island in the Bijagos Archipelago, it was the former capital of Portuguese Guinea until 1941. It retains colonial-era architecture but has experienced decline. Population around 16,000 (2015).
• Cacheu: One of the oldest colonial settlements, located in the northwest. It was a major slave trading post. Population around 14,000 (2015).
• Bubaque: The main town in the Bijagos Archipelago, serving as an administrative and transport hub for the islands. Population around 13,000 (2015).
• Catió: A town in the Tombali Region in the south, with a population of about 11,500 (2015).
• Mansôa: A town in the Oio Region, population around 9,000 (2015).
• Buba: Located in the Quinara Region, an important port on the Rio Grande de Buba. Population around 9,000 (2015).

7.1. Overview and key sectors

Guinea-Bissau's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita is among the lowest globally, with more than two-thirds of the population living below the poverty line.
The dominant sector is agriculture, which employs the vast majority of the labor force (around 80%) and contributes significantly to GDP. Key agricultural products include:

• Cashew nuts: Guinea-Bissau is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of raw cashew nuts, which account for the overwhelming majority (around 90%) of its export earnings.
• Peanuts (groundnuts), rice (a staple food, but domestic production often falls short of demand), maize, cassava, and palm kernels are also cultivated.

Fisheries are another important sector, given the country's extensive coastline and rich marine resources, particularly in the Bijagos Archipelago. However, the sector is affected by overfishing and illegal fishing by foreign fleets.
Forestry has potential, but unsustainable logging practices are a concern.
Mining remains largely undeveloped, although there are known deposits of bauxite (in the Boé region) and phosphates. Exploration for offshore petroleum has occurred, but no commercial production has commenced.
The industrial sector is very small, limited to some food processing and light manufacturing. The service sector is also underdeveloped.
The currency is the West African CFA franc, which Guinea-Bissau adopted in 1997, providing some monetary stability by pegging it to the Euro (formerly the French Franc). Guinea-Bissau is a member of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).

7.2. Economic challenges and development

Guinea-Bissau faces a multitude of severe economic challenges:

• Political instability: Frequent coups, changes in government, and lack of rule of law deter investment, disrupt economic activity, and hinder long-term planning and development efforts.
• Poverty and unemployment: Widespread and deep-rooted poverty affects the majority of the population, with high rates of unemployment and underemployment, particularly among youth.
• Dependence on cashews: Over-reliance on a single commodity (cashews) for export earnings makes the economy highly vulnerable to price fluctuations in the global market and to climate-related impacts on harvests.
• Infrastructure deficit: Inadequate infrastructure, including roads, electricity supply, and communication networks, severely constrains economic activity and development.
• Weak institutions and governance: Corruption, lack of transparency, and weak institutional capacity undermine economic management and the effective use of resources.
• Debt burden: The country has a significant foreign debt, which limits fiscal space for development spending.
• Illicit drug trade: Guinea-Bissau's role as a transit point for cocaine trafficking from Latin America to Europe has had a corrosive effect on governance, security, and the formal economy, fostering corruption and undermining state institutions. This shadow economy offers illicit income but severely damages the country's international reputation and prospects for legitimate economic development.

Efforts towards sustainable development, often supported by international partners like the IMF, World Bank, and EU, have focused on macroeconomic stability, structural reforms, improving governance, investing in social sectors (health and education), and diversifying the economy. However, progress is frequently derailed by political crises. Achieving social equity and addressing environmental concerns are also critical aspects of sustainable development that require consistent political will and resources. Registering a new business in Guinea-Bissau has historically taken a very long time (e.g., 233 days in some reports), reflecting bureaucratic hurdles.

8.1. Demographics

As of recent estimates (e.g., 2023 UN data), the population of Guinea-Bissau is approximately 2.1 million people. The population growth rate is relatively high.
Key demographic indicators include:

• A young population structure: A large proportion of the population is under the age of 15 (around 41.3% in 2010), typical of many developing countries with high fertility rates.
• Life expectancy at birth is low, reflecting poor health conditions and access to healthcare.
• Infant and maternal mortality rates are high.
• Urbanization is increasing, with a significant portion of the population residing in the capital, Bissau, and other smaller urban centers. However, a majority of the population still lives in rural areas.
• Birth rates are high, while death rates have seen some decline but remain elevated.

The population was approximately 518,000 in 1950 and grew to 1,874,303 by 2018 according to UN estimates. In 2010, 55.4% of the population were aged between 15 and 65, while 3.3% were aged 65 years or older.

8.2. Ethnic groups

Guinea-Bissau is home to a diverse array of ethnic groups, each with its own distinct language, customs, and social structures. Inter-ethnic relations are generally peaceful, though political mobilization can sometimes follow ethnic lines. The major ethnic groups include:

• Fula (also known as Fulani or Peul): Constituting about 28.5% of the population, they are one of the largest groups, predominantly Muslim, and traditionally pastoralists, though many are now settled agriculturalists and traders. They are concentrated in the north and northeast.
• Balanta: Making up around 22.5% of the population, they are primarily agriculturalists, known for their rice cultivation in coastal and southern regions. They historically had decentralized political structures.
• Mandinka (or Malinke): Comprising about 14.7%, they are part of the larger Mande-speaking group found across West Africa, with a strong tradition of trade and Islamic scholarship. They are concentrated in the north and northeast.
• Papel: Accounting for about 9.1%, they are concentrated in the Biombo region, including the area around Bissau. They have their own distinct language and cultural traditions.
• Manjak (or Manjaca): Representing around 8.3%, they inhabit the central and northern coastal areas and are known for their weaving traditions.
• Biafada: Around 3.5% of the population.
• Mancanha: Around 3.1%.
• Bijagós: About 2.1%, indigenous to the Bijagos Archipelago, with unique cultural practices and matrilineal social systems.
• Jola (or Felupe): Around 1.7%.
• Mansoanca: Around 1.4%.
• Other smaller groups include the Balanta Mane (1%), Nalu (0.9%), Soninke (Saracule) (0.5%), and Sosso (0.4%).

There is also a small population of mestiços (of mixed Portuguese and African descent) and a very small number of Europeans (mainly Portuguese) and a tiny Chinese community, some with ancestry from Macau.

8.3. Languages

The linguistic landscape of Guinea-Bissau is complex, reflecting its ethnic diversity and colonial history.

• Portuguese: The sole official language, a legacy of colonial rule. However, it is spoken as a first language by only a small percentage of the population (around 2% according to a 2006 estimate, 11-15% according to other data, with 27.1% claiming to speak non-creole Portuguese in the 2009 census). It is used in government, administration, formal education, and media, but its everyday use is largely confined to the intellectual and political elite.
• Guinea-Bissau Creole (Kriol): A Portuguese-based creole language, it is the de facto national language and lingua franca, spoken or understood by a large majority of the population. According to a 2012 study, 54% speak Creole as a first language and about 40% as a second language. A 2009 census reported 90.4% speak Creole. It plays a crucial role in inter-ethnic communication and national identity. A post-creole continuum exists, with varieties ranging from basilects (most distinct from Portuguese) to acrolects (closer to standard Portuguese).
• Indigenous African languages: Numerous African languages are spoken by different ethnic groups. These include Fula (Pular), Balanta (two distinct varieties: Ganja and Kentohe), Mandinka, Manjak, Papel, Biafada, Bijago, and many others. These languages are the primary means of communication within ethnic communities and in rural areas. The 2009 census reported Fula spoken by 16%, Balanta by 14%, Mandinka by 7%, Manjak by 5%, and Papel by 3%.
• French: Taught as a foreign language in schools, as Guinea-Bissau is surrounded by French-speaking countries (Senegal and Guinea). The country is a member of La Francophonie.

English and Spanish are spoken by very small percentages of the population.

8.4. Religion

Guinea-Bissau is a religiously diverse country with a high degree of religious tolerance. The main religious affiliations are:

• Islam: Approximately 45-50% of the population is Muslim, predominantly Sunni of the Maliki school of jurisprudence, often with Sufi influences. Islam is most prevalent in the northern and eastern regions, particularly among the Fula and Mandinka ethnic groups.
• Traditional African Beliefs (Animism): A significant portion of the population, around 30-40%, adheres to indigenous traditional beliefs. These vary among ethnic groups but often involve reverence for ancestors, nature spirits, and communal rituals. Many individuals who identify as Muslim or Christian also integrate traditional practices into their faith (syncretism).
• Christianity: Christians constitute about 10-20% of the population. The majority of Christians are Roman Catholic, a legacy of Portuguese missionary activity. Protestant denominations are also present. Christians are more concentrated in Bissau and some coastal areas.

A 2020 CIA World Factbook estimate stated 46.1% Muslim, 30.6% folk religions, 18.9% Christian, and 4.4% other or unaffiliated. A 2010 Pew Research survey found 45.1% Muslim, 19.7% Christian, and 30.9% folk religion. Religious leaders generally report tolerant interfaith relations, though concerns about rising fundamentalism have been expressed.

8.5. Education

The education system in Guinea-Bissau faces significant challenges, including inadequate funding, lack of infrastructure and materials, a shortage of qualified teachers, and low enrollment and completion rates, particularly in rural areas and for girls. Political instability has further disrupted educational development.
Education is compulsory from age 7 to 13. The system comprises:

• Pre-school education (optional, for ages 3-6).
• Basic education (elemental and complementary), now reformed into a single cycle of six years.
• Secondary education (general and complementary), with two cycles (7th-9th grade and 10th-11th grade).
• Technical and professional education (limited, with some private offerings like Centro de Formação São João Bosco and Centro de Formação Luís Inácio Lula da Silva).
• Higher education is limited. Most students seeking university education go abroad, often to Portugal. Local institutions include the Amílcar Cabral University (public) and the private Colinas de Boé University. There is also a Faculty of Law and a Faculty of Medicine (maintained by Cuba).

The language of instruction is Portuguese, which can be a barrier for students whose first language is Creole or an African language.
Literacy rates remain low. In 2011, the estimated literacy rate was 55.3% (68.9% for males and 42.1% for females). Child labor is common, and boys' enrollment in school is generally higher than girls'. In 1998, the gross primary enrollment rate was 53.5% (67.7% for males, 40% for females). Non-formal education focuses on community schools and adult literacy programs.

8.6. Health

Guinea-Bissau's health system is severely underdeveloped and faces numerous challenges, including:

• High rates of infant and maternal mortality.
• Low life expectancy.
• Limited access to basic medical services, especially in rural areas. There is a severe shortage of healthcare professionals, medical supplies, and infrastructure.
• Prevalence of infectious diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, diarrheal diseases, and respiratory infections. Endemic diseases are common.
• Poor sanitation and lack of access to clean drinking water contribute to health problems.
• Malnutrition is also a significant issue, particularly among children.

Political instability and economic hardship have consistently undermined efforts to improve the health sector. International aid plays a crucial role in supporting health services.

8.7. Social issues and human rights

Guinea-Bissau grapples with a range of pressing social issues and human rights concerns, many of which are exacerbated by its history of political instability, weak governance, and extreme poverty.

• Political Instability and Governance: The most overarching issue is the chronic political instability, characterized by coups, military interference in politics, and weak rule of law. This environment undermines all aspects of social development and human rights protection. Corruption is endemic and erodes public trust and diverts resources.
• Poverty and Economic Rights: Extreme poverty affects a large majority of the population, limiting access to basic necessities such as food, clean water, sanitation, healthcare, and education. Economic and social rights are severely compromised.
• Human Rights Situation:
  • Civil and Political Rights: While the constitution provides for basic freedoms, these are often curtailed in practice. Arbitrary arrests and detentions, restrictions on freedom of speech and the press (including attacks on journalists and media outlets critical of the government), and impunity for human rights abusers, particularly within the security forces, are significant concerns.
  • Justice System: The judicial system is weak, under-resourced, and subject to political influence, leading to a lack of accountability and access to justice for many.
  • Women's Rights: Women face discrimination and are underrepresented in political and economic life. Domestic violence and female genital mutilation (FGM) are serious problems, although FGM has been criminalized.
  • Children's Rights: Child labor, child trafficking, and lack of access to education and healthcare are major issues affecting children.
  • Rights of Minorities and Vulnerable Groups: While inter-ethnic relations are generally peaceful, ensuring the full inclusion and protection of all ethnic groups and other vulnerable populations remains a challenge.
• Land Tenure Disputes: Conflicts over land access and ownership occur, particularly as pressure on resources increases. Clear and enforceable land tenure laws are crucial for social stability.
• Drug Trafficking: The country's role as a narco-state has severe social consequences, fueling corruption, violence, and undermining social cohesion and the rule of law.

Efforts towards social justice and human rights improvement are often led by local civil society organizations, with support from international partners. However, sustainable progress requires sustained political will, institutional reform, and economic development.

10.1. Music

Music is a vibrant and integral part of Guinea-Bissauan culture. The most well-known musical genre is Gumbe, a polyrhythmic style that often features percussion, call-and-response vocals, and danceable rhythms. It is considered a national music style, fusing elements from various ethnic traditions. Lyrics are often in Guinea-Bissau Creole and frequently address social and political themes, current events, and humor.

The calabash (often used as a percussion instrument) and specifically the cabasa are important instruments. Other popular genres include Tina and Tinga. Folk traditions are strong, with music playing a key role in ceremonies such as funerals, initiations, and other rituals. Specific ethnic groups have their own distinct musical styles, such as the Balanta brosca and kussundé, Mandinga djambadon, and the kundere sound of the Bijagos Islands. Prominent musicians like Manecas Costa have gained some international recognition, though civil unrest and other factors have limited the global reach of Guinea-Bissauan music.

10.2. Cuisine

Guinea-Bissauan cuisine is based on locally available ingredients and reflects the country's agricultural and coastal environment. Rice is a staple food, particularly in coastal areas, while millet and sorghum are more common in the interior.
Common dishes often involve soups and stews. Key ingredients include:

• Fish and seafood (abundant along the coast and islands).
• Yams, sweet potatoes, cassava, plantains.
• Vegetables like onions, tomatoes.
• Peanuts (groundnuts), palm oil, and fruits.

Spices and peppers, including Aframomum melegueta (grains of paradise or Guinea pepper), are used to flavor dishes. Traditional cooking methods are widely practiced. One popular dish is Caldo de Mancarra, a peanut-based stew often served with rice. Jollof rice, common in West Africa, is also prepared.

10.3. Film

The film industry in Guinea-Bissau is small but has produced internationally recognized talent. Flora Gomes is the most renowned Guinea-Bissauan film director. His films often explore themes of post-colonial identity, cultural change, and social issues.

• Mortu Nega (Death Denied, 1988) was Gomes's first fiction feature film and the second feature film ever made in Guinea-Bissau (after N'tturudu by Umban u'Kest in 1987). It won the prestigious Oumarou Ganda Prize at FESPACO in 1989.
• Udju Azul di Yonta (The Blue Eyes of Yonta, 1992) was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival.
• Nha Fala (My Voice, 2002) is another of his well-known works.

Gomes has served on the boards of several Africa-centric film festivals. Actress Babetida Sadjo was born in Bafatá, Guinea-Bissau. The development of the film industry is hampered by limited funding and infrastructure.

10.4. Sports

Football (soccer) is by far the most popular sport in Guinea-Bissau. The Guinea-Bissau national football team, nicknamed Djurtus (African wild dogs), competes in international competitions. While they have not qualified for the FIFA World Cup, they have participated in the Africa Cup of Nations on multiple occasions (e.g., 2017, 2019, 2021, 2023).
The national football league is the Campeonato Nacional da Guiné-Bissau. Sports facilities are generally underdeveloped. Other sports like basketball and wrestling are also practiced, but football dominates the sporting landscape. Some Guinea-Bissauan footballers play professionally in European leagues, particularly in Portugal.

10.5. Media

The media landscape in Guinea-Bissau is characterized by a mix of state-owned and private outlets, operating in an environment often constrained by political instability and economic hardship.

• Radio is the most widespread and influential medium, particularly in rural areas where literacy rates are low and access to electricity is limited. There are state-run radio stations and several private and community radio stations.
• Television is less prevalent than radio, with the state-run Televisão da Guiné-Bissau (TGB) being the main national broadcaster. Access to television is largely limited to urban areas.
• Newspapers have a small circulation, primarily in Bissau, due to low literacy rates and distribution challenges. Several privately-owned newspapers exist, but they often struggle financially.
• Internet access and usage are growing but remain low compared to regional averages, concentrated mainly in urban areas. Online news platforms and social media are increasingly used for information dissemination.

Media freedom is constitutionally guaranteed but has been challenged in practice. Journalists and media outlets have faced intimidation, harassment, and attacks, particularly when critical of the government or powerful figures. Political instability often leads to increased pressure on the media. Financial constraints also limit the capacity and independence of media organizations.

10.6. Festivals and public holidays

Guinea-Bissau observes a number of national public holidays and cultural festivals that reflect its history, diverse traditions, and religious landscape.
Public Holidays:

• January 1: New Year's Day (Ano Novo_{New Year's Day}^Portuguese)
• January 20: Heroes' Day (Dia dos Heróis_{Heroes' Day}^Portuguese) - Commemorates the assassination of Amílcar Cabral in 1973.
• March 8: International Women's Day (Dia Internacional da Mulher_{International Women's Day}^Portuguese)
• May 1: Labour Day (Dia Internacional dos Trabalhadores_{Labour Day}^Portuguese)
• August 3: Day of Colonial Martyrs (Dia dos mártires da colonização_{Day of Colonial Martyrs}^Portuguese) - Commemorates the Pidjiguiti massacre of 1959.
• September 24: Independence Day (Dia da Independência_{Independence Day}^Portuguese) - Marks the unilateral declaration of independence in 1973; a major national celebration.
• November 14: Readjustment Movement Day
• December 25: Christmas Day (Natal_{Christmas Day}^Portuguese) - Celebrated by the Christian community.

Islamic holidays, such as Eid al-Fitr (Final do Ramadão_{End of Ramadan}^Portuguese) and Eid al-Adha (Festa do Cordeiro_{Feast of the Lamb}^Portuguese), are also observed by the Muslim population, and their dates vary according to the lunar calendar.

In addition to official holidays, various ethnic groups hold traditional festivals and ceremonies throughout the year, often related to agricultural cycles, initiations, funerals, and other cultural events. The Carnival in Bissau, usually held in February or March, is a notable cultural event featuring parades, music, and costumes, blending local traditions with Portuguese influences.