Guinea

3.1. West African empires and kingdoms

The land that is now Guinea was situated on the fringes or within the territories of several significant West African empires that flourished due to trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, and other commodities. The earliest of these, the Ghana Empire (circa 8th to 11th centuries), grew powerful through trade but eventually declined due to internal strife and incursions by the Almoravids. It was during this period that Islam first arrived in the region, brought by North African traders.

Following the Ghana Empire, the Sosso Empire (also known as Kaniaga) emerged in the 12th and 13th centuries. The Sosso, under rulers like Soumaoro Kanté, initially resisted the spread of Islam. However, the Sosso Empire was relatively short-lived and was conquered by Sundiata Keita, the founder of the Mali Empire, at the Battle of Kirina around 1235. The Mali Empire, which reached its zenith under Mansa Musa in the 14th century (famous for his lavish hajj to Mecca in 1324), incorporated much of present-day Guinea into its vast territory. The Mali Empire fostered learning, trade, and the further spread of Islam. However, internal decay and external pressures led to its gradual decline by the 15th century, with vassal states breaking away.

The Songhai Empire, initially a vassal of Mali, rose to prominence around 1460 under leaders like Sunni Ali. It surpassed Mali in size and wealth, controlling key trade routes. The Songhai Empire continued to prosper until internal conflicts over succession, particularly after the death of Askia Daoud in 1582, weakened it. This internal strife paved the way for a Moroccan invasion in 1591, which led to the empire's collapse and fragmentation into smaller kingdoms.

In the wake of these larger empires, several regional powers emerged within what is now Guinea. In the Fouta Djallon highlands of central Guinea, Fulani Muslim pastoralists, migrating into the region, established an Islamic state, the Imamate of Futa Jallon, beginning around 1725 (formally established in 1727). This Imamate, with a written constitution and a system of alternating rulers from two main lineages, maintained its influence until it was conquered by the French in 1896. The Imamate played a crucial role in spreading Islam and Fulani culture throughout the region.

Further south, in the predominantly Malinké area of what is now upper Guinea and southwestern Mali, Samori Touré founded the Wassoulou Empire (also Wassulu or Ouassoulou Empire) in 1878. Samori Touré was a skilled military leader who resisted French colonial expansion for many years. His empire, built on a well-organized army and trade, eventually moved its base eastward into modern Côte d'Ivoire before being defeated and captured by the French in 1898.

3.2. Colonial era

European traders, primarily Portuguese, British, and French, began establishing contact with the coastal regions of Guinea from the 16th century, initially for trade in goods like ivory and pepper, but increasingly for the transatlantic slave trade. By the 17th century, European powers competed for control of trade routes along the West African coast.

French colonial penetration into the area that is now Guinea began in earnest in the mid-19th century. France sought to establish a colonial presence to exploit resources and expand its influence in West Africa. The French military gradually advanced inland, encountering resistance from local rulers and populations. The defeat of Samori Touré's armies in 1898 marked a significant turning point, giving France control over much of modern-day Guinea and adjacent areas.

France negotiated Guinea's present boundaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through treaties and sometimes conflict with other colonial powers: the British for Sierra Leone, the Portuguese for their Guinea colony (now Guinea-Bissau), and the independent nation of Liberia. In 1890, Conakry was established as the capital of the French colony, then known as Rivières du Sud. By 1891, the territory was officially designated as French Guinea (Guinée française_{French Guinea}^French), with Noël Ballay as its first governor. French Guinea became part of the larger administrative federation of French West Africa (Afrique-Occidentale française_{French West Africa}^French), administered by a governor-general resident in Dakar, Senegal. Lieutenant governors administered the individual colonies, including Guinea.

Under French colonial rule, Guinea experienced significant socio-economic changes. The French administration imposed systems of taxation, forced labor (corvée), and resource extraction, particularly focusing on agricultural products like bananas, coffee, and palm oil for export. Infrastructure development, such as the construction of a railway line from Conakry to Kankan (completed in 1913), primarily served colonial economic interests rather than the needs of the local population. Colonial policies often disrupted traditional social structures and exacerbated ethnic tensions. Access to education and healthcare was limited and unequally distributed.

Despite the repressive nature of colonial rule, resistance movements and nationalist sentiments began to emerge. In 1946, following World War II, France granted limited political rights and representation to its African colonies. Trade unions and political parties started to form. The Democratic Party of Guinea (Parti Démocratique de Guinée_{Democratic Party of Guinea}^French), affiliated with the inter-territorial African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement Démocratique Africain_{African Democratic Rally}^French), became the leading nationalist force. Led by the charismatic trade unionist Ahmed Sékou Touré, the PDG gained widespread popular support, advocating for greater autonomy and eventually independence. In the 1957 territorial elections, the PDG won 56 out of 60 seats, consolidating Sékou Touré's position as the preeminent leader of the independence movement.

3.3. Independence and Sékou Touré regime (1958-1984)

Guinea's path to independence was distinct from most other French African colonies. In 1958, the French Fourth Republic collapsed due to political instability and its struggles with colonial conflicts, notably in Indochina and Algeria. Charles de Gaulle, returning to power, proposed a new constitution for a French Fifth Republic and a new French Community. A referendum was held on September 28, 1958, offering French colonies a choice: autonomy within the new French Community or immediate independence.

Under the leadership of Ahmed Sékou Touré and his Democratic Party of Guinea (PDG), Guinea was the only colony to overwhelmingly vote "No" to the French Community, thereby choosing immediate and complete independence. Touré famously declared, "We prefer poverty in liberty to riches in slavery." Consequently, on October 2, 1958, Guinea proclaimed itself a sovereign and independent republic, with Sékou Touré as its first president.

France, angered by Guinea's decision, retaliated swiftly and punitively. French administrators, technicians, and capital were abruptly withdrawn. Records were destroyed, infrastructure was sabotaged, and all aid was cut off. This punitive departure was intended as a warning to other colonies and left Guinea in a precarious economic and administrative state. France also initiated covert operations, such as Opération Persil, which aimed to destabilize the new Guinean economy by flooding it with forged Guinean francs and arming opposition figures, though the operation was leaked and ultimately unsuccessful in its primary goals.

Facing isolation from France and the West, Sékou Touré turned to the Eastern Bloc and other non-aligned nations for support. He adopted socialist policies, including nationalization of key industries and land. In 1960, Touré declared the PDG the country's only legal political party, establishing a one-party state. For the next 24 years, the government and the PDG were effectively one. Touré was re-elected unopposed to four seven-year terms as president, and voters were presented with a single list of PDG candidates for the National Assembly every five years.

Touré's regime pursued a policy of "African socialism" and non-alignment, though it maintained close ties with the Soviet Union and China for a period. He was a prominent voice for Pan-Africanism and supported independence movements elsewhere in Africa, notably the PAIGC in neighboring Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau). This support led to Operation Green Sea on November 22, 1970, when Portuguese forces, along with exiled Guinean opposition members, launched a raid on Conakry. The raid aimed to overthrow Touré and neutralize PAIGC leader Amílcar Cabral, but it ultimately failed in these objectives, though it did free Portuguese prisoners of war.

The aftermath of the raid saw an intensification of repression within Guinea. Touré's government became increasingly authoritarian and paranoid, leading to widespread human rights abuses. Thousands of perceived political opponents, intellectuals, and even former allies were arrested, imprisoned, tortured, or executed without trial. The infamous Camp Boiro in Conakry became a symbol of this repression, where figures like Diallo Telli, the first Secretary-General of the Organisation of African Unity, were starved to death. The regime's policies led to economic decline, shortages of basic goods, and a mass exodus of Guineans, with estimates suggesting up to two million people fled the country.

In 1977, deteriorating economic conditions and a ban on private trade sparked the Market Women's Revolt in Conakry's Madina Market. This significant anti-government protest forced Touré to liberalize some economic policies. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Touré began to mend relations with Western countries, including France, following the election of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. However, the fundamental nature of his authoritarian rule remained unchanged until his death.

Sékou Touré died on March 26, 1984, after a heart operation in the United States. Prime Minister Louis Lansana Beavogui was appointed interim president, pending new elections. The PDG was scheduled to elect a new leader on April 3, 1984, who, under the constitution, would have been the sole candidate for president.

3.4. Lansana Conté regime (1984-2008)

Hours before the PDG meeting to select Sékou Touré's successor, on April 3, 1984, Colonel Lansana Conté and Colonel Diarra Traoré led a bloodless military coup d'état. They established the Military Committee for National Recovery (CMRN), suspended the constitution, and dissolved the PDG. Lansana Conté assumed the role of president, with Diarra Traoré initially serving as prime minister until December 1984, when Conté consolidated power and abolished the post.

Conté's regime immediately denounced the human rights abuses and socialist policies of the Touré era. It released approximately 250 political prisoners and encouraged the estimated 200,000 Guineans in exile to return. The new government made an explicit turn away from socialism, embracing economic liberalization and seeking support from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. However, despite initial promises of a return to democracy, Conté's rule became increasingly authoritarian over his 24 years in power.

Under pressure domestically and internationally, Conté announced a transition to civilian rule in the early 1990s. A new constitution allowing for a multi-party system was adopted in 1990. The first multi-party presidential election was held in 1993, which Conté won amidst allegations of irregularities. Parliamentary elections followed in 1995, where Conté's newly formed Party of Unity and Progress (PUP) secured a majority. Conté was re-elected in 1998 and 2003, with opposition parties often boycotting these elections or decrying them as fraudulent. In 2001, Conté organized and won a controversial referendum that removed presidential term limits and extended the presidential term from five to seven years, allowing him to run for a third term in 2003.

Throughout his presidency, Conté faced numerous challenges, including coup attempts, army mutinies, and growing popular discontent over corruption, economic hardship, and the lack of genuine democratic progress. In September 2001, prominent opposition leader Alpha Condé was imprisoned for allegedly endangering state security, though he was pardoned eight months later and subsequently spent time in exile. In January 2005, Conté survived a suspected assassination attempt in Conakry. His deteriorating health in later years led to increased political uncertainty and power struggles within the ruling elite.

Guinea was also affected by regional instability. In 2000, rebels from Liberia and Sierra Leone launched cross-border attacks into Guinea, leading to fears of a wider civil war. Conté accused neighboring leaders of supporting the insurgents to gain access to Guinea's natural resources, claims which they denied. Guinea hosted a large number of refugees from these conflicts, placing a significant strain on its resources. By 2003, Guinea agreed to joint security plans with its neighbors to tackle the insurgents.

Social and economic conditions remained poor for most Guineans during Conté's rule. Despite the country's vast mineral wealth, particularly in bauxite, corruption and mismanagement prevented these resources from translating into broad-based development. The 2007 Guinean general strike, fueled by economic grievances and demands for political reform, paralyzed the country and led to violent clashes between protesters and security forces, resulting in numerous deaths. The strike forced Conté to appoint a consensus prime minister, Lansana Kouyaté, though Kouyaté was later dismissed, and Ahmed Tidiane Souaré appointed, further entrenching political tensions. Guinea was increasingly seen as a failed state by some observers.

3.5. 2008 coup and transitional period

President Lansana Conté died on December 22, 2008, after a long illness. Hours after his death was announced on December 23, a military faction led by Captain Moussa Dadis Camara seized control in a coup d'état. Camara declared himself head of a military junta called the National Council for Democracy and Development (CNDD), suspended the constitution, and dissolved the government. The coup was initially met with mixed reactions, with some Guineans hopeful for change after decades of Conté's rule, while the international community largely condemned it.

The CNDD promised to tackle corruption and hold elections within two years, with Camara initially stating that no member of the junta would run for president. However, as Camara consolidated power and showed signs of intending to contest the presidency, political tensions rose. On September 28, 2009, a large peaceful protest was organized by opposition parties and civil society groups at a stadium in Conakry to oppose Camara's potential candidacy. The military responded with brutal force, opening fire on the demonstrators. At least 157 people were killed, and over a thousand injured in what became known as the 2009 Guinea stadium massacre. Widespread sexual violence against women by soldiers was also reported. The massacre drew strong international condemnation and led to sanctions against the junta.

On December 3, 2009, Camara was shot and wounded by his aide-de-camp, Lieutenant Aboubacar Sidiki Diakité (also known as "Toumba"), during a dispute reportedly related to the September massacre. Camara was flown to Morocco for medical treatment. In his absence, Vice-President (and Defense Minister) General Sékouba Konaté assumed control as interim leader.

Under international pressure, Konaté initiated a transition back to civilian rule. In January 2010, an agreement was reached in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, outlining a six-month transition period leading to elections. A transitional government of national unity was formed, led by a civilian prime minister, Jean-Marie Doré. Camara, still recovering, formally agreed not to return to Guinea and not to contest the upcoming elections.

3.6. Alpha Condé regime (2010-2021)

The first round of the presidential election was held on June 27, 2010, marking Guinea's first genuinely democratic election since independence. Cellou Dalein Diallo, a former prime minister under Conté, and Alpha Condé, a long-time opposition leader, emerged as the top two candidates. The run-off election, initially scheduled for July, was repeatedly delayed due to logistical issues and political tensions, finally taking place on November 7, 2010. Alpha Condé was declared the winner with 52.5% of the vote. The election was generally considered fair, despite some allegations of irregularities and sporadic violence. Condé was inaugurated on December 21, 2010.

Condé's first term focused on political and economic reforms, including efforts to reform the security sector and review mining contracts to ensure greater benefits for Guinea. However, political tensions remained high. Violent protests erupted in February 2013 over the transparency of preparations for upcoming legislative elections, leading to several deaths and injuries as security forces used live ammunition. These protests also saw ethnic clashes between Condé's Malinké supporters and Diallo's Fula supporters. The legislative elections were eventually held in September 2013, with Condé's Rally of the Guinean People (RPG) party and its allies winning a majority.

A major crisis during Condé's presidency was the West African Ebola outbreak, which began in Guinea in December 2013. The first confirmed case was a two-year-old boy in the village of Meliandou. The epidemic rapidly spread to neighboring Liberia and Sierra Leone, becoming the largest Ebola outbreak in history. By the time the World Health Organization declared Guinea Ebola-free in December 2015 (though flare-ups continued), the outbreak had resulted in over 3,800 cases and 2,500 deaths in Guinea alone. The epidemic had a devastating impact on the country's health system, economy, and social fabric. In a tragic incident in September 2014, eight members of an Ebola education team were murdered by villagers in Womey, highlighting the fear and misinformation surrounding the disease.

Condé was re-elected for a second term in the 2015 presidential election. However, his presidency became increasingly controversial as he sought a third term, which was prohibited by the existing constitution's two-term limit. In March 2020, a constitutional referendum was held, which, among other changes, reset presidential term limits, allowing Condé to run again. The referendum and the subsequent presidential election in October 2020, which Condé won, were marred by widespread protests, violent crackdowns by security forces resulting in over 800 deaths, and allegations of fraud and human rights abuses. The opposition largely boycotted the referendum and contested the election results. These events significantly undermined Guinea's democratic progress and led to increased political polarization and social unrest.

3.7. 2021 coup and subsequent developments

On September 5, 2021, amidst growing discontent over President Alpha Condé's controversial third term and concerns about governance and human rights, a military coup d'état took place. Elite special forces led by Lieutenant Colonel Mamady Doumbouya detained President Condé, dissolved the government and constitution, and closed the nation's borders. Doumbouya announced the formation of the National Committee of Reconciliation and Development (Comité national du rassemblement et du développement_{National Committee of Reconciliation and Development}^French, CNRD) to steer the country through a transitional period.

The coup was met with widespread condemnation from international bodies such as the United Nations, the African Union (AU), and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). ECOWAS suspended Guinea's membership and imposed sanctions, demanding Condé's release and a swift return to constitutional order. Despite this, the coup was met with some celebration by opposition supporters in Guinea, who had been protesting Condé's rule.

On October 1, 2021, Mamady Doumbouya was sworn in as interim president. The CNRD appointed a civilian prime minister, Mohamed Béavogui, in October 2021 (later replaced by Bernard Goumou in July 2022), and a transitional parliament, the National Transitional Council (CNT), was established in early 2022 to draft a new constitution and prepare for elections.

The transitional government has faced pressure from ECOWAS and the international community to set a clear and short timeline for a return to civilian rule. Initially proposing a 39-month transition, this was later reduced to 24 months starting from January 2023, following negotiations and threats of further sanctions from ECOWAS. Challenges remain, including ensuring an inclusive political dialogue, addressing human rights concerns, and preparing credible elections. Civil society groups and political parties continue to call for a faster transition and guarantees that junta members will not contest future elections.

In May 2023, anti-government demonstrations calling for an end to military rule and a transition to democracy led to clashes in several cities, with reports of at least seven deaths. On December 18, 2023, a major explosion at the country's main oil depot in Conakry killed 24 people and caused significant fuel shortages and economic disruption, temporarily worsening existing civil and economic unrest. The human rights situation remains a concern, with reports of restrictions on freedom of assembly and freedom of expression.

4.1. Topography and regions

Guinea is traditionally divided into four main natural regions, each with distinct topographical characteristics:
1. Maritime Guinea (La Guinée Maritime_{Maritime Guinea}^French), also known as Lower Guinea or Basse-Guinée: This region extends from the Atlantic coast inland for about 50 to 80 kilometers. It consists of a coastal plain with numerous estuaries, mangrove swamps, and offshore islands like the Los Islands. The terrain is generally flat to gently undulating. This region covers about 18% of the country.
2. Fouta Djallon (La Moyenne-Guinée_{Middle Guinea}^French), also known as Middle Guinea: This is a mountainous highland region that runs roughly north-south through the middle of the country. It is characterized by sandstone plateaus, deep valleys, and waterfalls. The Fouta Djallon is the source of many major rivers and is cooler and less humid than the coastal region. It covers approximately 20% of Guinea.
3. Upper Guinea (La Haute-Guinée_{Upper Guinea}^French): Located to the northeast of the Fouta Djallon, this region is part of the Sahelian savanna zone. It is characterized by relatively flat plains and rolling hills, through which the Niger River and its tributaries flow. This region covers about 38% of the country.
4. Forested Guinea (La Guinée Forestière_{Forested Guinea}^French): Situated in the southeast, this region is mountainous and densely forested, forming part of the Upper Guinean forests ecoregion. It features rugged terrain, including the Nimba Massif. This region covers about 23% of the country.

4.2. Climate

Guinea has a tropical climate, primarily characterized by two main types according to the Köppen climate classification: a tropical monsoon climate (Am) along the coast (Maritime Guinea) and in parts of Forested Guinea, and a tropical savanna climate (Aw) in the Fouta Djallon, Upper Guinea, and the eastern parts of Forested Guinea.

The country experiences distinct wet and dry seasons.

• The wet season generally lasts from May to October (or April to November in some southern areas), with the heaviest rainfall occurring in July and August, particularly in Maritime Guinea. Conakry is one of the wettest capitals in the world, receiving an average annual rainfall of over 0.1 K in ^{(3.00 K mm)}.
• The dry season typically runs from November to April (or December to March). During this period, the Harmattan, a dry, dusty trade wind from the Sahara Desert, blows across much of the country, particularly affecting Upper Guinea and the Fouta Djallon, leading to lower humidity and hazy skies.

Rainfall varies significantly across the regions:

• Maritime Guinea is the wettest, with annual rainfall often exceeding 0.1 K in ^{(3.00 K mm)} and sometimes reaching 0.2 K in ^{(4.00 K mm)} or more in coastal areas.
• Fouta Djallon receives between 0.1 K in ^{(1.50 K mm)} and 0.1 K in ^{(2.00 K mm)} of rain annually.
• Upper Guinea is the driest region, with annual rainfall generally ranging from 0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)} to 0.1 K in ^{(1.50 K mm)}.
• Forested Guinea experiences high rainfall, typically between 0.1 K in ^{(1.80 K mm)} and 0.1 K in ^{(3.00 K mm)} annually.

Temperatures are generally high throughout the year, with less variation than rainfall. Coastal areas are hot and humid, with average daily temperatures around 80.6 °F ^{(27 °C)}. The Fouta Djallon has a more moderate climate due to its altitude, with cooler temperatures, especially at night. Upper Guinea experiences hotter and drier conditions, with temperatures sometimes exceeding 95 °F ^{(35 °C)} during the dry season.

4.3. Major rivers and mountains

Guinea is often referred to as the "water tower of West Africa" due to its significance as the source region for several major rivers that flow through multiple West African countries. The Fouta Djallon highlands are the primary watershed.

• The Niger River, West Africa's longest river, originates in the Guinea Highlands near the border with Sierra Leone and flows northeastward through Guinea and Mali before turning southeast towards Nigeria and the Atlantic.
• The Senegal River has its headwaters in the Fouta Djallon, formed by the confluence of the Bafing and Bakoy rivers, flowing north and then west to the Atlantic.
• The Gambia River also rises in the Fouta Djallon and flows westward through Senegal and The Gambia to the Atlantic.

Other important rivers originating in or flowing through Guinea include the Konkouré River (important for hydropower), the Great Scarcies River (Kolenté), and the Little Scarcies River (Kaba).

The most significant mountain range is the Nimba Massif, located in the Forested Guinea region, on the border with Côte d'Ivoire and Liberia. Mount Nimba (also known as Mount Richard-Molard) is the highest peak in Guinea and the three bordering countries, reaching an altitude of 5.7 K ft ^{(1.75 K m)}. The Guinean and Ivorian portions of the Nimba Massif are a UNESCO World Heritage Site designated as a Strict Nature Reserve.
The Fouta Djallon itself is a vast highland plateau system, with average elevations ranging from 2953 ft ^{(900 m)} to 4.9 K ft ^{(1.50 K m)} in some areas. Other notable mountain features include Mount Kakoulima near Kindia.

4.4. Wildlife and ecoregions

Guinea's diverse geography supports a variety of wildlife and distinct ecoregions. The country is part of the Guinean Forests of West Africa biodiversity hotspot.

Principal ecoregions in Guinea include:

• Guinean montane forests: Found in the higher elevations of the Fouta Djallon and the Nimba Massif, these forests harbor unique flora and fauna, including many endemic species.
• Western Guinean lowland forests: Covering much of Maritime Guinea and Forested Guinea, these are tropical moist broadleaf forests, although significant portions have been impacted by deforestation and agriculture.
• Guinean forest-savanna mosaic: This ecoregion acts as a transition zone between the coastal forests and the drier savannas of the interior, found in parts of Middle Guinea and Upper Guinea.
• West Sudanian savanna: Dominating Upper Guinea, this ecoregion consists of grasslands with scattered trees, adapted to a climate with a pronounced dry season.
• Guinean mangroves: Lining the coastal estuaries and river mouths in Maritime Guinea, these mangrove forests are important ecosystems for fisheries and coastal protection.

Guinea's fauna includes a variety of mammals, although populations of many larger species have declined due to habitat loss and hunting. Species found include primates such as chimpanzees (notably at the Bossou Hills, part of the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve), various monkey species, and historically, lions and leopards in savanna areas. Forest elephants and pygmy hippos can be found in some remote forest areas. The country is also rich in birdlife, with species like the White-shouldered Black Tit (Melaniparus guineensis). Reptiles include various snakes and lizards, such as Acanthodactylus guineensis and Mochlus guineensis. Amphibian species like Hemisus guineensis and Phrynobatrachus guineensis are present. Insect life is abundant, with species such as Zorotypus guineensis and Euchromia guineensis. Arachnids like Malloneta guineensis and Dictyna guineensis are also part of the local biodiversity.

Conservation efforts are underway, with several national parks and protected areas, such as the Badiar National Park and the aforementioned Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve. However, challenges such as deforestation, poaching, mining activities, and agricultural expansion continue to threaten Guinea's wildlife and natural habitats. The focus on sustainable practices and effective conservation management is crucial for preserving Guinea's rich biodiversity for future generations, aligning with a perspective that values environmental protection and social equity in resource use.

5.1. Government structure

Under constitutional rule, Guinea operates as a presidential republic.
The executive branch is headed by the President, who is both the head of state and head of government. The President is typically elected by popular vote for a term specified in the constitution (historically five or seven years). The President appoints the Prime Minister (if the post exists under the current constitutional framework) and the Council of Ministers (cabinet), who are responsible for the day-to-day administration of the country. The President's powers are generally extensive. Following the 2021 coup, the executive functions are exercised by the interim president and the transitional government appointed by the CNRD.

The legislative branch is typically a unicameral National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale_{National Assembly}^French). Its members are directly elected by the people through a mix of proportional representation and constituency-based voting for a term usually lasting five years. The National Assembly's primary functions include passing legislation, approving the national budget, and overseeing the actions of the executive branch. The National Assembly elected in 2020 was dissolved after the 2021 coup. A National Transitional Council (CNT) has been established to serve as an interim legislative body during the transition period, tasked with drafting a new constitution and electoral laws.

5.2. Judiciary

Guinea's judicial system is based on civil law, influenced by the French legal tradition. The highest court is typically the Supreme Court (Cour Suprême_{Supreme Court}^French), which serves as the final court of appeal for civil, criminal, commercial, and administrative matters. Other major judicial bodies include courts of appeal, courts of first instance, and specialized courts.

Judicial independence has been a persistent challenge in Guinea. While constitutions often provide for an independent judiciary, in practice, the judicial system has often been subject to executive influence, corruption, and a lack of resources. Strengthening judicial independence, ensuring access to justice for all citizens, and combating impunity are critical aspects of democratic development and human rights protection in the country. The transitional authorities have pledged to reform the judiciary as part of the return to constitutional order.

5.3. Political parties and elections

Guinea has a multi-party system, though it has often been dominated by a few major political formations, frequently aligned with ethnic groups. Some of the historically significant political parties include:

• Rally of the Guinean People** (Rassemblement du Peuple de Guinée_{Rally of the Guinean People}^French, RPG): The party of former President Alpha Condé, with strong support among the Malinké ethnic group.
• Union of Democratic Forces of Guinea** (Union des Forces Démocratiques de Guinée_{Union of Democratic Forces of Guinea}^French, UFDG): Led by Cellou Dalein Diallo, it draws significant support from the Fula (Peuhl) ethnic group.
• Union of Republican Forces** (Union des Forces Républicaines_{Union of Republican Forces}^French, UFR): Led by Sidya Touré.

Presidential elections are typically held to elect the head of state. Parliamentary elections determine the composition of the National Assembly. Local elections are also held for municipal and rural councils. The electoral system has often been a point of contention, with opposition parties frequently alleging irregularities, lack of transparency, and unfair advantages for the incumbent party. International and domestic observers have often called for electoral reforms to ensure free, fair, and credible elections.

Recent election outcomes, particularly the 2020 presidential election and constitutional referendum, were highly controversial and led to significant political instability, contributing to the 2021 coup. The transitional government is tasked with organizing new presidential and legislative elections to restore civilian rule. The conduct and credibility of these future elections will be crucial for Guinea's democratic trajectory and social stability.

5.4. Human rights

The human rights situation in Guinea has long been a matter of serious concern, with reports from international organizations like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, as well as the U.S. Department of State, consistently highlighting significant abuses. Challenges to democratic development and political instability have often exacerbated these issues.

Key human rights concerns include:

• Abuses by security forces: Excessive use of force by police and military, including unlawful killings, torture, and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment of detainees and protesters, has been frequently reported. Impunity for such abuses remains a major problem.
• Freedom of speech'', press, assembly, and association: These freedoms have often been restricted, particularly during periods of political tension. Journalists and human rights defenders have faced harassment, intimidation, and arrest. Peaceful demonstrations have sometimes been met with violent crackdowns.
• Women's rights: Discrimination against women persists in law and practice. Violence against women, including domestic violence and sexual assault, is widespread. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is deeply entrenched, with Guinea having one of the highest prevalence rates in the world (estimated at over 90% of women and girls). Despite laws prohibiting FGM, enforcement is weak, and the practice continues with severe health and psychological consequences for victims. Efforts to combat FGM and promote gender equality face significant cultural resistance but are vital for social progress.
• Children's rights: Child labor, child trafficking, and child marriage remain serious problems. Access to education and healthcare for children, especially girls and those in rural areas, is often limited.
• LGBT rights: Homosexual acts are illegal in Guinea and punishable by imprisonment. Societal discrimination against LGBT individuals is widespread, and there is no legal recognition or protection for same-sex relationships. Political leaders have often expressed negative views on LGBT rights.
• Prison conditions: Prisons are often overcrowded, with poor sanitation, inadequate food and medical care, leading to life-threatening conditions for inmates.
• Judicial system weaknesses: A weak and often corrupt judiciary, lengthy pre-trial detention, and lack of access to fair trials contribute to human rights violations.

The 2021 U.S. Department of State report on human rights in Guinea, predating the coup, cited extensive international criticism of the 2020 national elections and the controversial March 2020 referendum, which allowed President Condé to run for a third term. The report highlighted issues such as arbitrary killings, torture by security forces, harsh prison conditions, arbitrary arrest and detention, lack of judicial independence, restrictions on free expression and the press, corruption, and violence against women and girls, including FGM.

Addressing these deep-rooted human rights issues requires comprehensive reforms, strengthening of democratic institutions, ensuring accountability for perpetrators of abuses, and promoting a culture of respect for human dignity and fundamental freedoms. This is a critical area for the transitional government and any future civilian administration, reflecting a commitment to social justice and democratic values.

6.1. Major cities

Guinea's urban landscape is dominated by its capital, with several other cities serving as important regional centers.

• Conakry: The capital and largest city, Conakry is located on the Kaloum Peninsula and Tombo Island, extending into the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of approximately 1.7 million (2014 census, urban area likely larger), it is the nation's political, economic, educational, and cultural hub. Conakry hosts the country's main port, Ahmed Sékou Touré International Airport, major government institutions, and commercial activities. Rapid urbanization has led to challenges in infrastructure and housing.

Other major urban centers, often regional capitals, include:

• Nzérékoré: The second-largest city (population 195,027 in 2014), located in the Forested Guinea region in the southeast. It is a significant agricultural and trade center, particularly for coffee, palm oil, and rice. The city has a diverse ethnic makeup and has been affected by refugee flows from neighboring countries.
• Kankan: The third-largest city (population 190,722 in 2014), situated in Upper Guinea on the Milo River, a tributary of the Niger. Kankan is historically an important center of Malinké culture and Islamic learning. It serves as a major trade and transport hub for the surrounding agricultural region.
• Manéah: Located in the Kindia Region, Manéah had a population of 167,354 in 2014, making it a significant urban area near Conakry.
• Dubréka: Also in the Kindia Region and close to Conakry, Dubréka (population 157,017 in 2014) is a growing town influenced by the capital's expansion. It is known for nearby natural attractions like the "Voile de la Mariée" (Bride's Veil) waterfall.
• Kindia: The capital of the Kindia Region (population 138,695 in 2014), located about 84 mile ^{(135 km)} northeast of Conakry. It is an important agricultural center, known for fruits and vegetables, and is situated at the foothills of the Fouta Djallon.
• Siguiri: Located in the Kankan Region in Upper Guinea, near the Malian border (population 127,492 in 2014). Siguiri is a significant gold mining center.
• Kissidougou: Situated in the Faranah Region (population 99,931 in 2014), Kissidougou is a commercial town and a crossroads in a region known for its agriculture and cultural heritage.
• Labé: The capital of the Labé Region (population 92,654 in 2014), Labé is the main city of the Fouta Djallon highlands and a cultural center for the Fula people. It is known for its cooler climate and surrounding natural beauty.
• Kamsar: Located in the Boké Region on the coast (population 83,428 in 2014), Kamsar is a major industrial port city, primarily serving the export of bauxite mined in the region.

These cities play crucial roles in Guinea's administration, economy, and social life, reflecting the country's regional diversity.

9.1. Agriculture

The agricultural sector is a cornerstone of the Guinean economy, employing a large portion of the labor force, estimated at around 75% at various points. It contributes significantly to livelihoods, though its share of GDP is smaller than mining. Agriculture is primarily subsistence-based, but there is also production of cash crops.

Major food crops include:

• Rice: A staple food, cultivated in flooded zones between streams and rivers, particularly in Maritime Guinea and parts of Forested Guinea. However, local production is often insufficient to meet national demand, necessitating rice imports, mainly from Asia.
• Cassava: Widely grown and consumed as a staple.
• Maize (corn) and fonio are also important cereal crops.
• Other food crops include yams, sweet potatoes, and various vegetables.

Major cash crops include:

• Coffee: Primarily robusta, grown in Forested Guinea.
• Cocoa
• Bananas and Pineapples: Grown for export, particularly from Maritime Guinea.
• Palm kernels
• Peanuts

Guinea is also an emerging regional producer of apples and pears. There are plantations of grapes and pomegranates. In recent years, strawberry cultivation using vertical hydroponic systems has been developed. Livestock rearing, particularly cattle by the Fula people in the Fouta Djallon, is also an important agricultural activity.

Challenges for agricultural development and food security include:

• Limited access to modern farming techniques, inputs (fertilizers, improved seeds), and credit.
• Poor infrastructure, especially rural roads, hindering market access.
• Land tenure insecurity.
• Climate change impacts, such as erratic rainfall.
• Post-harvest losses.

Efforts to improve agricultural productivity, promote sustainable farming practices, and enhance food security are crucial for reducing poverty and fostering equitable economic growth.

9.2. Mining and natural resources

Guinea is exceptionally rich in mineral resources, which form the backbone of its export economy.

• Bauxite: Guinea possesses an estimated 25% or more of the world's known bauxite reserves, potentially up to one-half, making it a critical global supplier. It is the world's second-largest producer of bauxite, the primary ore for aluminum. Bauxite and alumina (refined bauxite) are the most significant exports. Major bauxite mining operations are located in northwestern Guinea, such as the Sangarédi mine (operated by Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinée - CBG, a joint venture between the Guinean government and an international consortium including Alcoa and Rio Tinto) and the Kindia mine (operated by RUSAL). These operations contribute substantially to foreign exchange earnings but have also raised concerns about environmental degradation and the equitable distribution of benefits to local communities.
• Gold: Guinea has significant gold deposits, particularly in Upper Guinea around Siguiri. Gold is a major export commodity. In 2015, Guinea's gold production was 17 metric tonnes.
• Diamonds: Diamond deposits are also found, primarily in Forested Guinea.
• Iron ore: Guinea has vast reserves of high-grade iron ore, notably at the Simandou deposit in the southeast, considered one of the world's largest untapped iron ore reserves. Development of Simandou has been subject to complex negotiations, changes in ownership, and challenges related to infrastructure (requiring extensive railway and port development). In March 2010, Rio Tinto and Chinalco signed a preliminary agreement to develop the project. In 2019, a new consortium pledged to fund the construction of a new heavy-duty standard gauge railway to the port of Matakong.
• Other minerals: Deposits of uranium, nickel, manganese, and other metals also exist.

The mining sector, while crucial for revenue, faces challenges related to governance, transparency, contract negotiations, environmental impact, and social responsibility. Ensuring that mineral wealth translates into sustainable development and improved living standards for the Guinean population is a key policy objective. Tigui Camara, a former model, is noted as the first woman in Guinea to own a mining company, which incorporates social enterprise principles.

9.3. Oil and energy

Guinea currently does not produce crude oil, but there has been interest in offshore oil exploration. In 2006, Guinea signed a production sharing agreement with Hyperdynamics Corporation of Houston for offshore exploration. Initial exploratory drilling, such as the Sabu-1 well in 2011-2012, did not yield commercially viable results. Partnerships with companies like Dana Petroleum and Tullow Oil have been formed for further exploration. The Fatala prospect was another target. The potential for oil development remains uncertain.

Electricity generation capacity in Guinea is limited and primarily relies on hydropower, given the country's abundant water resources. Major hydroelectric dams include the Kaléta Dam and Souapiti Dam on the Konkouré River. However, the energy supply is often unreliable, particularly outside the capital, with frequent power outages. Challenges include aging infrastructure, insufficient generation capacity to meet demand, and issues with transmission and distribution networks. Expanding access to reliable and affordable electricity, including through renewable energy sources, is critical for economic development and improving quality of life.

9.4. Tourism

Guinea possesses significant tourism potential due to its diverse natural landscapes, cultural heritage, and wildlife. Main tourist attractions include:

• Waterfalls: Numerous picturesque waterfalls are found, particularly in the Fouta Djallon (Middle Guinea) and Maritime Guinea (Lower Guinea) regions. Notable examples include the Soumba Falls near Kindia, the Voile de la Mariée (Bride's Veil) falls in Dubréka, the Kinkon Falls (about 262 ft ^{(80 m)} high) and Kambadaga Falls (can reach 328 ft ^{(100 m)} in rainy season) near Pita, and the Ditinn & Mitty waterfalls in Dalaba.
• National Parks and Nature Reserves: The Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) offers unique biodiversity. Badiar National Park and other protected areas provide opportunities for wildlife viewing and ecotourism.
• Cultural Sites: Historic towns, traditional villages, and cultural festivals showcase Guinea's rich ethnic diversity and heritage. The Fouta Djallon is known for Fula culture, while Upper Guinea is a center of Malinké traditions.
• Coastal Areas: The Los Islands near Conakry offer beaches and potential for marine tourism.

The tourism industry in Guinea is currently underdeveloped. Challenges include poor infrastructure (roads, accommodation), political instability, and limited marketing and promotion. Government policies aim to develop the sector, recognizing its potential for job creation and economic diversification. A focus on sustainable and community-based tourism could help ensure that benefits are shared locally and natural and cultural assets are preserved.

11.1. Ethnic groups

Guinea is home to a diverse array of ethnic groups, with more than 24 distinct groups identified. The three largest and most politically influential ethnic groups are:

• Fula** (also known as Fulani, Peuhl, or Fulɓe): Comprising approximately 33.4% to 40% of the population (estimates vary). They are predominantly found in the Fouta Djallon (Middle Guinea) region and are traditionally pastoralists, though many are now settled agriculturalists and traders. They have a strong Islamic heritage.
• Malinké** (also known as Mandingo): Making up about 29.4% to 30% of the population. They are primarily located in Upper Guinea and parts of Forested Guinea, particularly around Kankan and Kissidougou. The Malinké have a rich history linked to the Mali Empire.
• Susu** (or Soussou): Constituting around 20% to 21.2% of the population. They mainly inhabit Maritime Guinea, particularly around the capital Conakry, Forécariah, and Kindia.

Smaller ethnic groups make up the remaining percentage of the population (around 16-20%). These include:

• Kpelle
• Kissi
• Toma (or Loma)
• Zialo
• Baga (known for their distinctive art, like the Nimba mask)
• Coniagui (Konyagi)
• Bassari

Ethnic identity often plays a significant role in social and political life in Guinea. Inter-ethnic relations are generally peaceful, but tensions can arise, particularly during election periods, as political affiliations often align with ethnic lines. Promoting national unity and ensuring equitable representation and treatment for all ethnic groups, including minorities, are important for social cohesion and stability. Approximately 10,000 non-Africans, predominantly Lebanese, French, and other Europeans, lived in Guinea as of 2017.

11.2. Languages

French is the official language of Guinea, used in government administration, education, formal business, and the media. However, it is not widely spoken as a first language by the majority of the population.

Numerous indigenous languages are spoken across the country, reflecting its ethnic diversity. The most prominent indigenous languages, often serving as lingua francas in their respective regions, include:

• Pular** (also known as Fulfulde or Fula): Spoken by the Fula people, it is the most widely spoken indigenous language, particularly in the Fouta Djallon region. Estimates suggest it was the native language of about 33.9% of the population in 2018.
• Maninka** (or Malinké): Spoken by the Malinké people, primarily in Upper Guinea. It was the native language of around 29.4% of the population in 2018. N'Ko, an alphabet devised for Manding languages, is used by some Maninka speakers.
• Susu**: Spoken by the Susu people, predominantly in Maritime Guinea, including Conakry. It was the first language for about 21.2% of the population in 2018.

In total, more than 24 indigenous languages are spoken. Many Guineans are multilingual, speaking their ethnic language, a regional lingua franca, and French to varying degrees. Some indigenous languages are used in primary education and local media, but French remains dominant in formal settings. Efforts to promote and preserve indigenous languages are important for cultural heritage.

11.3. Religion

The religious landscape of Guinea is predominantly Islamic.

• Islam: Approximately 85-90% of the population is Muslim. The vast majority of Guinean Muslims are Sunni, adhering to the Maliki school of jurisprudence, and Sufism has a strong influence, with various Sufi brotherhoods (tariqas) being prominent.
• Christianity: Christians make up about 8-10% of the population. The largest Christian denomination is Roman Catholic, but there are also various Protestant groups, including Anglicans, Baptists, Evangelicals, and Seventh-day Adventists.
• Traditional Indigenous Beliefs (Animism): Around 5-7% of the population adheres primarily to traditional indigenous beliefs, although these practices and beliefs often coexist or are syncretized with Islam and Christianity.

The constitution typically provides for freedom of religion, and relations between different religious communities are generally peaceful and tolerant. Interfaith dialogue and cooperation occur. Major religious holidays for both Muslims (e.g., Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha) and Christians (e.g., Christmas, Easter) are often observed as public holidays.

There have been isolated incidents of ethno-religious tension. For example, in July 2013, clashes occurred in Nzérékoré between ethnic Kpelle (often Christian or animist) and ethnic Konianke (Muslims, closely related to the Malinké), resulting in at least 54 deaths. Such incidents are often linked to underlying socio-economic or political disputes rather than purely religious intolerance. In 2021, some violence was reported in Kendoumaya, Lower Guinea, primarily concerning a land dispute involving a monastery. Overall, Guinea is characterized by a high degree of religious observance, with religion playing an important role in the daily lives of its people.

12.1. Education

Guinea's education system faces significant challenges in terms of access, quality, and resources. The system is generally structured into primary, secondary (lower and upper), and higher education levels.

• Structure**: Primary education typically lasts for 6 years. Lower secondary education (college) is 4 years, and upper secondary education (lycée) is 3 years.
• Compulsory Education**: Primary education is compulsory for 6 years, though enforcement and enrollment rates vary, especially in rural areas and for girls.
• Language of Instruction**: French is the official language of instruction.
• Literacy Rates**: Literacy rates remain low, particularly among adults and women. In 2015, the adult literacy rate was estimated at 30.5% (around 52% for males and 30% for females in 2010).
• Quality of Education**: The quality of education is often poor due to a lack of trained teachers, insufficient teaching materials, overcrowded classrooms, and inadequate infrastructure.
• Challenges**:
  • Low enrollment and high dropout rates, especially for girls, who may be kept out of school for domestic work, early marriage, or agricultural labor. Guinea has one of the highest rates of child marriage in the world.
  • Disparities in access and quality between urban and rural areas.
  • Shortage of qualified teachers and educational facilities.
  • Limited government funding for education.

  Major institutions of higher education include the Gamal Abdel Nasser University of Conakry and other universities and vocational training centers. Improving access to quality education at all levels, with a particular focus on girls' education and vocational training, is crucial for human capital development and social equity in Guinea.

12.2. Health

Guinea's healthcare system is underdeveloped and faces numerous challenges, resulting in poor health indicators for the population.

• Healthcare System**: The public healthcare system consists of national and regional hospitals, prefectural health centers, and community health posts. Private clinics and traditional medicine also play a role.
• Access and Distribution**: Access to healthcare services is limited, especially in rural areas. There is a significant shortage of medical facilities, equipment, and essential medicines. Healthcare professionals, particularly doctors and specialists, are concentrated in urban areas, mainly Conakry.
• Health Indicators**:
  • Life expectancy is low.
  • Infant and under-five mortality rates are high.
  • Maternal mortality rates are also very high (576 per 100,000 live births in 2021, though this is an improvement from previous years).
• Public Health Challenges**:
  • Infectious diseases are prevalent.
  • Poor sanitation and hygiene contribute to the spread of waterborne diseases.
  • Malnutrition is widespread, particularly among children.
  • Limited access to clean drinking water.

  12.2.1. Major diseases and response

  Guinea contends with a high burden of major infectious diseases.

  • Ebola: Guinea was the epicenter of the 2014-2016 West African Ebola outbreak, which had a devastating impact on the country's health system and society. The outbreak highlighted weaknesses in disease surveillance and response capacity. International and national efforts were mobilized for treatment, contact tracing, and community engagement. Ebola re-emerged briefly in 2021 but was contained more rapidly.
  • HIV/AIDS: While prevalence is lower than in some other African regions, HIV/AIDS remains a significant public health concern. An estimated 170,000 adults and children were infected at the end of 2004. Prevalence was highest in Conakry (5%) and in cities of Forested Guinea (7%). Factors fueling the epidemic include unprotected sex, multiple partners, poverty, and unstable borders. Efforts focus on prevention, testing, and access to antiretroviral therapy. The Ebola outbreak disrupted HIV/AIDS treatment services.
  • Malaria: Malaria is endemic and a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, especially among children. It is transmitted year-round, with peak transmission during the rainy season (July-October). Prevention efforts include insecticide-treated bed nets and intermittent preventive treatment for pregnant women.
  • COVID-19: The first case of COVID-19 was reported in March 2020. By the end of 2020, Guinea had recorded 13,722 confirmed cases and 81 deaths. The pandemic placed additional strain on the health system.

  Governmental and international efforts focus on strengthening disease surveillance, improving healthcare infrastructure, training health workers, and implementing public health campaigns for prevention and treatment. The impact on victims often extends beyond physical health to include social stigma and economic hardship, necessitating comprehensive relief and support efforts.

  12.2.2. Maternal and child health

  Maternal and child health indicators in Guinea are among the poorest in the world, reflecting deep-seated challenges in healthcare access and social practices.

  • Maternal Mortality: The maternal mortality ratio was 576 per 100,000 live births in 2021. While this shows some improvement over past decades (e.g., 964.7 in 1990), it remains critically high. Limited access to skilled birth attendance, emergency obstetric care, and family planning services contribute to these rates. The lifetime risk of maternal death for pregnant women is alarmingly high (1 in 26).
  • Infant and Child Mortality: The infant mortality rate and under-five mortality rate (146 per 1,000 births) are also very high. Neonatal mortality (deaths within the first 28 days of life) accounts for a significant portion (29%) of under-five deaths. Common causes include malaria, pneumonia, diarrhea, and malnutrition.
  • Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): Guinea has one of the highest prevalence rates of FGM globally, with estimates exceeding 96-98% of women and girls having undergone the practice. FGM is performed across almost all cultures, religions, and ethnicities in Guinea. It has severe immediate and long-term health consequences, including complications during childbirth, increased risk of infections, and psychological trauma. Despite being illegal, enforcement is weak, and FGM remains deeply entrenched. Addressing FGM requires sustained efforts in education, community engagement, legal enforcement, and support for alternative rites of passage, crucial for women's rights and health.
  • Child Malnutrition: Malnutrition is a major issue, with high rates of stunting (chronic malnutrition) and wasting (acute malnutrition). A 2012 study reported acute malnutrition rates above 10% in Upper Guinea's mining zones, with 139,200 children suffering from acute malnutrition and nearly 1.6 million suffering from anemia. Factors include poor infant and young child feeding practices, limited access to diverse and nutritious foods, inadequate healthcare, and poor sanitation.

  Efforts to improve maternal and child health involve increasing access to skilled maternal care, promoting child immunization, improving nutrition programs, and combating harmful traditional practices like FGM. The number of midwives per 1,000 live births is extremely low (1), highlighting the need for more trained healthcare personnel.

12.3. Public safety

The general state of public safety in Guinea presents challenges for both residents and travelers. Common types of crime include petty theft (such as pickpocketing and snatch-and-grab incidents), residential and commercial burglaries, and armed robbery. Carjackings and highway banditry have also been reported, particularly outside major urban areas.

Law enforcement capacity is often limited by a lack of resources, inadequate training, and corruption within the police force. This can result in slow response times and difficulties in effectively investigating and prosecuting crimes. The judicial system's weaknesses also contribute to a perception of impunity for criminals.

Political instability, demonstrations, and civil unrest can periodically lead to heightened security risks, particularly in Conakry and other urban centers. During such times, clashes between protesters and security forces may occur, and there is an increased risk of opportunistic crime.

Travel advisories from various foreign governments often caution their citizens about crime levels and potential security risks in Guinea, advising vigilance, avoidance of large gatherings, and precautions against theft. For residents, neighborhood watch groups and private security measures are sometimes employed in wealthier areas. Improving public safety requires strengthening law enforcement institutions, addressing corruption, improving the judicial process, and tackling the socio-economic factors that can contribute to crime.

13.1. Music and performing arts

Music and dance are integral to Guinean cultural life. Traditional music features a variety of instruments, with the djembe (a goblet-shaped hand drum) being perhaps the most internationally recognized. Other traditional instruments include the kora (a 21-string lute-bridge-harp), the balafon (a xylophone-like instrument), and various flutes and stringed instruments like the koni. Each ethnic group has its own musical styles, rhythms, and repertoires, often associated with specific ceremonies, storytelling, and social events. Griots (traditional West African storytellers, musicians, and oral historians) play a vital role in preserving and transmitting cultural heritage through music and epic poetry.

Guinea has produced many internationally acclaimed musicians and performing arts troupes. Les Ballets Africains is a renowned national dance company that has toured globally, showcasing Guinean traditional dance and music. Artists like Mory Kanté (famous for his hit song "Yéké Yéké"), Sékouba Bambino Diabaté, and djembe master Mamady Keïta (who helped popularize the djembe worldwide) have brought Guinean music to international audiences. Modern popular music in Guinea blends traditional rhythms with contemporary genres like Afrobeat, reggae, and hip-hop.

Traditional dance is diverse and energetic, often performed in groups and characterized by intricate footwork and expressive movements. Dance is a key component of social gatherings, festivals, and rituals.

13.2. Cuisine

Guinean cuisine varies by region but shares common West African characteristics. Rice is the primary staple food, typically served with a variety of sauces made from ingredients like peanuts, okra, tomatoes, or palm oil, often including fish, chicken, or meat. Cassava is also widely consumed, often processed into fufu or attiéké.

Common ingredients include:

• Vegetables: Okra, eggplant, tomatoes, onions, peppers, leafy greens.
• Proteins: Fish (fresh, smoked, or dried, especially along the coast), chicken, beef, goat.
• Grains and Tubers: Rice, fonio, maize, cassava, yams.
• Flavorings: Palm oil, peanut butter (for sauces like maafe or groundnut stew), chili peppers, ginger, garlic.

Signature dishes and beverages:

• Peanut sauce (sauce d'arachide or maafe): A rich stew made with peanut butter, tomatoes, and often meat or fish, served with rice.
• Okra sauce (sauce gombo): A slimy sauce made with okra, often with fish or meat, served with rice or fonio.
• Yétissé: A fish-based dish.
• Jollof rice: A popular West African one-pot rice dish cooked with tomatoes, onions, spices, and meat or fish.
• Tapalapa bread: A type of bread common in the region.
• Ginger juice (jus de gingembre) and bissap (hibiscus juice) are popular non-alcoholic beverages.

Dining etiquette often involves eating from a large communal dish, traditionally using the right hand, especially in rural areas and informal settings. Meals are important social occasions.

13.3. Sports

The most popular sport in Guinea is football (soccer). The Guinea national football team, nicknamed Syli Nationale (National Elephants), is a source of national pride and competes in regional and continental tournaments like the Africa Cup of Nations. Guinea has produced several notable footballers who have played for clubs in Europe. The domestic football league is the Guinée Championnat National. Horoya AC, Hafia FC (dominant in the 1960s-70s and three-time African club champions), and AS Kaloum Star are among the most successful clubs.

Basketball is also a popular sport. Other sports practiced include athletics, volleyball, and traditional wrestling. Guinea participates in the Olympic Games, having first competed in 1968, though it has yet to win an Olympic medal.

13.4. Marriage customs and polygamy

Marriage customs in Guinea vary among different ethnic groups but generally involve negotiations between families, payment of bride price, and communal celebrations. Traditional marriages often emphasize family alliances and community involvement.

Polygamy (specifically polygyny, where a man has multiple wives) is practiced in Guinea, particularly among Muslims, though its prevalence and acceptance vary. While Guinean civil law has undergone changes regarding polygamy (generally prohibiting it with exceptions or requiring consent of the existing wife), customary and religious laws often permit it. In 2020, it was estimated that about 26% of marriages were polygamous (29% among Muslims and 10% among Christians). The practice is more common in rural areas and among certain ethnic groups.

The social acceptance of polygamy is complex. While it is a long-standing tradition for some, it also raises concerns regarding women's rights, economic strain on families, and potential health implications (e.g., HIV transmission). Discussions around polygamy involve balancing cultural traditions with evolving legal frameworks and perspectives on gender equality and family well-being.

13.5. Media

The media landscape in Guinea includes print, broadcast (radio and television), and online platforms.

• Radio is the most widespread and accessible medium, particularly in rural areas, with numerous public, private, and community radio stations broadcasting in French and local languages.
• Television broadcasting is less widespread than radio but includes state-run television and a growing number of private channels.
• Print media consists of several newspapers, primarily published in French in Conakry, but circulation is often limited due to cost and literacy levels.
• Online media and social media usage are growing, especially in urban areas, providing alternative sources of information and platforms for discussion.

Media freedom in Guinea has historically been challenging, with periods of government control, censorship, and harassment of journalists. While legal frameworks may provide for freedom of the press, practical limitations and political pressures often exist. Government media policies and the influence of political interests on media outlets are ongoing concerns. A free and independent media is crucial for democratic development, accountability, and public discourse. The work of media watchdog organizations and efforts to strengthen journalistic professionalism are important in this context.

13.6. World Heritage Sites

Guinea has one UNESCO World Heritage Site:

• Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve: Inscribed in 1981 (with an extension in 1982), this site is shared with Côte d'Ivoire. It is a Strict Nature Reserve recognized for its exceptional biodiversity, including a rich variety of flora and fauna, with many endemic species such as the viviparous toad and unique chimpanzee populations. The reserve's rugged mountains, grasslands, and forests provide critical habitat. Conservation efforts aim to protect this unique ecosystem from threats such as mining (the Liberian side of the massif has been mined), poaching, and agricultural encroachment. Its cultural value also lies in the traditional beliefs associated with the mountain by local communities.

13.7. Public holidays

Public holidays in Guinea include national holidays and religious holidays.
Major national holidays:

• New Year's Day**: January 1
• Independence Day**: October 2 (commemorating independence from France in 1958)
• Labour Day**: May 1
• Africa Day**: May 25
• Armed Forces Day**: November 1

Significant religious holidays (dates vary according to lunar calendars for Islamic holidays):

• Eid al-Fitr** (End of Ramadan)
• Eid al-Adha** (Feast of Sacrifice)
• Mawlid** (Prophet Muhammad's Birthday)
• Easter Monday** (Christian)
• Ascension Day** (Christian)
• Assumption Day**: August 15 (Christian)
• All Saints' Day**: November 1 (Christian)
• Christmas Day**: December 25 (Christian)

These holidays reflect the country's historical milestones and its diverse religious composition. Other culturally important public holidays may also be observed.