Palestine

4.1. From Prehistory to the Ottoman Era

The region of Palestine, situated at a continental crossroads between Asia and Africa, has been inhabited since prehistoric times and has been ruled by various empires, experiencing significant demographic changes. It served as a vital land bridge for armies and merchants traveling between the Nile Valley and Mesopotamia, as well as from North Africa, China, and India.
The land is considered the birthplace of Judaism and Christianity. According to Jewish tradition, the patriarch Abraham received a divine promise of the land for his descendants. After a period in Egypt, the Israelites, led by Moses, are said to have returned and conquered Canaan, eventually establishing the United Kingdom of Israel and building the First Temple in Jerusalem. Following the kingdom's division and eventual conquests by empires such as the Neo-Babylonian Empire, which destroyed the First Temple, and later the Achaemenid Empire (Persian) and Macedonian (Hellenistic) empires, the region came under Roman rule. It was during Roman rule, in the 1st century CE, that Jesus of Nazareth lived and preached, leading to the birth of Christianity. Initially persecuted, Christianity spread widely and became the state religion of the Roman Empire in the 4th century.
For Islam, which emerged in the 7th century CE, Palestine also holds profound religious significance. Jerusalem is home to the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif), considered the third holiest site in Islam, associated with the Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey and Ascension.

In the 7th century, the Rashidun Caliphate conquered Palestine from the Byzantine Empire, marking the beginning of a long period of Islamic rule and the gradual Arabization and Islamization of the local population. European Crusaders in the 11th to 13th centuries sought to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control, establishing Crusader states, but these were eventually defeated, notably by Saladin of the Ayyubid Sultanate in the late 12th century. From the early 16th century until the end of World War I, Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire. Under the Ottomans, the millet system allowed religious communities a degree of autonomy.

4.2. Rise of Palestinian Nationalism

The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of various nationalist movements within its territories, including Arab nationalism. Palestinian Arab elites, particularly urban notable families who had worked within the Ottoman bureaucracy, played a significant role in the burgeoning Pan-Arab movements. These movements arose partly in response to the emergence of the Young Turks movement and the subsequent weakening of Ottoman power, especially during World War I.

Simultaneously, the Zionist movement emerged in Europe, aiming to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine. This movement led to increased Jewish immigration to Palestine and the purchase of land, which began to create tensions with the local Arab population. Abdul Hamid II, the last effective sultan of the Ottoman Empire, opposed the Zionist movement's efforts in Palestine.

The end of Ottoman rule in Palestine coincided with the conclusion of World War I. The failure of Emir Faisal's efforts to establish a Greater Syria (encompassing Palestine) in the face of British and French colonial claims also shaped the aspirations of Palestinian elites for local autonomy and self-determination. The rise of Zionism acted as a strong catalyst for the development of a distinct Palestinian national consciousness, as the local Arab population increasingly perceived the Zionist project as a threat to their land, rights, and identity.

4.3. British Mandate

The defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I led to the dismantling of its rule over Palestine. In 1917, British forces led by General Allenby captured Jerusalem, marking the end of Ottoman control. In 1920, the League of Nations granted Britain the Mandate for Palestine, entrusting it with the administration of the region. The Mandate, formally approved in 1922, incorporated the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which supported the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, while also stipulating that nothing should be done to prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities.

Throughout the British Mandate period (1920-1948), Palestine experienced significant political and social upheaval. Jewish immigration increased substantially, leading to demographic shifts and growing competition for land and resources. This fueled intercommunal conflict between Arabs and Jews. Tensions escalated, resulting in violent clashes and riots across Palestine as early as 1920. In 1929, violent riots erupted over disputes concerning Jewish immigration and access to the Western Wall in Jerusalem.

Arab nationalist groups, led by figures like Amin al-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, and organized under bodies such as the Arab Higher Committee, increasingly demanded an end to Jewish immigration, restrictions on land sales to Jews, and the establishment of an independent Arab state. The Arab Revolt (1936-1939) was a major uprising against British rule and Jewish immigration. The British responded by deploying significant military forces and implementing stringent security measures to quell the revolt, leading to substantial casualties and widespread arrests among the Palestinian Arab population.

In an attempt to address the escalating tensions, the British government issued the White Paper of 1939, which imposed severe restrictions on Jewish immigration and land purchases, and envisioned an independent Palestinian state (with a shared Arab-Jewish government) within ten years. This policy was met with strong opposition from the Zionist movement, which viewed it as a betrayal of the Balfour Declaration and their aspirations for a Jewish state. Zionist organizations, including the Jewish Agency and the Histadrut, organized strikes and protests against the White Paper.

During the late 1930s and 1940s, several Zionist militant groups, including the Irgun and Lehi (Stern Gang), carried out acts of violence against British military and civilian targets, as well as Arab civilians, in their campaign for an independent Jewish state. Notable incidents included the King David Hotel bombing in Jerusalem in 1946, orchestrated by the Irgun, which resulted in 91 deaths. Figures like Menachem Begin and Yitzhak Shamir, who later became Israeli Prime Ministers, were leaders in these militant organizations.

During World War II, Palestine served as a strategically important location for British military operations. The Holocaust in Europe further intensified Zionist demands for a Jewish state in Palestine as a refuge for Jewish survivors. The Exodus 1947 incident, where a ship carrying Jewish Holocaust survivors was intercepted by the British navy and the refugees deported back to Europe, highlighted the plight of Jewish refugees and the growing international pressure on Britain.

By 1947, unable to resolve the conflict, Britain announced its intention to terminate the Mandate and referred the question of Palestine to the United Nations. The UN proposed a partition plan (Resolution 181 (II)) that recommended the creation of separate Arab and Jewish states, with Jerusalem placed under a special international regime. The plan was accepted by Jewish leaders but rejected by Arab leaders and states, who opposed the division of Palestine and the creation of a Jewish state on what they considered Arab land. The rejection of the partition plan by the Palestinian Arab leadership and neighboring Arab states set the stage for the 1948 war.

4.4. 1948 Palestine War and Nakba

Following the United Nations' 1947 Partition Plan (Resolution 181 (II)), which proposed the division of Mandatory Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish states with Jerusalem as an international city, tensions escalated into the 1947-1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine. The Jewish leadership accepted the plan, while Palestinian Arab leaders and Arab states rejected it, arguing it was unjust and violated the rights of the Arab majority.

On May 14, 1948, on the eve of the British Mandate's expiration, David Ben-Gurion declared the establishment of the State of Israel. The following day, neighboring Arab states-Egypt, Transjordan (now Jordan), Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq-intervened militarily, leading to the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.

The war resulted in a decisive Israeli victory. Israel expanded its territory beyond the UN partition plan's allocated borders, capturing about 78% of Mandatory Palestine. The remaining territories, the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) and the Gaza Strip, came under the administration of Transjordan and Egypt, respectively. Transjordan subsequently annexed the West Bank in 1950, a move recognized only by the United Kingdom and Pakistan, while Egypt administered the Gaza Strip through the All-Palestine Government until it was effectively dissolved in 1959.

For Palestinians, the 1948 war and its aftermath are known as the Nakba (النكبة_an-Nakbah^Arabic, meaning "catastrophe"). During the war, approximately 700,000 to 750,000 Palestinian Arabs-about half of the Arab population of Mandatory Palestine-were expelled or fled from their homes in the territory that became Israel. Hundreds of Palestinian villages and towns were depopulated and subsequently destroyed or resettled by Jews. The causes of the exodus are debated, with historians pointing to a combination of factors, including direct expulsions by Israeli forces, fear of massacres (such as the Deir Yassin massacre), the psychological impact of warfare, and calls by Arab leaders for civilians to temporarily evacuate.

The Nakba had a devastating and lasting impact on Palestinian society, leading to a major refugee crisis. The displaced Palestinians sought refuge in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and neighboring Arab countries like Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt. Most of these refugees and their descendants remain in refugee camps or in exile, with their demand for the Palestinian right of return to their homes and properties in what is now Israel becoming a central and unresolved issue in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The denial of this right is viewed by Palestinians as a continuous injustice and a violation of international law. The Nakba also led to the fragmentation of Palestinian society and the loss of a cohesive political entity on their homeland, profoundly shaping Palestinian national identity and political aspirations for self-determination and redress.

4.5. Israeli Occupation and PLO Activity (Post-1967)

In June 1967, the Six-Day War erupted between Israel and a coalition of Arab states (Egypt, Jordan, and Syria). Israel launched a preemptive strike and achieved a swift and decisive victory. As a result, Israel occupied the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) from Jordan, the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, and the Golan Heights from Syria. This marked the beginning of the Israeli military occupation of Palestinian territories, profoundly altering the lives of millions of Palestinians and the dynamics of the conflict.

The occupation brought the entire Palestinian population of the West Bank and Gaza Strip under Israeli military rule. Israel established a military administration to govern these territories, imposing restrictions on movement, political activity, and economic life. The occupation had severe socio-political consequences for Palestinians, including land confiscation for the construction of Israeli settlements (which are considered illegal under international law), house demolitions, arrests and detentions, and limitations on access to resources such as water and land. These measures were widely condemned as violations of international humanitarian law, particularly the Fourth Geneva Convention.

In response to the 1967 occupation and the perceived failure of Arab states to liberate Palestine, Palestinian nationalism and resistance movements gained prominence. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), established in 1964, emerged as the main umbrella organization representing Palestinians. Initially based in Jordan, the PLO, under the leadership of Yasser Arafat from 1969, escalated its armed struggle against Israel. After being expelled from Jordan in 1970-1971 (an event known as Black September), the PLO relocated its headquarters to Lebanon.

The PLO engaged in various forms of resistance, including guerrilla warfare and international diplomacy, to achieve Palestinian self-determination and the establishment of an independent Palestinian state. The PLO's activities and Palestinian resistance under occupation were often met with harsh Israeli countermeasures, leading to cycles of violence. The human rights implications of the occupation became a major concern, with numerous reports by international organizations detailing abuses such as collective punishment, restrictions on freedom of expression and assembly, and the impact of settlements on Palestinian daily life. The international community, through numerous UN resolutions, repeatedly called for Israel's withdrawal from the occupied territories and affirmed the Palestinians' right to self-determination, but these calls largely went unheeded. The occupation solidified the Israeli-Palestinian conflict as a central issue in Middle Eastern politics and international affairs.

4.6. Uprising, Declaration, and Peace Process

The late 1980s and early 1990s were a transformative period for the Palestinian struggle. In December 1987, the First Intifada (انتفاضة_Intifāḍah^Arabic, "uprising" or "shaking off") erupted in the Gaza Strip and quickly spread to the West Bank. It was a largely spontaneous, grassroots Palestinian uprising against the Israeli occupation, characterized by widespread protests, strikes, boycotts of Israeli goods, civil disobedience (such as tax refusal), and stone-throwing by youths. The Intifada demonstrated the depth of Palestinian popular resistance and the unsustainability of the occupation. Israel's response, which included mass arrests, curfews, deportations, and the use of lethal force, drew international criticism and highlighted the human rights situation in the occupied territories. The Intifada significantly raised the international profile of the Palestinian cause and put pressure on Israel and the international community to find a political solution.

On November 15, 1988, amidst the First Intifada, the Palestinian National Council (PNC), the PLO's legislative body, convened in Algiers and issued the Palestinian Declaration of Independence. This declaration proclaimed the establishment of the State of Palestine on Palestinian territory, with Jerusalem as its capital, based on UN Resolution 181 (the 1947 Partition Plan) and "the historical right of the Palestinian Arab people to their homeland." Crucially, the declaration implicitly recognized Israel by accepting UN resolutions that formed the basis for a two-state solution. Many countries quickly recognized the State of Palestine. Following the declaration, the UN General Assembly acknowledged the proclamation and decided to use the designation "Palestine" instead of "Palestine Liberation Organization" in the UN system.

The First Intifada and the changing geopolitical landscape following the end of the Cold War and the Gulf War (1990-1991) created new dynamics for peace. The Madrid Conference in October 1991 was the first time Israeli, Palestinian (as part of a joint Jordanian-Palestinian delegation), and other Arab representatives met for direct peace negotiations. While the Madrid Conference itself did not achieve a breakthrough, it paved the way for secret bilateral talks between Israel and the PLO in Norway.

These secret talks led to the historic signing of the Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, commonly known as the Oslo I Accord, on the White House lawn on September 13, 1993. The Oslo Accords marked a turning point, with Israel and the PLO formally recognizing each other. The accords established a framework for a five-year interim period of Palestinian self-government in parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, leading to a permanent settlement based on UN Security Council Resolution 242 and 338. The Palestinian National Authority (PNA) was established in 1994 to administer these areas. Yasser Arafat returned from exile to head the PNA.

The Oslo Accords generated significant hope for democratic development and state-building among Palestinians and was seen by many internationally as a pathway to a two-state solution. However, the process faced numerous challenges from the outset. Key issues such as Jerusalem, Israeli settlements, refugees, borders, and security were deferred to "final status" negotiations. Opposition from hardliners on both sides, continued Israeli settlement expansion, and acts of violence, including suicide bombings by Palestinian militant groups like Hamas and Islamic Jihad, and attacks by Israeli extremists like the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre in 1994, undermined trust and the peace process. Despite these difficulties, state-building efforts commenced, with the establishment of Palestinian institutions and the holding of elections in 1996. The social impact of this period was mixed, with initial optimism gradually giving way to frustration as the promised improvements in daily life and progress towards full sovereignty failed to materialize for many Palestinians.

4.7. Second Intifada and Political Divisions

The Camp David Summit in July 2000, mediated by U.S. President Bill Clinton between Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat, failed to reach a final status agreement. The failure was attributed to disagreements over core issues, including the status of Jerusalem, Israeli settlements, borders, and the Palestinian refugee issue. Both sides blamed each other for the collapse of the talks.

In September 2000, a provocative visit by then-Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon to the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif) in Jerusalem, a site holy to both Muslims and Jews, ignited widespread Palestinian protests. These protests quickly escalated into the Second Intifada, also known as the Al-Aqsa Intifada. This uprising was characterized by a higher level of violence than the first, involving armed confrontations, suicide bombings by Palestinian militant groups against Israeli civilians, and large-scale Israeli military operations, including incursions into Palestinian cities, targeted assassinations, and widespread destruction of infrastructure.

The Second Intifada, which lasted roughly from 2000 to 2005, had devastating consequences. Thousands of people, overwhelmingly Palestinians but also many Israelis, were killed, and many more were injured. The violence severely impacted civilians on both sides, leading to a deep humanitarian crisis in the Palestinian territories, exacerbated by Israeli closures, curfews, and the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier. The barrier, which Israel stated was for security, was built largely inside the West Bank, annexing Palestinian land and severely restricting Palestinian movement and access to resources, drawing international condemnation as a violation of international law. The International Court of Justice issued an advisory opinion in 2004 deeming the barrier illegal where it deviated from the Green Line.

The human rights situation deteriorated significantly during this period. Events like the Battle of Jenin and the Siege of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem drew international attention. The Israeli military reoccupied areas previously under Palestinian Authority control. Yasser Arafat was confined by Israeli forces to his Ramallah headquarters (the Muqata'a) for much of this period until shortly before his death in November 2004.

Following Arafat's death, Mahmoud Abbas was elected President of the Palestinian Authority in January 2005. In 2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip, withdrawing its settlements and military forces, though it maintained control over Gaza's borders, airspace, and coastline, leading many to argue that the occupation continued in a different form.

The Second Intifada also contributed to a major political schism within Palestinian society. In the 2006 legislative elections, Hamas, an Islamist militant group, won a majority, defeating the long-dominant Fatah party. This led to a political standoff and power struggle between Fatah and Hamas. Tensions escalated into the Battle of Gaza in June 2007, resulting in Hamas violently taking control of the Gaza Strip. This de facto division of Palestinian governance-with Hamas ruling Gaza and the Fatah-led Palestinian Authority administering parts of the West Bank-has persisted, severely weakening the Palestinian national movement, hindering efforts for a unified negotiating position, and exacerbating the humanitarian and political challenges faced by Palestinians in both territories. The Gaza Strip, under Hamas control, has since faced a severe blockade imposed by Israel and Egypt, leading to a dire socio-economic situation.

4.8. Continued Conflict and Current Situation

Since the late 2000s, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict has remained entrenched, marked by recurrent violence, stalled peace efforts, and a deteriorating humanitarian situation, particularly in the Gaza Strip. The political division between the Fatah-led Palestinian Authority in the West Bank and the Hamas-controlled Gaza Strip has persisted, complicating Palestinian governance and national aspirations.

The Blockade of the Gaza Strip, imposed by Israel and Egypt since Hamas took control in 2007, has had a devastating impact on Gaza's 2 million residents. Restrictions on the movement of people and goods have crippled the economy, led to high rates of unemployment and poverty, and severely limited access to essential services like healthcare, clean water, and electricity. International organizations have repeatedly described the situation as a man-made humanitarian crisis.

Recurrent conflicts between Israel and Hamas in Gaza have caused widespread destruction and loss of life. Major escalations occurred in 2008-2009 (Cast Lead), 2012 (Pillar of Defense), 2014 (Protective Edge), and 2021 (Guardian of the Walls). These conflicts involved Israeli airstrikes and ground incursions into Gaza, and rocket fire from Hamas and other militant groups into Israel. Civilians, particularly in densely populated Gaza, have borne the brunt of the violence, with significant concerns raised about violations of international humanitarian law by all parties.

In the West Bank, Israeli settlement expansion in occupied territory, including East Jerusalem, has continued and accelerated, despite being widely regarded as illegal under international law and a major obstacle to a two-state solution. These settlements, now housing hundreds of thousands of Israelis, fragment Palestinian land, restrict Palestinian movement, and lead to the confiscation of Palestinian property and resources. Israeli settler violence against Palestinians and their property has also been a persistent issue, often occurring with impunity. Access restrictions, including checkpoints, the separation barrier (much of which is built inside the West Bank), and permit systems, severely impede Palestinian daily life, economic activity, and access to services like education and healthcare.

The 2023 Israel-Hamas war marked a catastrophic escalation. On October 7, 2023, Hamas-led militants launched a large-scale attack on southern Israel, killing approximately 1,200 Israelis and foreign nationals, mostly civilians, and taking around 250 hostages. Israel responded with an extensive military campaign in the Gaza Strip, involving intense aerial bombardment and a ground invasion. The war has resulted in an unprecedented humanitarian crisis in Gaza. As of mid-2024, tens of thousands of Palestinians, a large percentage of whom are women and children, have been killed, and the vast majority of Gaza's population has been displaced. Much of Gaza's infrastructure, including homes, hospitals, schools, and water systems, has been destroyed or severely damaged. There are widespread reports of famine-like conditions, a collapse of the healthcare system, and severe shortages of food, water, medicine, and fuel.

The scale of death and destruction in Gaza has led to accusations of war crimes and genocide against Israel at the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Court. Human rights organizations like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, as well as several UN experts, have stated that Israel's actions in Gaza amount to genocide or crimes against humanity, such as extermination. The war has also seen a surge in violence and restrictions in the West Bank, with increased Israeli military raids, settler attacks, and Palestinian casualties.

The current political and social landscape is dire. The peace process has been moribund for years, and the prospects for a two-state solution appear increasingly remote due to settlement expansion and political intransigence. The international community remains divided, though there has been growing international pressure on Israel regarding its conduct in the war and increasing calls for a ceasefire and a sustainable political resolution that addresses the root causes of the conflict, upholds international law, and ensures justice and security for both Palestinians and Israelis. The human rights of Palestinians, including their right to self-determination, freedom from occupation, and a life of dignity, remain at the forefront of international concern.

5.1. Climate

The climate of Palestine varies across its regions and with altitude. The West Bank generally experiences a Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Higher elevation areas tend to be cooler than the coastal plains. The eastern parts of the West Bank, including the Judean Desert and the western shoreline of the Dead Sea, have a dry and hot desert climate.

The Gaza Strip has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh), with mild winters and dry, hot summers. Spring typically arrives in March-April. The hottest months are July and August, with average high temperatures around 91.4 °F ^{(33 °C)}. The coldest month is January, with average temperatures around 44.6 °F ^{(7 °C)}. Rainfall is scarce and primarily occurs between November and March, with an annual precipitation rate of approximately 4.6 in ^{(116 mm)} (4.57 inches) in Gaza City. Jericho, being in the Jordan Valley and well below sea level, experiences very hot summers and mild winters. Jerusalem has warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters, occasionally experiencing snowfall.

5.2. Biodiversity

Palestine's biodiversity reflects its varied geography and climate, encompassing Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian, and Saharo-Arabian biogeographical zones. The region hosts a range of flora and fauna, although many habitats and species face significant pressures.

While Palestine does not have an extensive system of officially recognized national parks equivalent to international standards, largely due to the political situation and occupation, there are several areas designated as nature reserves or protected zones, particularly in the West Bank, where conservation efforts are underway. Wadi Qelt, near Jericho, is a notable desert valley with unique plant and animal life, rugged landscapes, natural springs, and historical sites like the St. George Monastery. Efforts have been made to protect its biodiversity. The Judaean Desert is home to species adapted to arid conditions, including the "Judaean Camel," though camels are domesticated.

Environmental challenges significantly impact biodiversity. These include habitat loss due to urbanization and agricultural expansion, water scarcity and pollution, overgrazing, and the effects of the Israeli occupation. Restrictions on access to land and resources, the construction of the separation barrier, and the expansion of Israeli settlements have fragmented habitats and hindered conservation efforts. For example, Israeli national parks have been established in Area C of the West Bank, which is under Israeli military and civil control, a practice considered problematic under international law by Palestinians as it involves land not under their jurisdiction for such purposes.

The Qalqilya Zoo in the West Bank is the only currently active zoo in the Palestinian territories. The Gaza Zoo faced severe challenges and closures due to the blockade and conflict. The sustainable management of natural resources and the protection of biodiversity are critical issues for Palestine, intertwined with the broader political and human rights context.

6.1. Administrative Divisions

The State of Palestine is administratively divided into sixteen governorates (محافظة_{muḥāfaẓah}^Arabic). Eleven of these governorates are located in the West Bank, and five are in the Gaza Strip.

West Bank Governorates:

• Jenin
• Tubas
• Tulkarm
• Nablus
• Qalqilya
• Salfit
• Ramallah and al-Bireh
• Jericho (includes Al-Aghwar, the Jordan Valley area)
• Jerusalem (includes PNA-administered areas and Israeli-occupied East Jerusalem, which Palestine claims as its capital)
• Bethlehem
• Hebron

Gaza Strip Governorates:

• North Gaza
• Gaza
• Deir al-Balah
• Khan Yunis
• Rafah

The Oslo II Accord (1995) further divided the West Bank into three administrative areas with differing levels of Palestinian and Israeli control, significantly impacting governance, Palestinian sovereignty, and daily life:

• Area A: Comprises approximately 18% of the West Bank and includes major Palestinian cities. The Palestinian Authority (PA) has full civil and security control in Area A.
• Area B: Constitutes about 22% of the West Bank, mainly Palestinian rural areas. The PA has civil control, while Israel retains overriding security control.
• Area C: Represents around 60% of the West Bank and is the largest contiguous area. It includes most Israeli settlements, buffer zones, military areas, and a significant portion of Palestinian agricultural land and natural resources. Israel retains full civil and security control in Area C. Palestinian development and construction in Area C are heavily restricted by Israeli authorities.

This division, intended as an interim arrangement, has become a long-term reality, fragmenting Palestinian territory, hindering economic development, and impeding the contiguity of a future Palestinian state. East Jerusalem was not included in these area classifications and was effectively annexed by Israel, a move not recognized by the international community. The Gaza Strip, following Israeli disengagement in 2005 and Hamas's takeover in 2007, is under Hamas administration but remains subject to an Israeli (and Egyptian) blockade, severely impacting its governance and humanitarian situation.

Population data are estimates and may vary; official census data can be difficult to obtain uniformly across all territories due to the political situation. Jerusalem Governorate data includes populations in areas claimed by Palestine but under Israeli administration.

6.2. Law and Security

The legal framework of Palestine is complex, drawing from Ottoman law, British Mandate regulations, Jordanian law (in the West Bank), Egyptian law (in Gaza), Israeli military orders, and laws enacted by the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) and Presidential decrees. The Palestine Basic Law, amended in 2003 and 2005, serves as an interim constitution for the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) and outlines the powers of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

The judicial system includes first instance courts, courts of appeal, and a High Court/Court of Cassation. There are also specialized courts, such as military courts and, in Gaza, courts applying principles influenced by Hamas's interpretation of Islamic law. However, the judiciary's independence and effectiveness are hampered by several factors, including the Israeli occupation, internal political divisions between the West Bank and Gaza, lack of resources, and political interference.

The Palestinian Security Services (PSS) are the official security forces of the PNA, established under the Oslo Accords. Their primary mandate is to maintain internal security, law and order in areas under PNA control (primarily Area A of the West Bank), and cooperate with Israel on security matters as stipulated by the accords. The PSS include several branches:

• The Civil Police Force: Responsible for regular policing and law enforcement.
• The National Security Forces: A gendarmerie-type force, responsible for broader security tasks and border control (where applicable).
• The Preventive Security Service: An internal intelligence agency focused on internal threats.
• The General Intelligence Service: Focused on external intelligence.

The functioning of the PSS is heavily constrained by the Israeli occupation. Israeli forces frequently conduct operations in PNA-controlled areas, undermining PNA authority and the rule of law. Movement restrictions also impede the PSS's ability to operate effectively. The PSS have faced criticism from human rights organizations for issues such as arbitrary detention, torture and ill-treatment of detainees, and suppression of dissent, particularly against political opponents or critics of the PNA.

In the Gaza Strip, Hamas maintains its own security forces and legal system, separate from the PNA. These forces, including the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades (Hamas's armed wing) and various police and internal security units, are responsible for security and law enforcement in Gaza. Hamas's governance in Gaza has also faced human rights scrutiny, including concerns about due process, freedom of expression, and the application of capital punishment.

The overarching challenge to law and security in Palestine is the Israeli occupation itself. Israeli military law applies to Palestinians in Area C of the West Bank, and Israeli military courts have a conviction rate for Palestinians exceeding 99%. Israeli settlements in the West Bank have their own civilian legal system (Israeli law applies to settlers), creating a dual legal system that discriminates against Palestinians. Issues like administrative detention (detention without charge or trial) by Israel, land confiscation, home demolitions, and lack of accountability for settler violence further erode the rule of law and security for Palestinians. The internal Palestinian political divide also complicates security coordination and the consistent application of law across Palestinian territories.

6.3. Human Rights

The human rights situation in the State of Palestine is deeply concerning and complex, shaped significantly by the prolonged Israeli occupation, internal Palestinian governance issues, and ongoing conflict. Numerous international and local human rights organizations, as well as UN bodies, regularly document a wide range of violations.

Violations related to the Israeli Occupation:

• Right to Life and Security of Person: Israeli military operations in the West Bank and Gaza Strip have resulted in significant Palestinian casualties, including civilians. Concerns persist over excessive use of force by Israeli security forces, particularly in policing demonstrations and during military incursions. The 2023 Israel-Hamas war led to an unprecedented number of civilian deaths in Gaza.
• Freedom of Movement: Palestinians face severe restrictions on their freedom of movement due to Israeli checkpoints, the Separation Barrier (much of which is built inside the West Bank), road closures, and a complex permit system. These restrictions impede access to work, education, healthcare, and family life. The blockade of Gaza by Israel and Egypt constitutes a form of collective punishment and severely restricts movement.
• Right to Property and Adequate Housing: Israeli settlement expansion in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, often involves the confiscation of Palestinian land and is illegal under international law. Demolitions of Palestinian homes and structures, often on the grounds of lacking Israeli-issued building permits (which are notoriously difficult for Palestinians to obtain, especially in Area C and East Jerusalem), lead to forced displacement.
• Settler Violence: Attacks by Israeli settlers against Palestinians and their property (including olive groves, livestock, and homes) are a persistent problem, particularly in the West Bank. Israeli authorities have often been criticized for failing to prevent settler attacks and for not adequately investigating and prosecuting perpetrators, leading to a climate of impunity.
• Arbitrary Detention and Due Process: Thousands of Palestinians are held in Israeli prisons, many under administrative detention (without charge or trial). Concerns exist regarding fair trial standards in Israeli military courts, which try Palestinians from the occupied territories, and allegations of torture and ill-treatment in detention are common.
• Access to Resources: Palestinians face discrimination in accessing natural resources, particularly water, with a disproportionate share of shared water resources being allocated to Israeli settlements and within Israel.

Violations by Palestinian Authorities (PNA in the West Bank and Hamas in Gaza):

• Freedom of Expression, Assembly, and Association: Both the PNA and Hamas authorities have been criticized for restricting these freedoms. Journalists, human rights defenders, and political opponents have faced harassment, intimidation, arbitrary arrest, and detention.
• Torture and Ill-Treatment: Allegations of torture and ill-treatment of detainees in Palestinian custody persist in both the West Bank and Gaza.
• Due Process and Fair Trials: Concerns exist regarding the independence of the judiciary and fair trial standards in Palestinian courts. In Gaza, Hamas authorities have carried out executions, sometimes after summary trials, drawing international condemnation.
• Women's Rights: While Palestinian law includes some protections, women continue to face discrimination in law and practice, and issues like domestic violence remain a concern.
• Rights of Minorities and Vulnerable Groups: While Palestine is largely ethnically and religiously homogenous (Palestinian Arab, majority Sunni Muslim), minority groups such as Christians and Bedouins may face specific challenges. LGBT individuals face legal discrimination and social stigma. Persons with disabilities also face challenges in accessing their rights.

The ongoing conflict and lack of accountability for violations by all parties contribute to a cycle of violence and impunity, undermining respect for human rights and international law. The internal Palestinian political split also impacts the human rights situation, sometimes leading to abuses by one authority against supporters of the other. International bodies, including the International Criminal Court, have initiated investigations into alleged war crimes committed in the Palestinian territories.

10.1. Agriculture

Agriculture has historically been a cornerstone of the Palestinian economy and cultural heritage. However, the sector faces immense challenges primarily due to the Israeli occupation, in addition to climate change and water scarcity. Key agricultural products include olives and olive oil (which are of significant cultural and economic importance), fruits (such as grapes, figs, citrus), vegetables, and livestock.

Major challenges and their impact on food security and rural livelihoods:

• Land Confiscation and Access Restrictions:** A significant portion of Palestinian agricultural land, particularly in the West Bank's Area C (under full Israeli control), has been confiscated for the construction of Israeli settlements, bypass roads, military zones, or declared "state land." The Separation Barrier has also isolated large tracts of Palestinian farmland, making it difficult for farmers to access their lands. These actions reduce the land available for Palestinian agriculture and undermine the livelihoods of rural communities.
• Water Access:** Israel controls most of the water resources in the West Bank, including the Mountain Aquifer. Palestinians face severe restrictions on drilling new wells or rehabilitating existing ones, while Israeli settlements receive a disproportionately larger share of water. This water scarcity critically limits irrigation and crop yields for Palestinian farmers. In the Gaza Strip, the coastal aquifer, the main source of water, is severely depleted and contaminated by saltwater intrusion and sewage, rendering much of it unfit for agriculture or human consumption.
• Impact of Israeli Settlements:** The expansion of Israeli settlements often leads to the destruction of Palestinian agricultural land, uprooting of olive trees, and damage to irrigation networks. Settlers have also been involved in attacks on Palestinian farmers and their crops, often with impunity.
• Restrictions on Movement and Trade:** Israeli checkpoints and other movement restrictions hinder farmers' ability to transport their produce to markets, both domestically and for export. This leads to spoilage, increased costs, and reduced competitiveness. The blockade of Gaza severely limits the import of agricultural inputs (like fertilizers and seeds) and the export of agricultural products.
• Food Security:** These challenges collectively undermine Palestinian food security. Reduced agricultural production, coupled with high poverty and unemployment rates, makes many Palestinian households reliant on food aid. The ability of Palestine to produce enough food to feed its population is severely compromised.
• Rural Livelihoods:** Agriculture is a traditional source of income and employment for many Palestinian families, particularly in rural areas. The decline of the agricultural sector due to the occupation contributes to rural poverty, displacement, and increased dependence on alternative, often precarious, livelihoods.

Despite these obstacles, Palestinian farmers demonstrate resilience, employing traditional farming practices alongside modern techniques where possible. The olive sector, in particular, remains a vital part of the economy and a symbol of Palestinian rootedness to the land. International organizations and NGOs provide some support for agricultural development, but a fundamental improvement in the sector requires an end to the occupation and the restrictions it imposes.

10.2. Water Supply and Sanitation

Water supply and sanitation in the Palestinian territories are critical issues, characterized by severe water scarcity, unequal distribution of shared resources, and inadequate infrastructure, largely due
to the Israeli occupation and, in Gaza, the ongoing blockade and recurrent conflicts.

• West Bank:**
  • Water Resources:** The primary sources of freshwater for the West Bank are the Mountain Aquifer (shared with Israel) and the Jordan River. However, under agreements stemming from the Oslo Accords, which Palestinians argue are inequitable, Israel controls the vast majority of these shared water resources.
  • Restricted Access and Control:** Israel retains control over all water extraction, development, and infrastructure projects in the West Bank, particularly in Area C. Palestinians require Israeli permits to drill new wells, rehabilitate old ones, or build water infrastructure, and these permits are often denied or significantly delayed. This severely limits the Palestinians' ability to meet their water needs.
  • Unequal Distribution:** Per capita water consumption for Palestinians in the West Bank is significantly lower than that for Israelis and for Israeli settlers in the West Bank, often falling below the minimum recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). Settlers typically have access to a continuous and ample water supply, while many Palestinian communities face chronic water shortages, especially during summer months, and rely on expensive tankered water.
  • Sanitation:** Sewage infrastructure is underdeveloped in many parts of the West Bank. Untreated or inadequately treated wastewater from Palestinian communities and Israeli settlements often pollutes groundwater and surface water sources, posing public health and environmental risks. The development of wastewater treatment plants by Palestinians is also subject to Israeli approval and restrictions.
  • Gaza Strip:**
    • Coastal Aquifer Crisis:** The Gaza Strip relies almost entirely on the Coastal Aquifer for its freshwater needs. However, years of over-extraction (due to the high population density and lack of alternative sources) and contamination from seawater intrusion and sewage infiltration have rendered over 95% of the aquifer's water unfit for human consumption according to WHO standards.
    • Blockade Impact:** The Israeli (and Egyptian) blockade imposed since 2007 has severely hampered efforts to improve water and sanitation infrastructure. Restrictions on the entry of essential materials (pipes, pumps, construction materials, fuel for operating facilities) have delayed or prevented the construction and repair of water wells, desalination plants, and wastewater treatment facilities.
    • Energy Crisis:** Chronic electricity shortages in Gaza, exacerbated by the blockade and damage to power infrastructure during conflicts, cripple the operation of water pumps, desalination plants, and sewage treatment plants, further worsening the water and sanitation crisis.
    • Wastewater Pollution:** Most sewage in Gaza is discharged untreated or partially treated into the Mediterranean Sea, causing severe marine pollution and posing health risks to the population who rely on the sea for fishing and recreation.
    • Humanitarian Impact:** The dire water and sanitation situation in Gaza has led to a public health crisis, with high rates of waterborne diseases, particularly among children. Access to safe drinking water is a daily struggle for most Gazans. The 2023 Israel-Hamas war caused catastrophic damage to already fragile water and sanitation systems, leading to widespread disease outbreaks.
    • Overall Challenges:**

10.3. Manufacturing

The manufacturing sector in Palestine, while having potential, operates under significant constraints primarily due to the Israeli occupation, restrictions on movement and trade, and limited access to resources and markets. It contributes a relatively small but important share to the Palestinian GDP and employment.

Key manufacturing sub-sectors include:

• Stone and Marble:** Palestine, particularly the West Bank, is rich in high-quality stone and marble (e.g., "Jerusalem stone"). This is one of the most significant export-oriented manufacturing industries. However, quarrying operations often face difficulties related to Israeli permits, access to land (especially in Area C), and environmental concerns.
• Food Processing:** This includes the production of olive oil, dairy products, beverages, and processed foods, largely for the domestic market but with some export potential.
• Textiles and Garments:** This sector, once more prominent, has faced increased competition and challenges related to importing raw materials and exporting finished goods.
• Furniture and Wood Products:** Primarily serves the local market.
• Pharmaceuticals:** A small but growing sector with some companies producing generic drugs.
• Construction Materials:** Includes cement products (though cement itself is largely imported), tiles, and other materials for the construction industry.
• Plastics and Chemicals:** Produces a range of goods for local consumption.

• Challenges and Limiting Factors:**
  • Restrictions on Movement and Access:** Israeli checkpoints, the separation barrier, and road closures severely impede the transport of raw materials to factories and finished goods to markets (both domestic and international). This increases costs and delivery times, reducing competitiveness.
  • Trade Restrictions:** Palestinian manufacturers face difficulties exporting their goods due to Israeli control over borders and complex customs procedures. Access to international markets is limited.
  • Limited Access to Raw Materials and Technology:** Restrictions on imports can make it difficult and expensive to obtain necessary raw materials, machinery, and technology.
  • Infrastructure Deficiencies:** Inadequate and unreliable electricity supply (especially in Gaza), water shortages, and underdeveloped industrial zones hinder manufacturing operations.
  • Israeli Competition and Policies:** Palestinian industries often struggle to compete with Israeli products, which have easier access to the Palestinian market. Israeli policies can also favor Israeli industries over Palestinian ones.
  • Gaza Blockade:** The manufacturing sector in Gaza has been particularly devastated by the Israeli blockade, which restricts the entry of raw materials and the exit of finished goods, leading to the closure of many factories and massive unemployment. Recurrent conflicts have also destroyed industrial infrastructure.
  • Investment Climate:** Political instability, the occupation, and lack of legal certainty deter both local and foreign investment in the manufacturing sector.

  Despite these challenges, Palestinian entrepreneurs and businesses show resilience. Industrial zones have been established in some areas (e.g., Jenin, Jericho, Bethlehem, Hebron, and Gaza before severe damage), often with donor support, to try and promote manufacturing. However, their success is often limited by the overarching political and economic constraints. The development of a robust and competitive manufacturing sector is seen as crucial for Palestinian economic diversification, job creation, and reducing dependence on Israel and foreign aid, but this requires a fundamental change in the operating environment, including an end to the occupation and its associated restrictions.

10.4. Energy

Palestine faces significant challenges in its energy sector, characterized by heavy dependence on Israel for electricity supply, chronic power shortages (especially in the Gaza Strip), and underdeveloped domestic energy resources and infrastructure. The Israeli occupation severely constrains Palestinian control and development of its energy sector.

• Electricity Supply:**
  • Dependence on Israel:** The vast majority of electricity consumed in the West Bank and, until recent conflicts, a significant portion in the Gaza Strip, is purchased from the Israel Electric Corporation (IEC). This creates economic and political vulnerabilities for the Palestinians.
  • Gaza Power Plant:** The Gaza Strip has one aging and inefficient power plant, which itself relies on imported fuel (historically supplied via Israel and paid for by the Palestinian Authority or international donors). The plant has frequently been damaged during conflicts and operates below capacity due to fuel shortages and technical issues. The 2023 Israel-Hamas war led to a near-total collapse of Gaza's electricity supply.
  • Chronic Shortages:** Even before major conflicts, the Gaza Strip suffered from severe and chronic electricity shortages, with residents often receiving only a few hours of power per day. This has a devastating impact on daily life, healthcare, water supply, sanitation, and economic activity. The West Bank also experiences power cuts, though generally less severe than in Gaza.
  • Infrastructure and Debt:** The Palestinian electricity distribution infrastructure is often outdated and in need of investment. The Palestinian Authority and local distribution companies have accumulated significant debt to the IEC, leading to disputes and sometimes to Israeli reductions in power supply.
  • Renewable Energy Efforts:**

• Oil and Gas Resources:**

• Challenges and Outlook:**

• West Bank Oil and Gas Potential:**

• Socio-Economic Implications:**

The inability to develop and benefit from its own oil and gas resources has significant negative implications for the Palestinian economy. It perpetuates energy dependence (primarily on Israel for electricity), strains the PA's finances (due to the cost of imported energy), and deprives Palestinians of a potentially major source of revenue that could be used for development, job creation, and improving living standards. The control and exploitation of these natural resources remain a contentious issue within the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, linked to questions of sovereignty, resource rights, and economic justice.

11.1. Major Cities

Palestine has several major urban centers that serve as economic, cultural, and administrative hubs. The living conditions in these cities are often impacted by the Israeli occupation, restrictions on movement, and, in Gaza, the blockade and recurrent conflicts.

• Gaza City**: Historically the largest city in Palestine, located in the Gaza Strip. It was a major commercial and administrative center. However, it has suffered immense destruction and a severe humanitarian crisis due to repeated Israeli military operations, particularly the 2023-2024 war, which led to the displacement of most of its population and the leveling of vast areas.
• East Jerusalem**: Proclaimed as the capital of the State of Palestine, East Jerusalem is a city of immense religious and historical significance for Christians, Jews, and Muslims, home to sites like the Al-Aqsa Mosque, Dome of the Rock, Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and the Western Wall. It was occupied and annexed by Israel in 1967, a move not recognized internationally. Palestinians in East Jerusalem face discrimination in housing, residency rights (many hold revocable "permanent residency" status rather than Israeli citizenship), and municipal services. The construction of Israeli settlements in and around East Jerusalem aims to solidify Israeli control and isolate it from the West Bank.
• Ramallah**: Located in the central West Bank, Ramallah serves as the de facto administrative capital of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA). It hosts most PNA government offices, foreign diplomatic missions, and is a major center for commerce, culture, and NGOs. While relatively more developed than other West Bank cities, it is still subject to Israeli military incursions and restrictions. Al-Bireh is its twin city and often considered part of the Ramallah urban area.
• Hebron (Al-Khalil)**: The largest city in the West Bank by population and a major economic center, known for its industries like stone, marble, and glass. The Old City of Hebron, a UNESCO World Heritage site, is home to the Ibrahimi Mosque/Cave of the Patriarchs. It is a site of significant tension due to the presence of a few hundred Israeli settlers in the heart of the city, protected by a heavy Israeli military presence, which severely restricts Palestinian life and movement in the area (H2 zone).
• Nablus**: A major commercial and cultural center in the northern West Bank, known for its historic Old City, traditional industries like soap production, and sweets like knafeh. It is home to An-Najah National University, the largest Palestinian university. Nablus and its surrounding refugee camps have often been focal points of conflict and Israeli military operations.
• Bethlehem**: A city of global religious importance as the birthplace of Jesus. Its economy relies heavily on tourism, centered around the Church of the Nativity. It is located south of Jerusalem and is significantly impacted by the Israeli separation barrier and surrounding settlements.
• Jenin**: Located in the northern West Bank, Jenin is an important agricultural center. The city and its adjacent refugee camp have a long history of resistance and have frequently been subjected to Israeli military incursions.
• Tulkarm** and **Qalqilya**: Located in the northwestern West Bank, close to the Green Line. Both cities are significantly affected by the separation barrier, which has isolated them from their agricultural lands and from Israel, where many residents formerly worked.
• Jericho**: One of the oldest cities in the world, located in the Jordan Valley. It is an agricultural center and has tourism potential due to its historical sites.

Living conditions in these cities vary but are generally challenging. Overcrowding, inadequate infrastructure (water, sanitation, electricity), high unemployment, and poverty are common, exacerbated by the political situation. Cities in Gaza have faced particularly dire conditions due to the blockade and repeated destruction from conflict.

11.2. Religion

Religion plays a significant role in Palestinian society and identity. The population is predominantly Muslim, with a notable Christian minority and a few smaller religious communities. The Palestine Basic Law states that Islam is the official religion and Sharia is a principal source of legislation, but it also guarantees freedom of belief and worship for other religions, provided they do not violate public order or morality.

• Islam:** The vast majority of Palestinians (over 93% in the West Bank and Gaza Strip combined, and higher in Gaza alone) are Muslims, overwhelmingly adhering to the Sunni branch of Islam. A small minority belong to the Ahmadiyya movement or are non-denominational Muslims. Islamic practices and traditions are deeply ingrained in daily life, culture, and social norms. Jerusalem is home to the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif), which is considered the third holiest site in Islam. The Ibrahimi Mosque (Cave of the Patriarchs) in Hebron is also a revered Islamic site. Many other mosques and Islamic shrines are found throughout Palestine.
• Christianity:** Palestinian Christians constitute a historic and significant minority, estimated at around 1-2.5% of the Palestinian population in the West Bank and a much smaller community in Gaza (which has dwindled significantly in recent years). They are one of the oldest Christian communities in the world. Major Christian denominations include Greek Orthodox (the largest), Roman Catholic (Latin Rite), Melkite Greek Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican, and other Protestant and Eastern Orthodox churches. Christian holy sites, such as the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and numerous other sites related to the life of Jesus and early Christianity, are central to their faith and attract pilgrims from around the world. Palestinian Christians have played important roles in Palestinian society, culture, and politics. However, the Christian population has been declining due to emigration, driven by political instability, economic hardship, and concerns about the future.
• Samaritans**: A small, ancient ethno-religious group, closely related to Jews, who trace their ancestry to the ancient Israelites. They number around 800, with about half living on Mount Gerizim near Nablus (their holiest site) and the other half in Holon, Israel. They revere their own version of the Torah (the Samaritan Pentateuch).
• Other groups:** There are very small communities of Druze and Baháʼís in some areas historically associated with Palestine, though their presence within the current Palestinian territories (West Bank and Gaza) is minimal.

• Freedom of Religion and Access Issues:**

While the Basic Law guarantees freedom of religion, the Israeli occupation significantly impacts religious practice for Palestinians.

• Access to Holy Sites:** Palestinians, particularly those from the West Bank and Gaza, face severe Israeli restrictions on accessing their holy sites in Jerusalem, such as Al-Aqsa Mosque for Muslims and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre for Christians. Permits are often required, and access can be denied based on age, gender, or security considerations, especially during religious holidays or times of heightened tension.
• Israeli Settlers and Holy Sites:** The presence of Israeli settlers and military forces around religious sites, particularly in Jerusalem and Hebron, often leads to friction and clashes. Visits by Israeli religious nationalists to the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound, which Jews revere as the Temple Mount, are a frequent source of tension.
• Protection of Religious Property:** There have been incidents of vandalism and attacks on mosques and churches by extremist Israeli settlers.

Despite these challenges, religious identity remains strong, and religious institutions play an important role in Palestinian community life, providing social services, education, and cultural preservation. Interfaith relations between Muslims and Christians have generally been harmonious within Palestinian society.

11.3. Language

The official language of the State of Palestine is Arabic. The spoken dialect is generally Palestinian Arabic, which is a branch of Levantine Arabic. Palestinian Arabic has several regional variations, for example, between urban and rural areas, and between the north and south of the West Bank, and in Gaza.

English is widely spoken and understood, particularly in urban areas, among educated individuals, and in sectors related to international business, tourism, and NGOs. It is commonly taught as a second language in schools.

Hebrew is also spoken by a significant number of Palestinians, especially those who work or have worked in Israel or Israeli settlements, or those who live in close proximity to Israeli communities. Due to the occupation context, interaction with Israeli authorities and settlers often necessitates some knowledge of Hebrew. Israeli settlers living in the West Bank primarily speak Hebrew. Road signs in the West Bank are often in Arabic, Hebrew, and English.

Other minority languages spoken by smaller communities within historical Palestine or by specific ethnic groups who have integrated into Palestinian society may exist but are not widely prevalent.

11.4. Ethnicity

The overwhelming majority of the population in the State of Palestine are Palestinian Arabs. They are ethnically Arabs, sharing a common linguistic, cultural, and historical heritage with other Arab peoples of the Levant and broader Middle East. Palestinian identity is strongly shaped by their shared history, connection to the land of Palestine, and the collective experience of displacement, occupation, and struggle for self-determination.

Within the Palestinian Arab population, there are distinct sub-groups:

• Bedouins:** Semi-nomadic or formerly nomadic Arab tribes, traditionally pastoralists. Bedouin communities are found in the West Bank, particularly in the Judaean Desert, the Jordan Valley, and the Hebron Hills, as well as in the Gaza Strip (though smaller in number). They often face particular vulnerabilities related to displacement threats from Israeli authorities (especially in Area C), land confiscations, demolitions of their homes and animal shelters, and limited access to basic services like water, electricity, education, and healthcare. Their traditional way of life is under severe pressure. Major Bedouin tribes include the Jahalin and Ta'amireh.

While Palestinian Arabs form the vast majority, there are smaller ethnic minority groups, some of whom also hold Palestinian citizenship or residency and are integrated into Palestinian society:

• Armenians:** A historic community, primarily concentrated in the Armenian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem, with smaller numbers in Bethlehem and Ramallah. They are mostly descendants of refugees who fled the Armenian genocide in the early 20th century or earlier Armenian pilgrims and merchants. They maintain their distinct language, culture, and Apostolic Christian faith.
• Domari (Nawar):** An Indo-Aryan ethnic group, often referred to as "Gypsies" or "Nawar," who are dispersed throughout the Middle East. In Palestine, small Domari communities exist, particularly in Jerusalem. They have historically faced social marginalization and economic hardship.
• Afro-Palestinians:** A small community of Palestinians of African descent, mostly concentrated in a specific neighborhood near the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound in Jerusalem (the "African Quarter" or Ribat al-Mansuri). Their ancestors came to Palestine centuries ago, some as pilgrims from various parts of Africa (e.g., Chad, Nigeria, Sudan, Senegal) who stayed, or as part of the Arab slave trade, or as soldiers in various armies. They are an integral part of Palestinian society but have also worked to preserve their distinct heritage.
• Samaritans:** As mentioned under Religion, an ancient ethno-religious group with a distinct identity, primarily living near Nablus.
• Assyrians/Syriacs:** A small Christian community, primarily in Jerusalem and Bethlehem, part of the broader Assyrian/Syriac diaspora.
• Other groups:** Small numbers of individuals or families with origins from other parts of the Middle East (e.g., Kurds, Turks, Circassians) or Europe (e.g., Russians, particularly in the Russian Compound in Jerusalem or individuals who married Palestinians) may be present, often assimilated into Palestinian society.

It is important to note that Israeli settlers residing in the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) are Israeli citizens, predominantly Jewish, and are not considered part of the Palestinian ethnic demographic, though they live within the territory claimed by the State of Palestine. Their presence is a central issue in the conflict and is deemed illegal under international law.

The rights and social integration of ethnic and religious minorities are important considerations. While the primary cleavage in society is defined by the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the occupation, minority groups can face specific challenges as vulnerable populations, including social or economic marginalization, and the need to preserve their unique cultural and religious identities within the broader Palestinian national context.

14.1. Architecture

Palestinian architecture reflects a rich tapestry of historical influences, local building traditions, and responses to the region's unique geography and climate. It encompasses ancient, traditional, and contemporary styles, often bearing witness to the complex political and social history of the land.

• Historical Influences:**
  • Ancient and Classical:** Remnants of Canaanite, Israelite, Roman, and Byzantine architecture can be found in archaeological sites across Palestine, including temples, palaces, fortifications, and churches.
  • Islamic Architecture:** The arrival of Islam in the 7th century brought distinctive architectural styles, evident in mosques, mausoleums, and madrasas. Key features include domes, arches, minarets, courtyards, and intricate geometric and calligraphic ornamentation. The Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem are prime examples, though their original structures have undergone numerous renovations.
  • Crusader Architecture:** The Crusader period (11th-13th centuries) left behind castles, churches, and fortifications characterized by massive stone construction and Romanesque and Gothic elements.
  • Mamluk and Ottoman Architecture:** The Mamluk and subsequent Ottoman periods (13th-early 20th centuries) saw the construction of many public buildings, khans (caravanserais), souqs (markets), hammams (public baths), and residential quarters. Ottoman architecture often blended local traditions with styles from the imperial capital, featuring elements like tiled facades and ornate woodwork. Many historic old cities, like those in Jerusalem, Nablus, and Hebron, retain significant Mamluk and Ottoman architectural heritage.
  • Vernacular Architecture:**

• Modern and Contemporary Architecture:**

• Heritage Preservation, Destruction, and Appropriation under Occupation:**

The architecture of Palestine, therefore, is not just about buildings but also about memory, identity, and the ongoing struggle for control over land and narrative.

14.2. Arts, Music, and Clothing

Palestinian arts, music, and clothing are vibrant expressions of cultural identity, heritage, and resilience, often intertwined with the nation's history and political experiences.

• Visual Arts:**

• Music:**

• Clothing:**

These cultural expressions are not static; they evolve while continuing to carry deep historical and symbolic meaning. They are crucial for preserving Palestinian heritage, asserting identity in the face of adversity, and communicating Palestinian narratives to the wider world.

14.3. Media

The media landscape in Palestine operates under challenging conditions, influenced by the Israeli occupation, internal political divisions, and economic constraints. Nevertheless, a variety of media outlets serve the Palestinian public.

• Main Media Outlets:**
  • Newspapers:** Several daily and weekly newspapers are published in Arabic. Prominent dailies include Al-Quds (Jerusalem-based, largest circulation), Al-Ayyam (Ramallah-based), and Al-Hayat al-Jadida (the official newspaper of the Palestinian Authority). Hamas and other factions also publish or support their own newspapers and periodicals, particularly in Gaza.
  • Broadcasting (Television and Radio):**
    • The Palestinian Broadcasting Corporation (PBC) operates the official Palestine TV and Voice of Palestine radio, generally reflecting the views of the Palestinian Authority.
    • Numerous private and faction-affiliated television and radio stations operate in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Examples include Al-Aqsa TV (affiliated with Hamas in Gaza) and various local stations.
    • Satellite television is widely accessible, with Palestinians tuning into regional Arab news channels (like Al Jazeera, Al Arabiya) as well as international channels.
  • News Agencies:**
    • WAFA (Palestine News & Info Agency) is the official news agency of the Palestinian Authority.
    • Ma'an News Agency is an independent news agency providing coverage in Arabic, Hebrew, and English.
    • Other smaller news agencies and online news portals also operate.
  • Online Media:** Internet-based news websites, blogs, and social media platforms have become increasingly important sources of news and information, especially for younger Palestinians. They provide alternative perspectives and a space for citizen journalism.
  • Freedom of the Press and Challenges:**
    • Israeli Restrictions:** Palestinian journalists and media outlets face significant restrictions from Israeli authorities, including:
      • Denial or revocation of press credentials.
      • Restrictions on movement, preventing access to events or areas, particularly in East Jerusalem, Area C, and Gaza.
      • Arrest, detention, harassment, and physical attacks on journalists covering protests or Israeli military operations.
      • Raids on and closures of media offices.
      • Confiscation of equipment.
      • Censorship or pressure to self-censor.
    • Palestinian Authority and Hamas Restrictions:** Both the PNA in the West Bank and Hamas authorities in Gaza have been criticized by human rights and press freedom organizations for:
      • Harassing, detaining, and prosecuting journalists critical of their policies or leadership.
      • Censorship and interference in media content.
      • Using vaguely worded laws (e.g., cybercrime laws) to stifle dissent.
    • Internal Divisions:** The political split between Fatah and Hamas has led to restrictions on media outlets affiliated with the rival faction in their respective territories.
    • Economic Pressures:** Many Palestinian media outlets struggle financially due to a small advertising market, reliance on donor funding, or political patronage.
    • Safety of Journalists:** Covering the conflict is dangerous, and Palestinian journalists have been killed or injured while on duty, particularly during Israeli military operations.
    • Societal and Political Impact:**

Despite the difficult operating environment, Palestinian journalists and media organizations continue to work to inform the public and document events, often at great personal risk. The struggle for press freedom is intertwined with the broader struggle for Palestinian rights and self-determination.

14.4. Cinema

Palestinian cinema has emerged as a significant artistic and cultural force, offering powerful narratives that explore Palestinian identity, history, daily life under occupation, displacement, resistance, and human rights. Despite facing numerous challenges related to funding, infrastructure, and restrictions imposed by the Israeli occupation, Palestinian filmmakers have produced a compelling body of work that has gained international recognition and awards.

• History and Development:**

• Key Directors and Films:**
  • Michel Khleifi** is often considered a pioneer of modern Palestinian cinema. His films, such as Wedding in Galilee (1987), were among the first Palestinian fiction features to gain international acclaim.
  • Elia Suleiman** is known for his distinctive satirical and absurdist style, often portraying the ironies and frustrations of Palestinian life. His notable films include Chronicle of a Disappearance (1996), Divine Intervention (2002) (which won the Jury Prize at Cannes), and The Time That Remains (2009).
  • Hany Abu-Assad** has directed two films nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film: Paradise Now (2005), about two childhood friends recruited for a suicide bombing in Tel Aviv, and Omar (2013), a thriller set against the backdrop of the occupation.
  • Annemarie Jacir** is a prominent female director whose films include Salt of This Sea (2008) and Wajib (2017), which explore themes of exile, return, and family dynamics.
  • Documentary Filmmakers:** Documentary cinema has also played a crucial role. 5 Broken Cameras (2011), co-directed by Palestinian farmer Emad Burnat and Israeli filmmaker Guy Davidi, provides a personal account of non-violent resistance in a West Bank village and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Documentary Feature.
  • Common Themes:**

• Challenges and Support:**

Palestinian cinema serves as a powerful tool for cultural expression, political commentary, and raising international awareness about the Palestinian experience. It contributes significantly to the global cinematic landscape by offering unique perspectives and compelling human stories.

14.5. Sports

Sports in Palestine are a popular form of recreation and a source of national pride, though their development and practice are significantly impacted by the Israeli occupation and political instability.

• Popular Sports:**
  • Football (Soccer):** This is the most popular sport in Palestine. The Palestine national football team represents Palestine in international competitions and is a member of FIFA and the Asian Football Confederation (AFC). The team has achieved some success, including qualifying for the AFC Asian Cup on multiple occasions (e.g., 2015, 2019, 2023). Domestic leagues, such as the West Bank Premier League and the Gaza Strip League, operate, though often under difficult conditions. The Palestine Cup is the main domestic cup competition.
  • Basketball, Volleyball, Handball:** These team sports are also played and have organized federations and leagues.
  • Athletics, Swimming, Martial Arts (Judo, Taekwondo):** Palestinian athletes participate in these individual sports, and Palestine has sent delegations to the Olympic Games since 1996.
  • National Stadiums and Facilities:**

• Impact of Occupation on Sports:**
  • Movement Restrictions:** Israeli restrictions on movement (checkpoints, permits, separation barrier) make it extremely difficult for athletes, teams, and officials to travel between Palestinian cities, between the West Bank and Gaza, and to international competitions. This disrupts training, league schedules, and participation in international events.
  • Damage to Facilities:** Sports facilities, especially in Gaza, have been damaged or destroyed during Israeli military operations.
  • Restrictions on Equipment:** Importing sports equipment can be challenging due to Israeli controls.
  • Detention of Athletes:** Palestinian athletes have been arrested and detained by Israeli authorities, sometimes impacting their careers and national team participation.
  • International Solidarity and Boycotts:** The impact of the occupation on Palestinian sports has led to calls from some international activists and organizations for boycotts of Israeli sports teams or events, as part of the broader BDS movement.
  • Achievements and Resilience:**

  Despite these significant challenges, Palestinian athletes and sports organizations demonstrate remarkable resilience and determination. Participation in international sports is seen as an important way to represent Palestine on the world stage and assert national identity.
  Mohammed Hamada made history as the first Palestinian weightlifter to compete in the Olympics and won a gold medal at the 2022 International Weightlifting Federation Junior World Championships in Greece.
  
  The Palestine Olympic Committee oversees participation in the Olympic Games and other international multi-sport events. Sports are considered a vital tool for youth development, community cohesion, and providing a sense of normalcy and hope in a challenging environment.