Sweden

3.1. Prehistory

Sweden's prehistory begins in the Allerød oscillation, a warm period around 12,000 BC, with Late Palaeolithic reindeer-hunting camps of the Bromme culture at the edge of the ice in what is now Scania, the country's southernmost province. This era was characterized by small clans of hunter-gatherers who relied on flint technology. Around 4000 BC, the Funnelbeaker culture emerged, introducing agriculture, animal husbandry, polished stone axes, and decorated pottery, as evidenced by burial goods. The Bronze Age in Sweden commenced around 1700 BC; since copper is not native to Scandinavia, metals from this period were imported and then processed. People lived in small villages with single-story longhouses and farms.

Sweden and its people were first described by Publius Cornelius Tacitus in his work Germania (98 AD). In chapters 44 and 45, he mentions the Swedes (Suiones) as a powerful tribe distinguished by their ships that had a prow at each end (longships). The kings (kuningaz_koo-ning-gaz^{Germanic languages}) who ruled these Suiones are unknown, but Norse mythology presents a long line of legendary and semi-legendary kings dating back to the last centuries BC. The runic script was in use among the south Scandinavian elite by at least the second century AD. Surviving curt inscriptions from the Roman Period demonstrate that the people of south Scandinavia spoke Proto-Norse at the time, a language ancestral to Swedish and other North Germanic languages.

In the sixth century, the historian Jordanes names two tribes living in Scandza (Scandinavia), both of whom are now considered synonymous with the Swedes: the Suetidi_Sweh-ti-dee^Latin and Suehans_Sweh-hans^Latin. The Suehans_Sweh-hans^Latin were known to the Roman world as suppliers of black fox skins and, according to Jordanes, possessed very fine horses, similar to those of the Thuringians of Germania.

3.2. Viking Age

The Swedish Viking Age lasted roughly from the eighth century to the 11th century. It is believed that Swedish Vikings and Gutar (inhabitants of Gotland) mainly travelled east and south, venturing into Finland, Estonia, the Baltic states, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, the Black Sea, and as far as Baghdad. Their routes passed through the Dnieper south to Constantinople, along which they conducted numerous raids. The Byzantine Emperor Theophilos noted their great skills in war and invited them to serve as his personal bodyguard, known as the Varangian Guard. The Swedish Vikings, called Rus, are believed to be the founders of Kievan Rus'. The Arab traveler Ibn Fadlan also described the Vikings. The exploits of these Swedish Vikings are commemorated on many runestones in Sweden, such as the Greece runestones and the Varangian runestones. There was also considerable participation in expeditions westwards, commemorated on stones like the England runestones. The last major Swedish Viking expedition appears to have been the ill-fated expedition of Ingvar the Far-Travelled to Serkland, the region southeast of the Caspian Sea. Its members are commemorated on the Ingvar runestones, none of which mentions any survivor.

During the early stages of the Viking Age, Birka, on the island of Björkö in Lake Mälaren (not far from where Stockholm was later built), developed as a significant trading center in northern Europe. Founded around 750 AD, likely by a king or merchants aiming to control trade, Birka served as the Baltic link in the Dnieper Trade Route through Ladoga (Aldeigja) and Novgorod (Holmgard) to the Byzantine Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate. Birka was abandoned around 975 AD, roughly the same time Sigtuna was established as a Christian town some 22 mile ^{(35 km)} to the northeast. Estimates suggest Birka's population was between 500 and 1,000 people. Archaeological finds, including thousands of graves, coins, jewelry, and other luxury items, indicate Birka's wealth throughout the 9th and 10th centuries.

3.3. Establishment of the Kingdom and the Middle Ages

The precise age of the Kingdom of Sweden is unknown. Its determination depends on whether Sweden is considered a nation when the Svear_Svee-ar^Swedish (Swedes) ruled Svealand or when the Svear and the Götar_Goe-tar^Swedish (Geats) of Götaland were united under a single ruler. Tacitus first mentioned Svealand as having a single ruler in 98 AD, but the duration of this situation is uncertain. The epic poem Beowulf describes semi-legendary Swedish-Geatish wars in the sixth century. However, historians typically start the line of Swedish monarchs from when Svealand and Götaland were ruled by the same king, namely Eric the Victorious and his son Olof Skötkonung in the tenth century. These events are often described as the consolidation of Sweden, although substantial areas were conquered and incorporated later. In this context, "Götaland" primarily refers to the provinces of Östergötland and Västergötland. Småland, with its dense pine forests, was of little interest at the time, except for the city of Kalmar and its castle. Swedish settlements also existed along the southern coastline of Norrland, one of the four lands of Sweden.

Saint Ansgar is traditionally credited with introducing Christianity to Sweden in 829, but the new religion did not fully replace paganism until the 12th century. This period was marked by dynastic struggles between the Erik and Sverker clans. The conflict ended when a third clan married into the Erik clan, founding the Bjälbo dynasty, which gradually consolidated Sweden into a stronger state. According to the Legend of Saint Erik and the Erik's Chronicle, Swedish kings conducted a series of Crusades into pagan Finland and initiated conflicts with the Rus', who by then had no further connections with Sweden. The Swedish colonisation of Finland's coastal areas began in the 12th and 13th centuries. By the 14th century, this colonisation became more organised, and by the end of the century, several coastal areas of Finland were predominantly inhabited by Swedes.

Unlike much of Europe, feudalism never fully developed in Sweden, except for the provinces of Scania, Blekinge, and Halland in the southwest, which were part of the Kingdom of Denmark during this period. Consequently, the peasantry largely remained a class of free farmers throughout most of Swedish history. Slavery (thrall) was not common and gradually diminished with the spread of Christianity, the difficulty of obtaining slaves from lands east of the Baltic Sea, and the development of cities before the 16th century. Slavery and serfdom were abolished altogether by a decree of King Magnus Eriksson in 1335. Sweden remained a relatively poor and economically underdeveloped country where barter was the primary means of exchange.

In 1319, Sweden and Norway were united in a personal union under King Magnus Eriksson. In the mid-14th century, Sweden was struck by the Black Death, decimating the population. It is estimated that one-third of the population died between 1349 and 1351, and pre-1348 population levels were not reached again until the early 19th century. During this period, cities began to acquire greater rights and were heavily influenced by German merchants of the Hanseatic League, especially active in Visby. In 1397, Queen Margaret I of Denmark established the personal union of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark through the Kalmar Union. However, Margaret's successors, whose rule was centered in Denmark, struggled to control the Swedish nobility. This eventually led to armed conflict and Sweden's withdrawal from the union.

In 1520, King Christian II of Denmark, attempting to restore the Kalmar Union by force, ordered the massacre of Swedish nobles in Stockholm, an event known as the "Stockholm Bloodbath." This atrocity incited the Swedish nobility to renew their resistance. On June 6, 1523 (now celebrated as the National Day of Sweden), they made Gustav Vasa (Gustav I) their king. This is often considered the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterward, the new king rejected Catholicism and led Sweden into the Protestant Reformation. The term riksdag_riks-dahg^Swedish was first used in the 1540s, though the first meeting where representatives of different social groups were called to discuss national affairs occurred as early as 1435 in Arboga. During the Riksdag assemblies of 1527 and 1544, under King Gustav Vasa, representatives of all four estates of the realm (clergy, nobility, townsmen, and peasants) participated for the first time. The monarchy became hereditary in 1544. Gustav Vasa's breaking of the Hanseatic League's monopoly power was seen as heroic by the Swedish people. The traditional freedom of the peasantry meant that as Sweden developed, more economic benefits flowed to them rather than to a feudal landowning class.

The end of the 16th century was marked by rivalry between remaining Catholics and the new Protestant communities. In 1592, Gustav Vasa's Catholic grandson, Sigismund III Vasa, King of Poland, ascended the Swedish throne. He sought to strengthen Rome's influence by initiating a Counter-Reformation and created a dual monarchy known as the Polish-Swedish Union. His despotic rule, characterized by intolerance towards Protestants, sparked a civil war (War against Sigismund) that impoverished Sweden. In opposition, Sigismund's uncle and successor, Charles Vasa, summoned the Uppsala Synod in 1593, which officially confirmed the Church of Sweden as Lutheran. Following his deposition in 1599, Sigismund attempted to reclaim the throne, leading to a century of hostilities between Poland and Sweden.

3.4. Swedish Empire

Sweden rose to continental prominence during the reign of King Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav II Adolf), seizing territories from Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in multiple conflicts. During the Thirty Years' War, Sweden conquered approximately half of the Holy Roman states and decisively defeated the Imperial army at the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631). Gustavus Adolphus aimed to become the new Holy Roman Emperor, ruling a united Scandinavia and the Holy Roman states, but he was killed at the Battle of Lützen (1632). After the Battle of Nördlingen (1634), Sweden's only significant military defeat of the war, pro-Swedish sentiment among the German states faded. These German provinces gradually broke away from Swedish power, leaving Sweden with only a few northern German territories: Swedish Pomerania, Bremen-Verden, and Wismar. From 1643 to 1645, during the war's final years, Sweden and Denmark-Norway fought the Torstenson War. The outcome of this conflict and the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War helped establish post-war Sweden as a major European force. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 granted Sweden territories in northern Germany.

In the mid-17th century, Sweden was the third-largest country in Europe by land area. It reached its largest territorial extent under the rule of Charles X after the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658, following his crossing of the Danish Belts. The House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken, a branch of the House of Wittelsbach, ascended to the Swedish throne with Charles X Gustav. The foundation of Sweden's success during this period is credited to Gustav I's major changes to the Swedish economy in the 16th century and his introduction of Protestantism. However, this era also saw hardship; one-third of the Finnish population died in the devastating Great Famine of 1695-1697. Famine also hit Sweden, killing roughly 10% of its population.

During the 17th century, Sweden engaged in many wars, including conflicts with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth over territories in today's Baltic states. The Polish-Swedish War (1626-29) ended with the Truce of Altmark, favoring Sweden, which gained most of Livonia, including the port of Riga. Sweden also gained rights to tax Poland's Baltic trade and control over several cities in Royal and Ducal Prussia. Later, Swedes conducted a series of invasions into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth known as the Deluge. After more than half a century of almost constant warfare, the Swedish economy deteriorated. Rebuilding the economy and refitting the army became the lifetime task of Charles X's son, Charles XI. He left his son, Charles XII, with one of the finest arsenals in the world, a large standing army, and a great fleet. Russia, Sweden's most serious threat, had a larger army but lagged in equipment and training.

After the Battle of Narva (1700), one of the first battles of the Great Northern War, the Russian army was so severely devastated that Sweden had an opportunity to invade Russia. However, Charles XII did not pursue the Russian army, instead turning against Poland and defeating the Polish king, Augustus II the Strong, and his Saxon allies at the Battle of Kliszów in 1702. This gave Russia time to rebuild and modernize its army.
Charles XII later attempted an invasion of Russia, but it ended in a decisive Russian victory at the Battle of Poltava in 1709. After a long march exposed to Cossack raids, Russian Tsar Peter the Great's scorched-earth tactics, and the extremely cold winter of 1709, the Swedes were weakened, demoralized, and enormously outnumbered. The defeat at Poltava marked the beginning of the end for the Swedish Empire. Additionally, the plague raging in East Central Europe devastated Swedish dominions and reached Central Sweden in 1710. Returning to Sweden in 1715, Charles XII launched two campaigns against Norway in 1716 and 1718. During the second attempt, he was shot and killed during the siege of Fredriksten. Although the Swedes were not militarily defeated at Fredriksten, the campaign's structure collapsed with the king's death. Forced to cede large territories in the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, Sweden lost its status as an empire and the dominant state on the Baltic Sea. With Sweden's diminished influence, Russia emerged as an empire and became one of Europe's dominant nations. By the war's end in 1721, Sweden had lost an estimated 200,000 men, 150,000 from present-day Sweden and 50,000 from the Finnish part of Sweden.

Executive power was historically shared between the King and an aristocratic Privy Council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the commoner estates of the Riksdag. In reaction to the failed Great Northern War, a parliamentary system was introduced in 1719, known as the Age of Liberty (1719-72). This period saw the Swedish Riksdag develop into a very active Parliament, a tradition that continued into the 19th century, laying the groundwork for the transition towards modern democracy. This was followed by three forms of constitutional monarchy: the Gustavian absolutism of 1772 initiated by King Gustav III which curtailed many of the parliamentary freedoms developed during the Age of Liberty, a modified form in 1789, and finally the 1809 constitution which granted several civil liberties.

In the 18th century, Sweden lacked the resources to maintain its territories outside Scandinavia, and most were lost. This culminated in the loss in 1809 of eastern Sweden (present-day Finland) to Russia, which became the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland within the Imperial Russia.

Seeking to re-establish Swedish dominance in the Baltic Sea, Sweden allied itself against its traditional ally, France, in the Napoleonic Wars. However, in 1810, a French Marshal, Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, was chosen as heir presumptive to King Charles XIII. In 1818, he established the House of Bernadotte, taking the regnal name Charles XIV John. Sweden's role in the Battle of Leipzig allowed it to force Denmark-Norway, an ally of France, to cede Norway to Sweden on January 14, 1814, in exchange for northern German provinces, at the Treaty of Kiel. Norwegian attempts to maintain sovereignty were rejected by Charles XIII, who launched a military campaign against Norway on July 27, 1814. This ended with the Convention of Moss, forcing Norway into a personal union with Sweden, which lasted until 1905. The 1814 campaign was the last time Sweden was at war.

3.5. Modern and Contemporary History

This period covers Sweden's transformation from the Napoleonic era, including industrialization, democratic reforms, neutrality during world wars, the development of the welfare state, and recent foreign policy shifts towards EU and NATO membership, reflecting a commitment to social progress and international cooperation.

3.5.1. 19th Century and Early 20th Century

The Union between Sweden and Norway lasted from 1814 to 1905, when it was peacefully dissolved. The mid-19th century saw the failure of Pan-Scandinavianism, a movement promoted by the Swedish king, leading to a trend of separation among small Nordic countries. The Swedish East India Company, established in 1731, flourished, with Gothenburg becoming Sweden's second city due to its strategic port on the Göta älv river. Between 1750 and 1850, Sweden's population doubled. Mass emigration to America, with over 1% of the population emigrating annually during the 1880s, became a crucial outlet to prevent famine and rebellion. It is estimated that between 1850 and 1910, more than one million Swedes moved to the United States. Despite this, Sweden remained largely an agricultural economy and relatively poor, even as other Western European countries industrialized.

Despite the slow pace of industrialization into the 19th century, significant changes occurred in the agrarian economy due to innovations and rapid population growth. These included government-sponsored enclosure programs, aggressive exploitation of agricultural lands, and the introduction of new crops like the potato. The farming culture gained critical importance in Swedish politics, a legacy seen in the modern Centre Party (formerly the Agrarian Party). Between 1870 and 1914, Sweden began developing the industrialized economy it has today. In 1866, the estates-based Riksdag was abolished.

Strong grassroots movements, including trade unions, the temperance movement, and independent religious groups (free church movements), emerged in the latter half of the 19th century, laying a strong foundation for democratic principles. These movements propelled Sweden's transition into a modern parliamentary democracy, largely achieved by the time of World War I. As the Industrial Revolution progressed during the 20th century, people gradually moved into cities to work in factories and became involved in socialist unions. A communist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of parliamentarism, and the country was democratized.

3.5.3. Post-war Era and Cold War Period

Sweden was officially a neutral country and remained outside NATO and Warsaw Pact membership during the Cold War. However, privately, Sweden's leadership had strong ties with the United States and other Western governments. Following the war, Sweden leveraged its intact industrial base, social stability, and natural resources to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe. Sweden received aid under the Marshall Plan and participated in the OECD. From the late 1940s to the 1950s, to address labor shortages, Sweden accepted workers from countries like Italy, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Turkey.

During most of the post-war era, the country was governed by the Swedish Social Democratic Party, largely in cooperation with the Swedish Trade Union Confederation (LO) and industry. The government actively pursued an internationally competitive manufacturing sector, primarily composed of large corporations. This period saw the significant development and consolidation of the Swedish welfare state (folkhemmet), characterized by comprehensive social security, universal healthcare, and extensive public services, aiming to create an egalitarian society. This model, often referred to as the Nordic model, became a hallmark of Swedish social and economic policy. Sweden was one of the founding states of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). During the 1960s, the EFTA countries were often referred to as the Outer Seven, in contrast to the Inner Six of the then-European Economic Community (EEC). Tage Erlander served as Prime Minister from 1946 to 1969, playing a crucial role in expanding these welfare policies. In 1976, a conservative coalition came to power, ending a long period of Social Democratic rule.

Like many industrialized countries, Sweden entered a period of economic decline and upheaval following the oil embargoes of 1973-74 and 1978-79. In the 1980s, several key Swedish industries were significantly restructured. Shipbuilding was discontinued, wood pulp was integrated into modernized paper production, the steel industry was concentrated and specialized, and mechanical engineering was robotized. Swedish GDP per capita ranking declined during this time.

3.5.4. Recent History

A bursting real estate bubble, caused by inadequate controls on lending combined with an international recession and a policy switch from anti-unemployment to anti-inflationary policies, resulted in a fiscal crisis in the early 1990s. Sweden's GDP declined by around 5%. In 1992, a run on the currency caused the central bank to briefly increase interest rates to 500%.

The government's response was to cut spending and institute numerous reforms to improve Sweden's competitiveness, including reducing the welfare state and privatizing public services and goods. A referendum in November 1994 passed with 52.3% in favor of joining the EU. Sweden joined the European Union on January 1, 1995. In a 2003 referendum, the Swedish electorate voted against joining the Euro currency. Sweden held the presidency of the Council of the European Union from July 1 to December 31, 2009.

On September 28, 1994, the MS Estonia sank while crossing the Baltic Sea en route from Tallinn, Estonia, to Stockholm, Sweden. The disaster claimed 852 lives (501 of whom were Swedes), making it one of the worst maritime disasters of the 20th century.

Until 2022, Sweden generally remained non-aligned militarily, although it participated in joint military exercises with NATO and other countries. It stationed troops under NATO command in Afghanistan, took part in EU-sponsored peacekeeping operations in Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Cyprus, and helped enforce a UN-mandated no-fly zone over Libya during the Arab Spring. Additionally, there was extensive cooperation with other European countries in defense technology and industry. In response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Sweden, alongside Finland, moved to formally join NATO. After delays caused by objections from Turkey and Hungary, Sweden became a NATO member on March 7, 2024.

In recent decades, Sweden has become a more culturally diverse nation due to significant immigration. In 2013, it was estimated that 15% of the population was foreign-born, with an additional 5% born to two immigrant parents. The influx of immigrants has brought new social challenges, and integration remains an ongoing process. Violent incidents, such as the 2013 Stockholm riots, have periodically occurred. In response, the anti-immigration Sweden Democrats party promoted their policies, while left-wing opposition blamed growing inequality. Sweden was heavily affected by the 2015 European migrant crisis, eventually forcing the government to tighten entry regulations, some of which were later relaxed. In 2023, the Swedish government announced a new immigration policy aimed at reducing immigration levels, citing that previous levels were unsustainable and had contributed to social exclusion and crime, although conditions for highly skilled labor and researchers were intended to improve.

On November 30, 2021, Magdalena Andersson became Sweden's first female prime minister. The September 2022 general election resulted in a narrow win for a bloc of right-wing parties. On October 18, 2022, Ulf Kristersson of the Moderate Party became the new Prime Minister.

4.1. Climate

Most of Sweden has a temperate climate, despite its northern latitude, with largely four distinct seasons and mild temperatures throughout the year. The winter in the far south is usually weak and is manifested only through some shorter periods with snow and sub-zero temperatures; autumn may well transition into spring there, without a distinct period of winter. The northern parts of the country have a subarctic climate, while the central parts have a humid continental climate. The coastal south can be defined as having either a humid continental climate using the 32 °F ^{(0 °C)} isotherm, or an oceanic climate using the 26.6 °F ^{(-3 °C)} isotherm.

Due to increased maritime moderation in the peninsular south, summer temperature differences between the coastlines of the southernmost and northernmost regions are about 3.6 °F ^{(2 °C)} in summer and 18 °F ^{(10 °C)} in winter. This difference grows further when comparing areas in the northern interior, where the winter temperature difference in the far north is about 27 °F ^{(15 °C)} relative to the south. The warmest summers usually occur in the Mälaren Valley around Stockholm, due to the vast landmass shielding the middle east coast from Atlantic low-pressure systems in July. Daytime highs in Sweden's municipal seats vary from 66.2 °F ^{(19 °C)} to 75.2 °F ^{(24 °C)} in July and 15.8 °F ^{(-9 °C)} to 37.4 °F ^{(3 °C)} in January. The colder temperatures are influenced by the higher elevation in the northern interior. At sea level, the coldest average highs range from 21.2 °F ^{(-6 °C)} to 69.8 °F ^{(21 °C)}. As a result of the mild summers, the arctic region of Norrbotten has some of the northernmost agriculture in the world.

Sweden is much warmer and drier than other places at a similar latitude, and even somewhat farther south, mainly because of the combination of the Gulf Stream and the general west wind drift, caused by the direction of Earth's rotation. Because of Sweden's high latitude, the length of daylight varies greatly. North of the Arctic Circle, the midnight sun means the sun never sets for part of each summer, and polar night means it never rises for part of each winter. In the capital, Stockholm, daylight lasts for more than 18 hours in late June but only around 6 hours in late December. Sweden receives between 1,100 and 1,900 hours of sunshine annually.

The highest temperature ever recorded in Sweden was 100.4 °F ^{(38 °C)} in Målilla in 1947, while the coldest temperature ever recorded was -62.68000000000001 °F ^{(-52.6 °C)} in Vuoggatjålme on February 2, 1966.

On average, most of Sweden receives between 500 mm and 800 mm (20 in ^{(500 mm)} to 31 in ^{(800 mm)}) of precipitation each year, making it considerably drier than the global average. The southwestern part of the country receives more precipitation, between 1000 mm and 1200 mm (0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)} to 0.0 K in ^{(1.20 K mm)}), and some mountain areas in the north are estimated to receive up to 2000 mm (0.1 K in ^{(2.00 K mm)}). Despite northerly locations, southern and central Sweden may have almost no snow in some winters. Most of Sweden is located in the rain shadow of the Scandinavian Mountains through Norway and northwestern Sweden. It is predicted that as the Barents Sea becomes less frozen in coming winters, becoming "Atlantified," additional evaporation will increase future snowfalls in Sweden and much of continental Europe.

4.2. Vegetation and Wildlife

Sweden's considerable south-to-north distance causes large climatic differences, especially during winter. The length and strength of the four seasons play a role in which plants can naturally grow in various places. Sweden is divided into five major vegetation zones:

• The southern deciduous forest zone: Also known as the nemoral region, this zone is part of a larger vegetation zone that includes Denmark and large parts of Central Europe. It has largely become agricultural land, but forests still exist. This region is characterized by a wealth of trees and shrubs. Beech is the most dominant tree, but oak can also form smaller forests. Elm once formed forests but has been heavily reduced due to Dutch Elm disease. Other important trees and shrubs include hornbeam, elder, hazel, fly honeysuckle, linden (lime), spindle, yew, alder buckthorn, blackthorn, aspen, European rowan, Swedish whitebeam, juniper, European holly, ivy, dogwood, goat willow, larch, bird cherry, wild cherry, maple, ash, alder along creeks, and in sandy soil, birch competes with pine. Spruce is not native but was planted extensively between approximately 1870 and 1980. Over the last 40-50 years, large areas of former spruce plantings have been replanted with deciduous forest, reflecting conservation efforts.

• The southern coniferous forest zone: Also known as the boreo-nemoral region, this zone is delimited by the northern natural limit of the oak (limes norrlandicus) and the southern natural limit of the spruce. It lies between the southern deciduous zone and the taiga further north. In the southern parts of this zone, coniferous species, mainly spruce and pine, are mixed with various deciduous trees. Birch grows largely everywhere. The beech's northern boundary crosses this zone. Planted spruce is common, and such woods are very dense, especially in the zone's southern areas.

• The northern coniferous forest zone (Taiga): This zone begins north of the natural boundary of the oak. Of deciduous species, birch is the only one of significance. Pine and spruce are dominant, but the forests become progressively sparser further north. In the extreme north, the trees are so scattered it is difficult to consider them true forests.

• The alpine-birch zone: Located in the Scandinavian mountains, this zone's vegetation depends on both latitude and altitude. Only a smaller kind of birch (Betula pubescens or B. tortuosa) can grow here.

• The bare mountain zone: Where the alpine-birch zone ends, no trees grow at all. This zone consists of tundra-like vegetation or bare rock.

Sweden had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.35/10, ranking it 103rd globally out of 172 countries. Sweden was ranked sixth in the Environmental Performance Index in 2024. The index measures how well countries perform on various environmental indicators, and Sweden scores well in areas like air pollution, air quality, waste management, sanitation, and drinking water, reflecting its strong commitment to nature conservation and environmental sustainability.

Representative fauna includes mammals such as the elk (moose), roe deer, red deer, brown bear, wolf, Eurasian lynx, wolverine, wild boar, and European beaver. Birdlife is abundant, particularly in coastal areas and wetlands. Sweden's extensive network of lakes and rivers supports a rich variety of fish, including pike, perch, and salmon. Conservation efforts focus on protecting endangered species and preserving biodiversity through national parks and nature reserves.

5.1. Constitutional Framework and Government

Sweden has four fundamental laws (grundlagar_{grund-lah-gar}^Swedish) which together form the Constitution: the Instrument of Government (Regeringsformen_{Re-yeh-rings-for-men}^Swedish), the Act of Succession (Successionsordningen_{Suk-sess-hoons-ord-ning-en}^Swedish), the Freedom of the Press Act (Tryckfrihetsförordningen_{Trük-free-hets-foer-ord-ning-en}^Swedish), and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression (Yttrandefrihetsgrundlagen_{It-tran-de-free-hets-grund-lah-gen}^Swedish). These laws establish the framework for Swedish democracy, including the rights of citizens and the distribution of power.

The public sector in Sweden is divided into two parts: the legal person known as the State (staten_stah-ten^Swedish) and local authorities. The latter include Regional Councils (regioner_{re-gee-oh-ner}^Swedish, renamed from county councils, landsting_lands-ting^Swedish, in 2020) and local Municipalities (kommuner_kom-mew-ner^Swedish). Local authorities constitute the larger part of the public sector in Sweden. Regional Councils and Municipalities are independent of one another, with the former covering larger geographical areas. They have self-rule, as mandated by the Constitution, and their own tax base. Despite their self-rule, local authorities are dependent upon the State, as the parameters of their responsibilities and jurisdiction are specified in the Local Government Act (Kommunallagen_{Kom-mew-nall-lah-gen}^Swedish) passed by the Riksdag.

Sweden is a constitutional monarchy, and King Carl XVI Gustaf is the head of state. However, the role of the monarch is limited to ceremonial and representative functions. Under the provisions of the 1974 Instrument of Government, the King lacks any formal political power. The King opens the annual Riksdag session, chairs the Special Council held during a change of Government, holds regular Information Councils with the Prime Minister and the Government, chairs meetings of the Advisory Council on Foreign Affairs (Utrikesnämnden_{Oot-ri-kes-nemn-den}^Swedish), receives Letters of Credence from foreign ambassadors, and signs those of Swedish ambassadors. The King also undertakes State Visits abroad and hosts incoming ones.

Legislative power is vested in the unicameral Riksdag, which has 349 members. General elections are held every four years. Legislation may be initiated by the Government or by members of the Riksdag. Members are elected based on proportional representation. The internal workings of the Riksdag are regulated by the Instrument of Government and the Riksdag Act (Riksdagsordningen_{Riks-dahgs-ord-ning-en}^Swedish). The fundamental laws can be altered by the Riksdag alone; only an absolute majority with two separate votes, separated by a general election, is required.

The Government (Regeringen_{Re-yeh-ring-en}^Swedish) operates as a collegial body with collective responsibility. It consists of the Prime Minister-nominated by the Speaker and elected by a vote in the Riksdag-and other cabinet ministers (Statsråd_Stats-rawd^Swedish), who are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the Prime Minister. The Government is the supreme executive authority and is responsible for its actions to the Riksdag.

Most State administrative authorities (statliga förvaltningsmyndigheter_{staht-li-ga foer-valt-nings-mün-dig-he-ter}^Swedish) report to the Government. A unique feature of Swedish State administration is that individual cabinet ministers do not bear any individual ministerial responsibility for the performance of agencies within their portfolio. Directors-general and other heads of government agencies report directly to the Government as a whole, and individual ministers are prohibited from interfering. This separation is intended to ensure administrative impartiality and efficiency, though it has sometimes led to political debate about accountability.

5.2. Political Parties and Elections

For over 50 years, Sweden had five main parties consistently gaining seats in the Riksdag: the Social Democrats (S) (center-left), the Moderate Party (M) (center-right/conservative liberal), the Centre Party (C) (center-right/liberal, formerly agrarian), the Liberals (L) (center-right/social liberal, formerly Liberal People's Party), and the Left Party (V) (left-wing, formerly communist). The Green Party (MP) (center-left/green) became the sixth party in the 1988 election. In the 1991 election, while the Greens lost their seats (they regained them later), two new parties gained seats for the first time: the Christian Democrats (KD) (center-right) and New Democracy (populist, short-lived). It was not until the 2010 election that an eighth party, the Sweden Democrats (SD) (right-wing populist/national conservative), gained Riksdag seats. These parties represent a spectrum of ideologies, from social democracy and environmentalism to liberalism, conservatism, and nationalism, reflecting Sweden's dynamic multi-party system.

In elections to the European Parliament, parties that have failed to pass the Riksdag threshold (4% nationwide or 12% in a single constituency) have occasionally gained representation, including the June List (2004-2009), the Pirate Party (2009-2014), and Feminist Initiative (2014-2019).

Election turnout in Sweden has always been high by international comparison. Although it declined in recent decades, recent elections saw an increase in voter turnout: 80.11% in 2002, 81.99% in 2006, 84.63% in 2010, 85.81% in the 2014, and 87.18% in the 2018. This high participation underscores the strength of Swedish democratic traditions. Swedish politicians enjoyed a high degree of public confidence in the 1960s; however, this confidence has since declined and is now markedly lower than in its Scandinavian neighbors.

The 2022 general election resulted in a narrow victory for a right-wing bloc consisting of the Sweden Democrats, Moderate Party, Christian Democrats, and Liberals. This led to the formation of a new government under Moderate Party leader Ulf Kristersson, supported by the Sweden Democrats in parliament. This shift indicated a significant change in the Swedish political landscape, with the Sweden Democrats becoming the second-largest party and a key influencer in right-wing politics, challenging the long-standing dominance of the Social Democrats and highlighting societal debates around immigration, law and order, and the future of the welfare state.

5.3. Administrative Divisions

Sweden is a unitary state divided into 21 regions (regioner_{re-gee-oh-ner}^Swedish) and 290 municipalities (kommuner_kom-mew-ner^Swedish). Each region corresponds to a county (län_lehn^Swedish) and contains a number of municipalities. Regions and municipalities are both local governments but have different roles and separate responsibilities. Health care, public transport, and certain cultural institutions are administered by regional councils. Preschools, primary and secondary schooling, public water utilities, garbage disposal, elderly care, and rescue services are administered by the municipalities. Gotland is a special case, being a region with only one municipality, where the functions of region and municipality are performed by the same organization. This system of local self-government is a cornerstone of Swedish democracy, allowing for decisions to be made closer to the citizens they affect.

Municipal and regional government in Sweden is similar to city commission and cabinet-style council government. Both levels have legislative assemblies (municipal councils and regional assemblies of between 31 and 101 members, always an odd number) that are elected from party-list proportional representation at general elections held every four years in conjunction with national parliamentary elections.

Municipalities are also divided into a total of 2,512 parishes (församlingar_{foer-sam-ling-ar}^Swedish). These have no official political responsibilities but are traditional subdivisions of the Church of Sweden and still have some importance as census districts for demographic record-keeping.

The Swedish central government has 21 County Administrative Boards (länsstyrelser_{lehns-stü-rel-ser}^Swedish), which are responsible for regional state administration not assigned to other government agencies or local government. Each county administrative board is led by a County Governor (landshövding_{lands-hoev-ding}^Swedish) appointed for a term of six years. The list of previous officeholders for the counties stretches back, in most cases, to 1634 when the counties were created by Lord High Chancellor Count Axel Oxenstierna. The main responsibility of the County Administrative Board is to coordinate the development of the county in line with goals set by the Riksdag and Government, ensuring national policies are implemented locally.

There are older historical divisions, primarily the twenty-five provinces and three lands, which still retain cultural significance and are often used in geographical and cultural contexts, contributing to regional identity.

The counties of Sweden (län) are:

ISO 3166-2 Code	NUTS Code	Flag	Coat of Arms	County Name	Capital	Governor	Area (km2)
SE-AB	SE110			Stockholm	Stockholm	Sven-Erik Österberg	6,519.3
SE-AC	SE331			Västerbotten	Umeå	Magdalena Andersson	55,186.2
SE-BD	SE332			Norrbotten	Luleå	Björn O. Nilsson	98,244.8
SE-C	SE121			Uppsala	Uppsala	Göran Enander	8,207.2
SE-D	SE122			Södermanland	Nyköping	Beatrice Ask	6,102.3
SE-E	SE123			Östergötland	Linköping	Carl Fredrik Graf	10,602.0
SE-F	SE211			Jönköping	Jönköping	Helena Jonsson	10,495.1
SE-G	SE212			Kronoberg	Växjö	Ingrid Burman	8,466.0
SE-H	SE213			Kalmar	Kalmar	Thomas Carlzon	11,217.8
SE-I	SE214			Gotland	Visby	Anders Flanking	3,151.4
SE-K	SE221			Blekinge	Karlskrona	Sten Nordins	2,946.4
SE-M	SE224			Skåne	Malmö	Anneli Hulthén	11,034.5
SE-N	SE231			Halland	Halmstad	Lena Sommestad	5,460.7
SE-O	SE232			Västra Götaland	Gothenburg (Vänersborg for regional council)	Anders Danielsson	23,948.8
SE-S	SE311			Värmland	Karlstad	Johan Blom (acting)	17,591.0
SE-T	SE124			Örebro	Örebro	Maria Larsson	8,545.6
SE-U	SE125			Västmanland	Västerås	Minoo Akhtarzand	5,145.8
SE-W	SE312			Dalarna	Falun	Ylva Thörn	28,188.8
SE-X	SE313			Gävleborg	Gävle	Per Bill	18,198.9
SE-Y	SE321			Västernorrland	Härnösand	Berit Högman	21,683.8
SE-Z	SE322			Jämtland	Östersund	Jöran Hägglund	49,341.2

5.4. Judicial System

The courts are divided into two parallel and separate systems: The general courts (allmänna domstolar_{al-men-nah dom-sto-lar}^Swedish) for criminal and civil cases, and general administrative courts (allmänna förvaltningsdomstolar_{al-men-nah foer-valt-nings-dom-sto-lar}^Swedish) for cases relating to disputes between private persons and the authorities. Each of these systems has three tiers, where the top-tier court of the respective system typically only hears cases that may become precedent. There are also a number of special courts, which hear a narrower set of cases, as set down by legislation. While independent in their rulings, some of these courts are operated as divisions within courts of the general or general administrative courts. The independence of the judiciary is a fundamental principle, ensuring fair trials and the rule of law.

The Supreme Court of Sweden (Högsta domstolen_{Hoeg-stah dom-sto-len}^Swedish) is the third and final instance in all civil and criminal cases in Sweden. The Supreme Court consists of 16 Justices (justitieråd_{yus-ti-tsie-rawd}^Swedish), appointed by the Government, but the court as an institution is independent of the Riksdag, and the Government is not able to interfere with the decisions of the court.

According to a victimisation survey of 1,201 residents in 2005, Sweden had above-average crime rates compared to other EU countries, particularly for assaults, sexual assaults, hate crimes, and consumer fraud. However, it had low levels of burglary, car theft, and drug problems. Bribe-seeking is rare. In November 2013, it was reported that four prisons in Sweden were closed due to a significant drop in the number of inmates, with prison numbers falling by around 1% a year since 2004. However, in more recent years, concerns about certain types of crime, particularly gang-related violence and sexual offenses, have increased and become significant topics in public and political discourse, leading to policy debates about law enforcement and social integration. The "Simon Lundström case" (known in Japan as the "スウェーデン漫画判決" or Sweden Manga Ruling), where the Supreme Court acquitted an individual charged with child pornography for possessing manga drawings, highlighted complexities in Swedish law regarding freedom of expression and depictions of minors, ruling that drawings not mistaken for real children did not constitute child pornography under existing law.

5.5. Foreign Relations

Throughout the 20th century, Swedish foreign policy was based on the principle of non-alignment in peacetime and neutrality in wartime. Sweden's government pursued an independent course of non-alignment so that neutrality would be possible in the event of war. This policy was shaped by its historical experiences and geographical position. Sweden formally abandoned its neutrality policy in 1992.

During the early Cold War era, Sweden combined its policy of non-alignment and a low profile in international affairs with a security policy based on strong national defence. The function of the Swedish military was to deter attack. Beginning in the late 1960s, Sweden attempted to play a more significant and independent role in international relations. It involved itself significantly in international peace efforts, especially through the United Nations, and in support of the Third World, championing human rights, disarmament, and development aid.

Following the 1986 assassination of Olof Palme and with the end of the Cold War, Sweden adopted a more traditional foreign policy approach, though it remained active in peacekeeping missions and maintained a considerable foreign aid budget. Since 1995, Sweden has been a member of the European Union, and as a consequence of a new world security situation, the country's foreign policy doctrine has been partly modified, with Sweden playing a more active role in European security cooperation.

In 2022, in response to Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine, Sweden, alongside Finland, made a historic decision to apply for membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). This marked a significant departure from its long-standing policy of military non-alignment. After a period of ratification by all existing NATO members, which included addressing concerns raised by Turkey and Hungary, Sweden formally became a member of NATO on March 7, 2024. This move reflects a fundamental shift in Sweden's security policy and its approach to international defense cooperation, aligning it more closely with Western allies in response to a changed geopolitical landscape. Sweden continues to prioritize global issues such as human rights, democracy, peace, and sustainable development in its foreign policy.

Public Opinion on International Relations
According to a 2018 European Commission survey, Swedish public opinion on other major countries and the EU was as follows:

Sweden maintains a strong relationship with Japan, including scholarships for Swedish researchers in Japan. Cooperation with Finland is particularly close, especially regarding NATO and regional security. Relations with Ukraine are strong, with Sweden providing significant support following the 2022 Russian invasion. Conversely, relations with Russia have been strained, highlighted by airspace violations by Russian military aircraft. While public opinion towards the United States is mixed, the two countries maintain a defense cooperation agreement. Sweden is also exploring cooperation with Canada on emerging technologies and critical raw materials. Regarding China, public opinion is largely negative, and Sweden has expressed concerns over human rights issues. Taiwan is viewed more favorably. Relations with Turkey have faced challenges, particularly concerning Sweden's NATO application and incidents of Quran burnings in Sweden, though Sweden has also provided humanitarian aid to Turkey. Sweden is committed to a two-state solution for the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and provides humanitarian aid to Palestine while also combating antisemitism. Sweden is a major contributor to the United Nations, active in peacekeeping, development aid, and promoting human rights and gender equality globally.

5.6. Military

Law is enforced in Sweden by several government entities. The Swedish Police is a Government agency concerned with police matters. The National Task Force is a national SWAT unit within the police force. The Swedish Security Service's responsibilities are counter-espionage, anti-terrorist activities, protection of the constitution, and protection of sensitive objects and people.

The Försvarsmakten_{Foer-svars-mak-ten}^Swedish (Swedish Armed Forces) are a government agency reporting to the Swedish Ministry of Defence and responsible for the peacetime operation of the armed forces of Sweden. The primary task of the agency is to train and deploy peacekeeping forces abroad, while maintaining the long-term ability to refocus on the defence of Sweden in the event of war. The armed forces are divided into the Army, Air Force, and Navy. The head of the armed forces is the Supreme Commander (Överbefälhavaren_{Oe-ver-be-fael-ha-va-ren}^Swedish, ÖB), the most senior commissioned officer in the country. Until 1974, the King was pro forma Commander-in-Chief, but in reality, it was clearly understood throughout the 20th century that the monarch would have no active role as a military leader.

Until the end of the Cold War, nearly all males reaching the age of military service were conscripted. In recent years, the number of conscripted males shrunk dramatically, while the number of female volunteers increased slightly. Recruitment generally shifted towards finding the most motivated recruits. By law, all soldiers serving abroad must be volunteers. On July 1, 2010, Sweden ended routine conscription, switching to an all-volunteer force unless otherwise required for defence readiness. The total forces gathered would consist of about 60,000 personnel. This is in comparison with the 1980s, before the fall of the Soviet Union, when Sweden could gather up to 1,000,000 servicemembers.

However, on December 11, 2014, due to tensions in the Baltic area, the Swedish Government reintroduced one part of the Swedish conscription system, refresher training. On March 2, 2017, the government decided to reintroduce the remaining part of the Swedish conscription system, basic military training. The first recruits began their training in 2018. As the law is now gender-neutral, both men and women may have to serve. This decision reflected growing security concerns in the region and a need to bolster national defense capabilities. In 2002, Sweden affirmed that while military non-alignment had been useful, future security would be pursued in cooperation with other countries.

Sweden decided not to sign the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. Swedish units have taken part in peacekeeping operations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cyprus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Liberia, Lebanon, Afghanistan, and Chad. With its recent accession to NATO in March 2024, Sweden's defense strategy is evolving to integrate more closely with alliance structures and collective defense planning, marking a significant shift from its historical non-alignment.

6.1. Major Industries and Companies

Sweden's economy is characterized by several key industrial sectors and globally recognized companies that contribute significantly to its GDP and employment, while also often adhering to principles of social responsibility and environmental sustainability.

The manufacturing and engineering sector is a cornerstone of the Swedish economy, accounting for approximately 50% of output and exports. This sector includes:

• Automotive Industry: Volvo Group (trucks, buses, construction equipment) and Volvo Cars (now owned by Geely) are iconic Swedish brands known for safety and innovation. Scania AB is another major manufacturer of heavy trucks and buses.
• Telecommunications: Ericsson is a global leader in telecommunications equipment and services.
• Machinery and Equipment: Companies like Atlas Copco (industrial tools and equipment), Sandvik (high-technology engineering), and SKF (bearings and seals) are major international players. Alfa Laval is a world leader in heat transfer, separation, and fluid handling.
• Home Appliances: Electrolux is one of the world's largest home appliance manufacturers.

Forestry, Pulp, and Paper Industry: Given that around 65% of Sweden's land area is covered by forests, this sector is historically significant. Companies like Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget (SCA) and Stora Enso (Swedish-Finnish) are major producers of pulp, paper, and wood products.

Pharmaceuticals and Biotechnology: Sweden has a strong pharmaceutical industry, with AstraZeneca (Anglo-Swedish) being a prominent global biopharmaceutical company. Uppsala and Lund are notable biotech hubs.

Retail: Sweden is home to some of the world's largest and most innovative retailers. IKEA, known for its flat-pack furniture and modern design, is a global giant. H&M (Hennes & Mauritz) is a leading international fashion retailer. ICA Gruppen is a major food retailer in the Nordic region.

Information Technology and Digital Services: In recent decades, Sweden has fostered a vibrant tech startup scene. Notable successes include Spotify (music streaming), Klarna (fintech), and Mojang Studios (creator of Minecraft, now owned by Microsoft). This reflects Sweden's high internet penetration and skilled tech workforce.

Defense Industry: Saab AB is a major defense and aerospace company, known for producing fighter jets like the JAS 39 Gripen, as well as other advanced defense systems.

Mining and Steel: Historically important, Sweden still has significant iron ore mining, primarily in the north (e.g., LKAB in Kiruna). The Swedish steel industry (e.g., SSAB) is known for specialized, high-quality steel products.

These companies and industries are not only economically vital but also play a role in Sweden's reputation for quality, innovation, and sustainable practices. Many Swedish companies are known for their commitment to corporate social responsibility and environmental stewardship, aligning with the country's broader societal values.

6.2. Energy

Sweden's energy market is largely privatized. The Nordic energy market is one of the first liberalized energy markets in Europe and it is traded in NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe and Nord Pool Spot. In 2006, out of a total electricity production of 139 terawatt-hours (TWh), electricity from hydropower accounted for 61 TWh (44%), and nuclear power delivered 65 TWh (47%). At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat, etc., produced 13 TWh (9%) of electricity, while wind power produced 1 TWh (1%). Sweden was a net importer of electricity by a margin of 6 TWh in that year. More recently, in 2014, Sweden was a net exporter of electricity by 16 TWh, and production from wind power increased to 11.5 TWh.

Sweden joined the International Energy Agency in 1974, after the 1973 oil crisis strengthened its commitment to decrease dependence on imported fossil fuels. To protect against unexpected oil supply shocks and in accordance with international commitments made through the IEA, Sweden maintains a strategic petroleum reserve of at least 90 days of net oil imports. As of February 2022, Sweden's oil reserves totaled 130 days' worth of net imports.

Sweden has moved to generate electricity mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. However, the use of nuclear power has been a subject of political debate. The Three Mile Island accident in the US prompted the Riksdag to ban new nuclear plants in a 1980 referendum, which also called for a phase-out of existing reactors. However, in March 2005, an opinion poll showed that 83% supported maintaining or increasing nuclear power. Policies have since shifted, and there is ongoing discussion about the future role of nuclear energy in Sweden's energy mix, especially in the context of achieving climate goals.

Sweden is considered a "global leader" in decarbonization. Politicians have made announcements about a phase-out of oil in Sweden, a decrease in nuclear power (though this is debated), and multi-billion-dollar investments in renewable energy and energy efficiency. The country has for many years pursued a strategy of indirect taxation as an instrument of environmental policy, including energy taxes in general and carbon dioxide taxes in particular. Sweden was the first nation to implement carbon pricing, and its carbon prices remain among the highest in the world. This model has been shown to be particularly effective at decarbonizing the nation's economy. The focus on renewable energy sources, particularly hydropower and wind, alongside biomass for heating, underscores Sweden's commitment to environmental sustainability and reducing its carbon footprint.

6.3. Transport

Sweden has an extensive and modern transportation infrastructure. The road network comprises 101 K mile ^{(162.71 K km)} of paved roads and 0.9 K mile ^{(1.43 K km)} of expressways. Motorways connect major cities and extend to Denmark via the Öresund Bridge. Sweden switched from left-hand traffic (vänstertrafik_{ven-ster-tra-feek}^Swedish) to right-hand traffic on September 3, 1967, an event known as Dagen H.

Rail transport is widely used for both passengers and freight. The Stockholm Metro is the only underground system in Sweden, serving the capital city with 100 stations. The national rail network is largely owned and maintained by Trafikverket (Swedish Transport Administration), while train operations are handled by various operators, including the state-owned SJ and private companies like Veolia Transport (now part of Transdev), Green Cargo (freight), Tågkompaniet, and Inlandsbanan. High-speed trains connect major cities, and there are extensive regional and commuter rail services.

Tram networks, largely dismantled in 1967, survive and thrive in Gothenburg (the largest), Norrköping, and Stockholm. A new tram line opened in Lund in December 2020. Buses are a common mode of public transport in cities and rural areas, often run by regional public transport authorities.

Air transport is served by several international and domestic airports. The largest are Stockholm Arlanda Airport (25 mile ^{(40 km)} north of Stockholm), Göteborg Landvetter Airport, and Stockholm Skavsta Airport. Malmö Airport is also significant.

Maritime transport is crucial for Sweden's international trade. The Port of Gothenburg is the largest port in Scandinavia. Other important ports include Malmö (part of Copenhagen Malmö Port AB), Trelleborg (busiest ferry port by freight weight), Karlskrona, Karlshamn, and ports in the Stockholm area. Sweden has numerous car ferry connections to neighboring countries, including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Poland, Lithuania, Germany, and Denmark. The HH Ferry route between Helsingborg and Helsingør (Denmark) is one of the busiest international ferry routes. Domestic ferry lines connect the mainland with islands like Gotland and Ven.

Policies related to transport emphasize sustainability, safety, and efficiency, with significant investments in public transport and efforts to reduce the environmental impact of transportation.

6.4. Science and Technology

Sweden has a rich history of contributions to science and technology. In the 18th century, Sweden's scientific revolution took off, with the founding of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1739. Early members included renowned scientists like Carl Linnaeus (father of modern taxonomy) and Anders Celsius (creator of the Celsius temperature scale).

Throughout its history, Swedish inventors and innovators have made significant global impacts. Alfred Nobel invented dynamite and instituted the Nobel Prizes. Lars Magnus Ericsson founded the telecommunications company Ericsson, which remains a major global player. Jonas Wenström was an early pioneer in alternating current and is credited, along with Nikola Tesla, as one of the inventors of the three-phase electrical system. Gustaf Dalén, founder of AGA AB, received the Nobel Prize for his sun valve used in lighthouses.

The traditional engineering industry continues to be a major source of Swedish inventions, but pharmaceuticals, electronics, and other high-tech industries are gaining ground. Tetra Pak, an invention for storing liquid foods, was developed by Ruben Rausing and Erik Wallenberg. Losec (Omeprazole), an ulcer medicine developed by AstraZeneca (formerly Astra AB), was the world's best-selling drug in the 1990s. More recently, Håkan Lans invented the Automatic Identification System (AIS), a worldwide standard for shipping and civil aviation navigation. Many contemporary Swedish innovations are in the digital space, with companies like Spotify (music streaming) and Klarna (fintech) achieving global success.

Swedish inventors held 47,112 patents in the United States as of 2014. Both the public and private sectors in Sweden allocate a significant portion of GDP to research and development (R&D), typically over 3.5% annually, making Sweden's R&D investment among the highest in the world as a percentage of GDP. The Swedish government has long prioritized scientific and R&D activities. Sweden also ranks highly in the number of published scientific works per capita in Europe.

Major research infrastructure projects include the European Spallation Source (ESS), a multi-disciplinary research facility based on the world's most powerful neutron source, and the MAX IV, a synchrotron radiation facility, both located in Lund. These facilities support advanced research in materials science and other fields. Sweden consistently ranks very high in global innovation indices, such as the Global Innovation Index, where it was ranked second in 2023 and 2024. This reflects the country's strong ecosystem for research, innovation, and technological development, supported by a highly educated workforce and a culture that values scientific advancement and social progress.

6.5. Taxation and Finance

The Swedish taxation system is characterized by relatively high tax rates, which fund the country's extensive welfare state, including public services like healthcare, education, and social security. Total tax revenue as a percentage of GDP is among the highest in the OECD, though it has decreased from its peak in 1990 (52.3%) to around 45.8% in 2010. In 2007, total tax revenue was 47.8% of GDP.

Major tax types include:

• Income Tax: Sweden has a progressive income tax system. Municipal income tax is around 30-32% on average, varying by municipality. There is an additional state income tax for high earners (20-25% on income exceeding a certain threshold, roughly 320.00 K SEK per year in earlier descriptions, though thresholds change).
• Payroll Taxes (Social Security Contributions): Employers pay significant payroll taxes (arbetsgivaravgifter_{ar-bets-yi-var-av-yif-ter}^Swedish), around 31-32%, which finance a large part of the social security system.
• Value Added Tax (VAT): The standard VAT rate (moms_moms^Swedish) is 25%. Reduced rates apply to certain goods and services like food, hotel stays, and cultural events.
• Corporate Income Tax: The corporate tax rate has been gradually reduced and stands at 20.6% as of 2021.
• Excise Taxes: Additional taxes are levied on specific goods like alcohol, tobacco, energy (electricity, petrol/diesel), and carbon dioxide emissions. Sweden was a pioneer in implementing a carbon tax.

Public sector spending amounts to a significant portion of GDP (around 53% in some estimates). State and municipal employees constitute about a third of the workforce. A large part of public expenditure goes towards social security (around 42%), education and healthcare (around 27%), with a smaller portion for police and military (around 5%).

The Swedish financial system is well-developed. The Sveriges Riksbank is the central bank, responsible for monetary policy and financial stability. Its primary goal is to maintain price stability with an inflation target of 2%. Sweden is known for its privatized pension system, which is considered relatively robust compared to many other Western European countries.

The country experienced a real estate and banking crisis in the early 1990s, leading to tax reforms in 1991 aimed at cutting tax rates and broadening the tax base. These reforms, along with deregulation and globalization, have been credited with improving Sweden's economic performance and competitiveness. The principles of public finance management emphasize fiscal responsibility and long-term sustainability, essential for maintaining the welfare state.

6.6. Waste Management

Sweden is renowned for its advanced and highly efficient waste management system, which strongly emphasizes sustainability and the waste hierarchy (reduce, reuse, recycle, recover energy, dispose). The country has achieved remarkable success in diverting waste from landfills.

Key features of Swedish waste management include:

• High Recycling Rates: A significant portion of household waste is recycled. In 2019, around 47% of household waste was recycled (materials and biological treatment). Swedes are encouraged to sort waste at home, with separate bins or collection points for paper, plastic, metal, glass, food waste, and newspapers.
• Waste-to-Energy: Approximately 52% of household waste is incinerated in specialized plants to produce energy (electricity and district heating). This has dramatically reduced the amount of waste going to landfills. Sweden's waste-to-energy capacity is so efficient that it even imports waste from other countries (around 2 million tonnes annually in some reports) to fuel these plants and generate revenue. This practice, while controversial for some, helps other nations manage their waste and provides Sweden with a fuel source.
• Low Landfill Rates: Only a very small percentage of household waste (around 0.7% or less) ends up in landfills. This is one of the lowest rates in the world.
• Producer Responsibility: Sweden has implemented extended producer responsibility schemes for various products, meaning producers are responsible for the collection and recycling of their products (e.g., packaging, electronics, batteries, tires).
• Public Awareness and Participation: High public awareness and active participation in sorting and recycling are crucial to the system's success. Municipalities play a key role in providing infrastructure and information.
• Policy and Organization: Avfall Sverige (Swedish Waste Management and Recycling Association) is a key public organization that works with municipalities and companies to develop and improve waste management practices and promote sustainable solutions.

The Swedish approach to waste management is seen as a model for other countries, demonstrating how strong policies, public engagement, and technological innovation can lead to a more circular economy and minimize environmental impact. The revenue generated from recycling and waste-to-energy activities (e.g., an estimated 1.70 B EUR in 2020 from recycling) also highlights the economic benefits of such a system.

7.1. Demographics

The total resident population of Sweden was 10,377,781 in October 2020. The population exceeded 10 million for the first time on Friday, January 20, 2017. The average population density is just over 25 people per square kilometre (65 per square mile), with 1,437 persons per square kilometre in localities (continuous settlements with at least 200 inhabitants). 88% of the population live in urban areas, which cover 1.5% of the entire land area. 63% of Swedes are in large urban areas. The population density is substantially higher in the south than in the north. There are more than 2,000 localities.

The capital city, Stockholm, has a municipal population of about 950,000 (with 1.5 million in the urban area and 2.3 million in the metropolitan area). The second- and third-largest cities are Gothenburg (approx. 570,000 municipal, 1 million metro) and Malmö (approx. 350,000 municipal, 700,000 metro). Other major cities include Uppsala, Linköping, Örebro, Västerås, Helsingborg, Norrköping, and Jönköping. Outside of major cities, areas with notably higher population density include the agricultural part of Östergötland, the western coast, the area around Lake Mälaren, and the agricultural area around Uppsala.

Norrland, which covers approximately 60% of the Swedish territory, has a very low population density (below five people per square kilometre). The mountains and most of the remote coastal areas are almost unpopulated. Low population density also exists in large parts of western Svealand, as well as southern and central Småland.

Sweden has one of the oldest populations in the world, with an average age of 41.1 years. The total fertility rate is below replacement level, but the population continues to grow due to immigration and increasing life expectancy.

There are no official statistics on ethnicity. According to Statistics Sweden, in 2021, 2,752,572 inhabitants (26%) of Sweden were of foreign background, defined as being born abroad or born in Sweden with both parents foreign-born. Of these, 2,090,503 persons were born abroad, and 662,069 persons were born in Sweden to parents born abroad. An additional 805,340 persons had one parent born abroad and the other born in Sweden. Historically, Sweden was a country of emigration, particularly to North America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. After World War II, it became a country of net immigration. The ethnic composition is primarily Swedes, with Finns being a notable minority among other groups.

7.2. Immigration

Immigration has been a significant force in shaping modern Swedish society, contributing to its demographic growth and cultural diversity. Sweden's history of immigration can be divided into several phases:

• Post-World War II Labor Immigration: In the 1940s to 1960s, Sweden actively recruited workers from other European countries, including Finland, Italy, Greece, and Yugoslavia, to meet the demands of its expanding industries.
• Refugee and Asylum Seeker Flows: From the 1970s onwards, Sweden became a prominent destination for refugees and asylum seekers fleeing conflict and persecution. This included groups from Chile (after the 1973 coup), Iran and Iraq (during and after the Iran-Iraq War and Gulf Wars), the former Yugoslavia (during the Balkan Wars of the 1990s), Somalia, and more recently, Syria, Afghanistan, and Eritrea.
• EU Free Movement: Since joining the EU in 1995, Sweden has experienced labor migration from other EU member states, particularly from newer members like Poland and the Baltic states.

As of 2021, about 26% of Sweden's population had a foreign background (born abroad or born in Sweden with two foreign-born parents). The largest groups of foreign-born residents in recent years have come from Syria, Iraq, Finland, Poland, Iran, Somalia, and the former Yugoslavia.

Immigration Policy:
Swedish immigration policy has evolved over time. Historically, it was relatively liberal, particularly concerning asylum seekers, guided by humanitarian principles and international conventions. However, significant influxes, such as during the 2015 European migrant crisis when Sweden received a per capita record number of asylum applications, led to a tightening of regulations. These included stricter border controls, temporary residence permits instead of permanent ones for some categories, and more restrictive family reunification rules. Some of these restrictions were later partially relaxed.
In 2023, the Swedish government announced a "paradigm shift" in its immigration policy, aiming to reduce immigration levels, particularly for low-skilled labor and asylum, and to place greater emphasis on integration and return policies. The government stated that previous levels of immigration were unsustainable and had contributed to social exclusion and crime. However, policies for highly skilled labor and researchers were intended to remain or become more favorable. Requirements for citizenship were also slated to become more stringent, potentially including knowledge of Swedish society and culture.

Social, Economic, and Cultural Impacts:
Immigration has enriched Swedish society culturally but has also presented challenges related to social and economic integration.

• Integration Efforts: Sweden invests significantly in integration programs, including language training (Swedish for Immigrants - SFI), civic orientation, and labor market initiatives. However, challenges remain in areas such as employment for foreign-born individuals (especially women and those with lower education levels), housing shortages in metropolitan areas, and educational attainment gaps for some immigrant groups.
• Social Cohesion: Debates around immigration have intensified, particularly concerning its impact on social cohesion, crime rates, and the sustainability of the welfare state. The rise of anti-immigration parties like the Sweden Democrats reflects these concerns. Issues such as segregation in certain urban areas and social tensions have been reported. For instance, riots in some suburbs (e.g., Stockholm 2013) have been linked by some commentators to social exclusion and inequality among immigrant communities.
• Economic Contributions: Immigrants contribute to the Swedish economy by filling labor shortages, starting businesses, and contributing to innovation. However, there are also costs associated with reception and integration.
• Human Rights and Social Inclusion: Sweden maintains a strong commitment to human rights. Policy discussions often focus on balancing border control with humanitarian obligations and ensuring the rights and fair treatment of immigrants and asylum seekers. Addressing discrimination and promoting social inclusion are key priorities. While Sweden is considered one of the EU countries with the lowest levels of reported racial discrimination overall (4% reported feeling discriminated against based on ethnic origin in a 2019 Eurobarometer survey, compared to an EU average of 6%), studies have pointed to challenges in employment discrimination for individuals with foreign backgrounds.

The ongoing process of integrating diverse populations while upholding values of equality and social justice remains a central theme in Swedish societal discourse.

7.3. Language

The official language of Sweden is Swedish (svenska_sven-ska^Swedish), a North Germanic language closely related to Danish and Norwegian. Speakers of these three Scandinavian languages can often understand each other to a significant extent, though pronunciation and orthography differ. The Scanian dialects spoken in the southernmost province of Scania show influence from Danish due to historical ties. A new language law implemented on July 1, 2009, formally established Swedish as the main language of the country.

Sweden officially recognizes five national minority languages:

• Finnish: Spoken by Sweden Finns, who constitute the largest linguistic minority (about 5% of the population). There is a long history of Finnish speakers in Sweden.
• Meänkieli (also known as Tornedal Finnish): A Finnic language variety spoken in the Torne Valley in northern Sweden.
• Sami: A group of related languages spoken by the indigenous Sámi people in northern Sweden. Several distinct Sami languages exist.
• Romani: The language of the Romani people.
• Yiddish: The historical language of Ashkenazi Jews.

The government supports these minority languages, and individuals have the right to use them in dealings with authorities and in education in designated administrative areas. Due to recent immigration, Arabic has become one of the most widely spoken immigrant languages in Sweden, potentially surpassing Finnish in terms of the number of speakers, although official statistics on language use by immigrants are not comprehensively kept.

Swedes generally have a high proficiency in foreign languages, particularly English. English is a compulsory subject in schools from an early age (often starting in the late 1940s as compulsory, and even earlier for some students). A 2005 Eurobarometer survey found that 89% of Swedes reported being able to speak English. This high proficiency is attributed to quality education, the tradition of subtitling (rather than dubbing) foreign television shows and films, strong Anglo-American cultural influence, and the linguistic similarity between Swedish and English. Many Swedes also study one or two additional foreign languages, with German and Spanish being common choices.

7.4. Religion

Before the 11th century, Swedes adhered to Norse paganism, worshipping Æsir gods, with a major cult center at the Temple at Uppsala. With the Christianization in the 11th century, pagan worship was gradually replaced, and by the late 19th century, it was forbidden by law. The Protestant Reformation in the 1530s led to the abolishment of the Roman Catholic Church's authority, and Lutheranism became widespread. The adoption of Lutheranism was formally completed by the Uppsala Synod of 1593, making it the official state religion. During the subsequent period of Lutheran orthodoxy, small groups of non-Lutherans, such as Calvinist Dutch, the Moravian Church, and French Huguenots, played significant roles in trade and industry and were quietly tolerated. The indigenous Sámi people, who originally practiced shamanism, were converted to Lutheranism by Swedish missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Religious liberalizations in the late 18th century allowed believers of other faiths, including Judaism and Roman Catholicism, to live and work freely in the country. However, until 1860, it remained illegal for Lutherans to convert to another religion. The 19th century saw the arrival of various evangelical free churches, and towards the end of the century, secularism gained traction, leading many to distance themselves from church rituals. Leaving the Church of Sweden became legal with the Dissenter Act of 1860, but only under the provision of joining another Christian denomination. The right to stand outside any religious denomination was formally established in the law on freedom of religion in 1951.

On January 1, 2000, the Church of Sweden (Svenska kyrkan_{Sven-ska Kür-kan}^Swedish) was formally separated from the state, becoming an independent religious community, though it retains a special status and historical significance. Sweden was the second Nordic country to disestablish its state church (after Finland).

As of the end of 2022, 52.8% of Swedes were members of the Church of Sweden. This number has been decreasing by 1-2 percentage points annually for several years. One reason for the large number of inactive members is that, until 1996, children automatically became members at birth if at least one parent was a member. Since 1996, only children and adults who are baptized (or christened) become members. Approximately 2% of the Church's members regularly attend Sunday services.

Besides the Church of Sweden, there are various other religious communities. Some 275,000 Swedes are members of various Evangelical Protestant free churches, where congregation attendance is generally much higher. Due to immigration, there are now significant communities of Eastern Orthodox Christians (around 100,000) and Roman Catholics (around 92,000-150,000). The first Muslim congregation was established in 1949. Islam's presence remained marginal until the 1960s, with immigration from the Balkans and Turkey, followed by further immigration from North Africa and the Middle East. The estimated Muslim population is around 600,000, though only about 110,000 were registered members of a congregation around 2010. There are also smaller communities of Buddhists (around 20,000) and Jews (around 10,000).

A significant portion of the population identifies as irreligious or does not specify a religious affiliation (around 30% are "none" or "unspecified", with 8% belonging to "other" religions than the Church of Sweden, according to some 2024 estimates). Polls indicate a high degree of secularization; a 2010 Eurobarometer survey found that 18% of Swedish citizens responded that they "believe there is a God," 45% answered that they "believe there is some sort of spirit or life force," and 34% that they "do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force." This places Sweden among the most secular countries in the world.

7.5. Welfare System

Sweden's Nordic model welfare system is renowned for its comprehensiveness, aiming to provide a high level of social security, equality, and quality of life for all its citizens. It is primarily funded through high taxation and is characterized by universal coverage and a significant role for the public sector. Key components include:

• Pensions: A multi-pillar pension system ensures income security for the elderly. It includes a basic state pension (guarantee pension), an income-related pension based on lifetime earnings, and often occupational pensions negotiated through collective agreements. The Swedish Pensions Agency (Pensionsmyndigheten) administers the national retirement pensions.
• Unemployment Benefits: Those who become unemployed can receive benefits from unemployment insurance funds, often administered by trade unions (the Ghent system). There is also a basic support system for those not qualifying for fund-based benefits. Active labor market policies, including retraining and job-seeking assistance, are a strong feature, aiming to help people return to work.
• Child Allowances (Barnbidrag_{Barn-bee-drag}^Swedish): A universal monthly allowance is paid to parents for each child until the child reaches 16 years of age (or longer if still in compulsory education). This aims to support families with the costs of raising children.
• Parental Leave (Föräldraledighet_{Foe-rael-dra-ley-dig-het}^Swedish): Sweden has one of the world's most generous parental leave systems. Parents are entitled to 480 days of paid leave per child, to be shared between them, with a significant portion of their salary covered. Specific months are reserved for each parent to encourage fathers to take leave (daddy months). This policy promotes gender equality and allows parents to bond with their children.
• Sickness Benefits (Sjukpenning_{Shook-pen-ning}^Swedish): Employees who are ill and unable to work receive sickness benefits, replacing a portion of their lost income. The employer typically pays for the initial period of sickness, after which the Social Insurance Agency takes over.
• Disability Support: Various benefits and support services are available for people with disabilities, including financial assistance (e.g., disability pension or activity compensation if unable to work) and support for daily living and participation in society.
• Housing Allowances (Bostadsbidrag_{Boo-stads-bee-drag}^Swedish): Means-tested housing allowances are available for low-income households, families with children, and young people to help cover housing costs.
• Social Assistance (Försörjningsstöd_{Foe-soerj-nings-stoed}^Swedish): As a final safety net, individuals and families who cannot support themselves through other means can apply for social assistance (formerly known as socialbidrag) from their municipality. This is means-tested and intended to cover basic living expenses.

The Swedish welfare system has historically contributed to low levels of poverty, high social mobility, and a relatively equal distribution of income. It is seen as crucial for fostering social cohesion and economic security. However, the system has undergone reforms, particularly since the 1990s, with debates about its long-term financial sustainability, efficiency, and the balance between public and private provision of services. Despite these reforms and challenges, the core principles of universalism and social solidarity remain central to the Swedish model, reflecting a societal consensus on the importance of collective responsibility for well-being.

7.6. Health and Healthcare

Healthcare in Sweden is a universal, publicly funded system, primarily financed through taxes levied by regional councils (regioner_{re-gee-oh-ner}^Swedish) and municipalities. It aims to provide equal access to high-quality medical services for all citizens, regardless of socioeconomic status. While predominantly public, private healthcare options also exist, often working in conjunction with the public system.

Key features of the Swedish healthcare system include:

• Universal Coverage: All residents in Sweden are entitled to healthcare services.
• Decentralized Administration: The 21 regional councils are responsible for planning and delivering primary care (health centers, vårdcentraler_{vawrd-sen-trah-ler}^Swedish) and hospital care. Municipalities are responsible for care for the elderly and those with long-term psychiatric needs provided at home or in special housing.
• Cost-Sharing: Patients typically pay a small co-payment for doctor visits, specialist consultations, and prescription medications, up to an annual cap. Once the cap is reached, further services within that year are free. Hospital stays involve a small daily fee. Dental care is partially subsidized, especially for younger individuals.
• Primary Care Focus: Health centers serve as the first point of contact for most non-emergency medical needs, providing general practitioner services, nursing care, and preventive health services.
• Quality and Accessibility: Sweden generally ranks high in health indicators such as low infant mortality and high life expectancy. The quality of care is considered good, though waiting times for certain elective procedures can be a challenge, an issue actively addressed by policymakers.
• Public Health Policies: Strong emphasis is placed on public health initiatives, preventive care, and promoting healthy lifestyles. This includes national screening programs, vaccination campaigns, and efforts to address issues like smoking and alcohol consumption.

In 2018, health and medical care represented around 11% of Sweden's GDP. The system values patient rights, including the right to choose one's primary care provider and, to some extent, specialist care. The ongoing focus is on maintaining high quality, ensuring equitable access, and improving efficiency within the healthcare system to meet the needs of an aging population and evolving medical technologies.

7.7. Education

The Swedish education system is characterized by its emphasis on equality, universal access, and lifelong learning. It is largely publicly funded and aims to provide high-quality education from preschool through higher education.

• Preschool (Förskola_Foer-skoo-la^Swedish): Children aged 1-5 years are guaranteed a place in a public kindergarten (colloquially, dagis_dah-gis^Swedish). Preschool education focuses on play-based learning and social development and is heavily subsidized.
• Compulsory Schooling (Grundskola_{Grund-skoo-la}^Swedish): Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 (or 7, depending on parental choice for school start) and 16. The comprehensive school (grundskola_{Grund-skoo-la}^Swedish) covers grades 1-9 (or preschool class plus grades 1-9). It is free of charge, and school lunches are also provided free to all students. The curriculum is national, aiming to provide a common foundation of knowledge and skills.
• Upper Secondary School (Gymnasieskola_{Yum-nah-sie-skoo-la}^Swedish): After completing compulsory schooling, about 90% of students continue to a three-year upper secondary school. This is also free of charge. Students can choose between vocational programs, which prepare them for a specific trade or profession, and higher education preparatory programs, which qualify them for university studies.
• Higher Education (Högskola_Hoeg-skoo-la^Swedish/Universitet_{Oo-ni-ver-si-tet}^Swedish): Sweden has numerous universities and university colleges. The oldest and largest are Uppsala University (founded 1477), Lund University, University of Gothenburg, and Stockholm University. Higher education is tuition-free for Swedish, EU/EEA, and Swiss citizens. For students from outside these areas, tuition fees were introduced in 2011, though scholarship programs are available. The higher education system follows the Bologna Process, with bachelor's (3 years), master's (1-2 years), and doctoral degrees.
• Adult Education (Vuxenutbildning_{Vux-en-oot-bild-ning}^Swedish): Opportunities for adult education and lifelong learning are extensive, including municipal adult education (Komvux_Kom-vux^Swedish), folk high schools (folkhögskola_{folk-hoeg-skoo-la}^Swedish), and labor market training programs.

The Swedish government treats public and independent schools (fristående skolor_{free-stoh-en-de skoo-lor}^Swedish, or free schools) equally by introducing education vouchers in 1992. Anyone can establish a for-profit or non-profit school, and the municipality must pay these schools the same amount per student as municipal schools receive. This system has led to increased choice but has also been debated regarding its impact on equality and educational outcomes.

In the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Swedish 15-year-old pupils historically scored close to the OECD average. However, there have been periods of decline, which sparked national debate and reforms aimed at improving quality and results. Factors cited for these fluctuations include changes in curriculum, teacher training, and the impact of integrating a growing immigrant student population. Recent PISA results have shown some recovery. Educational policies in Sweden continue to focus on ensuring high quality, equity, and preparing students for further education and the labor market in a globalized world. In 2000, 32% of Swedish people held a tertiary degree. The Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs reports that Japan provides scholarships for Swedish researchers in Japan.

7.8. Social Issues and Public Safety

Swedish society, while often lauded for its equality and high quality of life, faces several contemporary social issues and public safety concerns.

Inequality: Although Sweden remains one of the most egalitarian countries globally, income and wealth inequality have been rising since the 1980s. This trend is attributed by some analysts to tax reforms, changes in the welfare state, and the privatization of some public services. The growing gap between the rich and poor is a subject of ongoing political and social debate, with concerns about its potential impact on social cohesion.

Immigration and Integration: As discussed in the immigration section, integrating a diverse immigrant population presents ongoing challenges. These include disparities in employment, education, and housing, as well as social segregation in some areas. Issues related to cultural differences and social cohesion are also part of the public discourse. While immigration has enriched Swedish society, incidents such as the 2013 Stockholm riots and periodic unrest in some suburbs have highlighted underlying tensions and the difficulties in achieving full social inclusion for all groups.

Crime:

• General Crime Trends: Historically, Sweden has been a safe country with low crime rates. However, recent years have seen increased concern over certain types of crime. While overall crime rates for some offenses have decreased or remained stable, others, particularly those related to gang violence and sexual offenses, have garnered significant public and media attention. The Swedish government has acknowledged a recent deterioration in security. In a 2017 EU-SILC survey, about 13% of Swedes reported experiencing crime, vandalism, or violence in their residential area, a higher proportion than other Nordic countries and showing an increasing trend since 2010, contrasting with decreases in many other EU countries.
• Gang-related Violence: An increase in shootings and violence linked to criminal gangs, often involved in drug trafficking and other organized crime, has become a major public safety concern, especially in larger cities. This has led to calls for stricter law enforcement measures and preventative social programs.
• Sexual Offenses: The reported number of sexual offenses, including rape, has increased. This is a complex issue, with discussions around whether the increase reflects a true rise in incidents, changes in legal definitions (Sweden has a broad definition of rape), increased willingness to report, or a combination of factors. Statistics from 2018 indicated that a majority of those convicted for rape over the preceding five years were foreign-born, fueling debates on immigration and crime, though this remains a sensitive and often politicized topic. Child pornography laws are strict, but the "Simon Lundström case" involving manga drawings led to an acquittal by the Supreme Court, which ruled that drawings not mistakable for real children did not constitute child pornography under existing law, highlighting the balance between protecting minors and freedom of expression.
• Domestic Violence: Domestic violence remains a serious issue, with ongoing efforts to support victims and prosecute offenders. Reports indicate that a significant percentage of violent deaths involve close relatives.

Public Safety and Policy Responses:
The Swedish government and authorities are actively working to address these social issues and public safety concerns. Policy responses include:

• Increased resources for law enforcement and the judicial system.
• Stricter penalties for certain crimes, particularly those related to gang activity and violent offenses.
• Preventative measures, including social programs aimed at youth at risk, efforts to combat social exclusion, and strengthening integration initiatives.
• Focus on protecting civil liberties and ensuring that security measures do not disproportionately affect vulnerable groups.
• Ongoing debate about balancing freedom of expression with the need to combat hate speech and incitement to violence, particularly in the context of events like public Quran burnings which have sparked international tensions and security concerns. Swedish law protects freedom of expression, even for offensive views, but places limits on incitement to racial hatred.

Maintaining social cohesion, ensuring public safety, and upholding democratic values and human rights while addressing these complex challenges are key priorities for Swedish society and its policymakers.

8.1. Literature

Swedish literature has a rich history, with its earliest known text being the Rök runestone, carved around 800 AD during the Viking Age. With Christianization around 1100 AD, monastic writers preferred Latin, leaving few Old Swedish texts from that period. Swedish literature began to flourish with the standardization of the language in the 16th century, greatly influenced by the full translation of the Bible into Swedish in 1541 (the Gustav Vasa Bible).

The 17th century saw notable authors like Georg Stiernhielm, who wrote classical poetry in Swedish. The 18th century featured Johan Henric Kellgren, known for his fluent prose, and Carl Michael Bellman, the first writer of burlesque ballads. The late 19th century was dominated by August Strindberg, a socio-realistic writer and playwright of worldwide fame, known for works like Miss Julie and The Red Room.

The early 20th century produced several Nobel laureates:

• Selma Lagerlöf (Nobel laureate 1909), author of The Saga of Gösta Berling and The Wonderful Adventures of Nils.
• Verner von Heidenstam (Nobel laureate 1916), a key figure in the 1890s literary revival.
• Pär Lagerkvist (Nobel laureate 1951), known for works like Barabbas.

Other Nobel laureates include Eyvind Johnson and Harry Martinson (co-laureates in 1974), and Tomas Tranströmer (2011).

In recent decades, Swedish writers have gained international acclaim. Astrid Lindgren is one of the most beloved children's book authors worldwide, creator of iconic characters like Pippi Longstocking, Emil of Lönneberga, and the children of Bullerbyn. The Nordic noir genre has become exceptionally popular, with authors like Henning Mankell (creator of Kurt Wallander) and Stieg Larsson (author of the Millennium series) achieving massive international sales. Other contemporary authors like Jan Guillou (spy fiction) have also found a global readership.

8.2. Music

Sweden has a vibrant and diverse music scene, ranging from traditional folk music to internationally successful popular music.

Folk Music: Swedish folk music (folkmusik_{folk-mew-seek}^Swedish) is rich and varied, with regional traditions. Instruments like the nyckelharpa (keyed fiddle) and fiddle are prominent. The joik, a traditional form of song of the Sámi people, is an important part of their cultural heritage.

Classical Music: Notable Swedish classical composers include Carl Michael Bellman (18th century, known for his songs and ballads), Franz Berwald (19th century, a leading Romantic composer), Wilhelm Stenhammar, and Hugo Alfvén. Sweden has a strong choral music tradition, with an estimated five to six hundred thousand people singing in choirs. The Swedish Royal Opera and various symphony orchestras maintain a high standard.

Popular Music: Sweden is a major exporter of popular music, often dubbed "The Swedish Music Miracle."

• ABBA: The iconic pop group achieved phenomenal global success in the 1970s and 1980s, and their music remains popular worldwide.
• Swedish Pop and Rock: Following ABBA, numerous Swedish artists and bands gained international fame, including Roxette, Ace of Base, The Cardigans, Europe, Robyn, The Hives, and Mando Diao.
• Heavy Metal: Sweden has a prominent heavy metal scene, particularly in melodic death metal (e.g., In Flames, At the Gates, Dark Tranquillity, Arch Enemy) and progressive metal (e.g., Opeth).
• Electronic Dance Music (EDM): Swedish DJs and producers like Avicii, Swedish House Mafia, and Alesso have achieved massive international success.
• Songwriters and Producers: Swedish songwriters and producers (e.g., Max Martin, Denniz Pop) have been highly influential in shaping global pop music, writing and producing hits for many international superstars.

Sweden has also been very successful in the Eurovision Song Contest, having won seven times (1974 with ABBA, 1984 with Herreys, 1991 with Carola, 1999 with Charlotte Nilsson, 2012 with Loreen, 2015 with Måns Zelmerlöw, and 2023 again with Loreen), tying with Ireland for the most wins. The annual Melodifestivalen competition to select Sweden's Eurovision entry is a major cultural event. In 2007, Sweden was the third-largest music exporter in the world by revenue.

8.3. Art and Architecture

Art: Swedish art has a long history, from Viking Age decorative art and medieval church murals to modern movements. Notable historical artists include:

• Alexander Roslin (18th century): A portrait painter who gained international fame.
• Carl Larsson (late 19th-early 20th century): Known for his idyllic depictions of family life in watercolour.
• Anders Zorn (late 19th-early 20th century): A renowned painter, sculptor, and etcher, famous for his portraits and nudes.
• Hilma af Klint (early 20th century): A pioneer of abstract art, whose work predated many well-known abstract artists.

Contemporary Swedish art is diverse and active, with many artists exploring various media. Moderna Museet in Stockholm is a key institution for modern and contemporary art.

Architecture:

• Early Architecture: Before the 13th century, most buildings were wooden. Stone construction began with Romanesque churches, such as Lund Cathedral and Dalby Church. Gothic architecture, influenced by the Hanseatic League, is visible in cities like Ystad, Malmö, and Helsingborg. Major cathedrals like Skara Cathedral (brick, 14th century) and Uppsala Cathedral (Gothic, 15th century) were also built. Older structures include fortresses like Borgholm Castle and the Visby city wall.
• Vasa Period (16th Century): King Gustav Vasa initiated the construction of grand mansions, castles, and fortresses, including Kalmar Castle and Gripsholm Castle.
• Swedish Empire (17th-18th Century): Baroque and later Rococo styles flourished. Notable examples include the city of Karlskrona (a World Heritage Site) and Drottningholm Palace. Kalmar Cathedral is another example from this era.
• 19th and Early 20th Century: Neoclassicism and later National Romanticism and Art Nouveau (Jugendstil) influenced Swedish architecture.
• Functionalism (Funkis_Funk-is^Swedish): This style dominated from the 1930s, marked by the Stockholm Exhibition of 1930. Notable projects include the Million Programme of the 1960s and 70s, which aimed to provide affordable housing in large apartment complexes.
• Contemporary Architecture: Modern Swedish architecture emphasizes sustainability, functionality, and integration with nature. Notable modern structures include the Avicii Arena (formerly Ericsson Globe) in Stockholm, one of the largest hemispherical buildings in the world, and the Turning Torso in Malmö, designed by Santiago Calatrava. Public buildings often showcase innovative design, such as the Gothenburg Opera House. Traditional red wooden houses with white trim (often painted with Falu red) remain an iconic part of the Swedish landscape. Swedish houses are typically wood-based and feature high thermal and sound insulation using materials like insulated glass, adapted for cold climates. They often have large windows to maximize natural light and spacious living rooms.

Design, including furniture, glass, and textiles, is also a significant aspect of Swedish visual culture, known for its simplicity, functionality, and connection to nature (e.g., Scandinavian design).

8.4. Media

The media landscape in Sweden is characterized by a strong tradition of freedom of the press, high newspaper readership, and a robust public service broadcasting system alongside commercial media.

Newspapers: Swedes are among the world's greatest consumers of newspapers. Nearly every town is served by a local paper.

• Quality Morning Papers: Dagens Nyheter (liberal), Göteborgs-Posten (liberal), Svenska Dagbladet (liberal conservative), and Sydsvenska Dagbladet (liberal).
• Evening Tabloids: The two largest are Aftonbladet (social democratic) and Expressen (liberal).
• Free Newspapers: Metro International, an ad-financed free international morning paper, was founded in Stockholm.

English-language news is provided by outlets such as The Local (liberal).

Broadcasting: Public broadcasting companies held a monopoly on radio and television for a long time.

• Radio: Licence-funded radio broadcasts started in 1925. Sveriges Radio (SR) is the public service radio broadcaster, operating several national and local channels. Non-profit community radio was allowed in 1979, and commercial local radio started in 1993.
• Television: The licence-funded television service was officially launched in 1956. Sveriges Television (SVT) is the public service television broadcaster, with channels like SVT1 and SVT2. They held a monopoly until the 1980s when cable and satellite television became available. The first Swedish-language satellite service was TV3 (started 1987 from London), followed by Kanal 5 (1989) and TV4 (1990). TV4 began terrestrial broadcasts in 1992, becoming the first private channel to broadcast from within Sweden. Utbildningsradion (UR) is a public service broadcaster focused on educational programming.

Digital Media: Internet penetration is very high, and Swedes are active users of digital news platforms, social media, and streaming services. Many traditional media outlets have strong online presences.

Press Freedom: Sweden consistently ranks very high in international indices of press freedom. The Freedom of the Press Act is one of Sweden's fundamental laws, dating back to 1766, and enshrines principles like the public's right to access official documents (offentlighetsprincipen_{of-fent-lig-hets-prin-see-pen}^Swedish). The Swedish Press Council (Pressens Opinionsnämnd_{Press-ens O-pin-yons-nemnd}^Swedish) and the Press Ombudsman handle ethical complaints against the media. Sweden ranked 3rd globally in the 2020 World Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders.

8.5. Cinema

Swedish cinema has a distinguished history and has produced several internationally acclaimed directors and actors.

Early Cinema (Silent Era): Sweden was a pioneering force in early cinema.

• Victor Sjöström and Mauritz Stiller were key directors of the silent era, whose works gained international recognition for their artistic quality and innovative storytelling. Actors like Greta Garbo began their careers under Stiller before becoming Hollywood legends.

The Golden Age and Ingmar Bergman:

• Ingmar Bergman is one ofthe most influential and celebrated filmmakers of all time. His career spanned from the 1940s to the early 2000s, and his films, such as The Seventh Seal, Wild Strawberries, Persona, and Fanny and Alexander, are known for their psychological depth, exploration of existential themes, and distinctive visual style. Bergman worked with a repertory of acclaimed actors, including Max von Sydow, Bibi Andersson, Liv Ullmann, and Ingrid Thulin.
• Ingrid Bergman (no relation to Ingmar) was another Swedish actor who achieved major international stardom in Hollywood.

Post-Bergman and Contemporary Cinema:

• Lasse Hallström gained international recognition with films like My Life as a Dog before moving to Hollywood to direct films such as What's Eating Gilbert Grape and Chocolat.
• Lukas Moodysson is known for films that often depict youth and social issues with a raw and empathetic style, such as Show Me Love (original title: Fucking Åmål) and Lilya 4-ever.
• Ruben Östlund has become a prominent contemporary director, winning the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival twice for The Square and Triangle of Sadness. His films are often satirical and explore social dynamics.
• Other notable directors include Roy Andersson, known for his absurdist and stylistically unique films.

The Swedish Film Institute supports the production and promotion of Swedish films. Swedish cinema continues to produce a variety of genres, from art-house films to popular comedies and dramas, and often explores themes relevant to Swedish society. International co-productions are also common. Actresses like Alicia Vikander and Noomi Rapace, and actors like Alexander Skarsgård, Stellan Skarsgård, and Bill Skarsgård have achieved significant international careers.

8.6. Cuisine

Swedish cuisine (svensk husmanskost_{svensk hoos-mans-kost}^Swedish for traditional home-style cooking) is traditionally simple, reflecting the country's agricultural produce and long winters. Key ingredients include fish (especially herring), meat, potatoes, and dairy products. Spices were historically sparse, with salt and pepper being primary.

Traditional Dishes:

• Köttbullar (Swedish meatballs): Perhaps the most internationally known Swedish dish, traditionally served with gravy, boiled potatoes, lingonberry jam, and pickled cucumber.
• Pickled Herring (Inlagd sill_{In-lagd sill}^Swedish): Served in various marinades (e.g., mustard, onion, dill) and is a staple at festive buffets like Midsummer, Christmas, and Easter.
• Gravlax: Dill-cured salmon, often served with a mustard-dill sauce (hovmästarsås_{hov-mes-tar-saws}^Swedish).
• Surströmming: Fermented Baltic herring, known for its strong aroma, primarily a northern Swedish specialty eaten in late summer.
• Pyttipanna: A hash of diced potatoes, onions, and meat (often sausage or leftovers), typically served with a fried egg and pickled beetroot.
• Lutefisk: Dried whitefish (often cod or ling) treated with lye, then rehydrated and cooked. It's a traditional Christmas dish, particularly in Norway and parts of Sweden.
• Pea Soup and Pancakes (Ärtsoppa och pannkakor_{Art-sop-pa ok pan-ka-kor}^Swedish): Traditionally eaten on Thursdays, followed by thin pancakes with lingonberry jam or whipped cream.
• Janssons frestelse (Jansson's Temptation): A creamy potato and anchovy (sprats) casserole, popular at Christmas.
• Knäckebröd (Crispbread): A staple dry, flat bread that comes in many varieties and has a long shelf life.
• Smörgåsbord: A lavish buffet-style meal with a variety of hot and cold dishes, including herring, cheeses, meatballs, salads, and breads.

Culinary Customs:

• Fika: A significant social institution in Sweden, fika is a coffee break (or tea/other beverage) accompanied by pastries or sandwiches. It's a moment to relax and socialize. Common fika treats include cinnamon rolls (kanelbullar_{ka-नेल-bool-lar}^Swedish), chokladbollar (chocolate balls), and various cakes and cookies.
• Kräftskiva (Crayfish Party): A traditional late summer feast where Swedes eat large quantities of boiled crayfish seasoned with dill, often outdoors with paper lanterns and bibs. Snaps and singing are common accompaniments.
• Mårten Gås (Martin of Tours Eve): Celebrated in Scania in November with a dinner of roast goose and svartsoppa (black soup, made with goose blood and broth).

Ingredients: Common ingredients include potatoes, root vegetables (carrots, turnips, swedes/rutabagas), berries (lingonberries, blueberries, cloudberries), mushrooms (chanterelles, porcini), dairy products (milk, butter, cheese like Västerbottensost), various types of fish (herring, salmon, cod, mackerel), and meats (pork, beef, game like elk and reindeer).

Modern Swedish cuisine has also embraced international influences, with dishes from countries like Japan and India becoming accepted. There's a strong focus on fresh, local, and seasonal ingredients, particularly in the New Nordic Cuisine movement.

8.7. Sports

Sport is a significant national pastime in Sweden, with about half the population actively participating in organized sporting activities. The country has a strong tradition in both individual and team sports, and has achieved considerable international success.

Popular Spectator Sports:

• Football (Soccer): The most popular sport in Sweden. The top professional league is Allsvenskan. The men's national team has had notable successes, finishing second in the 1958 FIFA World Cup (which they hosted) and third in 1950 and 1994. The women's national team is also highly successful, having won the 1984 UEFA Women's Championship and multiple World Cup and Olympic medals. Famous Swedish footballers include Zlatan Ibrahimović, Henrik Larsson, Fredrik Ljungberg, Gunnar Nordahl, and Lotta Schelin.
• Ice hockey: Extremely popular, especially during winter. The top league is the Swedish Hockey League (SHL). The men's national team (Tre Kronor_{Tray Kroo-nor}^Swedish, meaning Three Crowns) is one of the world's best, having won the World Championships multiple times (e.g., nine times) and Olympic gold medals in 1994 and 2006. In 2006, they became the first national team to win both the Olympic and World Championships in the same year. Many Swedes play in the NHL, such as Peter Forsberg, Mats Sundin, Nicklas Lidström, and Henrik Lundqvist.

Popular Participation Sports:

• Horse Sports: Have a very high number of practitioners, particularly women.
• Golf: Widely played, with famous players like Annika Sörenstam and Henrik Stenson.
• Orienteering: Sweden is a powerhouse in orienteering, a sport that combines running and navigation.
• Gymnastics
• Track and Field: Sweden has produced Olympic champions in events like high jump (Stefan Holm, Kajsa Bergqvist), heptathlon (Carolina Klüft), and pole vault (Armand Duplantis).
• Handball: Both men's and women's national teams are strong.
• Floorball (Innebandy_{In-ne-ban-dü}^Swedish): Extremely popular as a participation sport, and Sweden is a dominant nation internationally.
• Basketball
• Bandy: A traditional winter sport similar to ice hockey but played with a ball on a larger ice rink. Sweden is one of the top bandy nations.
• Skiing: Alpine skiing (e.g., Ingemar Stenmark, Anja Pärson), cross-country skiing (e.g., Gunde Svan, Charlotte Kalla), and biathlon are popular and successful.
• Tennis: Sweden has a strong tennis tradition, producing legends like Björn Borg, Mats Wilander, and Stefan Edberg. Tennis is considered a national sport.

Other Notable Sports and Achievements:

• Sweden hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, and the equestrian events of the 1956 Summer Olympics (also in Stockholm, due to Australian quarantine laws). It also hosted the 1958 FIFA World Cup.
• Other major events hosted include UEFA Euro 1992, 1995 FIFA Women's World Cup, 1995 World Championships in Athletics, and UEFA Women's Euro 2013, as well as numerous world championships in ice hockey, curling, skiing, bandy, figure skating, and swimming.
• Curling and swimming are other sports where Swedes have excelled.
• Traditional recreational sports include brännboll (similar to baseball) and kubb.

The Swedish sports movement emphasizes participation and "sport for all," supported by a strong club system and government funding.

8.8. Public Holidays and Festivals

Sweden celebrates a mix of traditional Christian holidays, secular holidays, and unique cultural festivals, many of which have pre-Christian roots.

Major Public Holidays:

• New Year's Day (Nyårsdagen_{Nü-års-dah-gen}^Swedish): January 1.
• Epiphany (Trettondedag jul_{Tret-ton-de-dahg Yool}^Swedish): January 6. Marks the visit of the Magi to the Christ child.
• Good Friday (Långfredagen_{Long-fray-dah-gen}^Swedish): The Friday before Easter Sunday.
• Easter Sunday (Påskdagen_Posk-dah-gen^Swedish): Variable date in spring.
• Easter Monday (Annandag påsk_{An-nan-dahg Posk}^Swedish): The Monday after Easter Sunday.
• May Day/Labour Day (Första maj_{Foer-sta My}^Swedish): May 1. Dedicated to workers' rights and socialist demonstrations.
• Ascension Day (Kristi himmelsfärds dag_{Kris-ti him-mels-faerds dahg}^Swedish): The Thursday 39 days after Easter.
• National Day of Sweden (Sveriges nationaldag_{Sver-i-yes nat-shoo-nahl-dahg}^Swedish): June 6. Commemorates the election of Gustav Vasa as King in 1523 and the adoption of the 1809 constitution. It has been a public holiday since 2005.
• Midsummer's Eve (Midsommarafton_{Mid-som-mar-af-ton}^Swedish): The Friday between June 19 and June 25. While not an official public holiday, it is de facto one, with most businesses closed.
• Midsummer Day (Midsommardagen_{Mid-som-mar-dah-gen}^Swedish): The Saturday between June 20 and June 26. Celebrates the summer solstice and is one of Sweden's most important and cherished holidays, with traditions like dancing around a maypole (midsommarstång_{mid-som-mar-stong}^Swedish), eating pickled herring and new potatoes, and wearing flower wreaths.
• All Saints' Day (Alla helgons dag_{Al-la hel-gons dahg}^Swedish): The Saturday between October 31 and November 6. A day for remembering the deceased, with people often visiting cemeteries and lighting candles.
• Christmas Eve (Julafton_Yool-af-ton^Swedish): December 24. The main day of Christmas celebration in Sweden. Though not an official public holiday, most businesses close early or are closed all day.
• Christmas Day (Juldagen_Yool-dah-gen^Swedish): December 25.
• Boxing Day/St. Stephen's Day (Annandag jul_{An-nan-dahg Yool}^Swedish): December 26.
• New Year's Eve (Nyårsafton_{Nü-års-af-ton}^Swedish): December 31. Though not an official public holiday, it is widely observed with celebrations.

Traditional Festivals and Observances:

• St. Lucia's Day (Luciadagen_{Loo-see-ah-dah-gen}^Swedish): December 13. Widely celebrated with processions featuring a girl dressed as St. Lucia in a white gown with a crown of candles, accompanied by other children singing traditional songs. It marks the beginning of the Christmas season and symbolizes light in the dark winter. Saffron buns (lussekatter_{loo-se-kat-ter}^Swedish) and gingerbread cookies (pepparkakor_{pep-par-kah-kor}^Swedish) are traditional treats.
• Walpurgis Night (Valborgsmässoafton_{Val-bor-yes-mess-o-af-ton}^Swedish or simply Valborg_Val-bor-y^Swedish): April 30. Celebrates the arrival of spring with large bonfires, singing, and speeches. It is particularly popular among students.
• Kräftskiva (Crayfish Party): An informal late summer feast where Swedes eat boiled crayfish, often outdoors with festive decorations.
• Martin of Tours Eve (Mårtensafton_{Mor-tens-af-ton}^Swedish or Mårten Gås_{Mor-ten Goss}^Swedish): November 10 (eve of St. Martin's Day). Celebrated primarily in Scania with a traditional dinner of roast goose and svartsoppa (black soup).
• Flag Flying Days (Flaggdagar_{Flagg-dah-gar}^Swedish): Specific days designated for flying the Swedish flag, such as royal birthdays and other national observances.
• Namesdays (Namnsdagar_{Namns-dah-gar}^Swedish): Many Swedes celebrate their name day according to a specific calendar.

The Sámi National Day is on February 6. The Scanian Flag Day is celebrated on the third Sunday in July in Scania. Many holidays are linked to the Christian liturgical year, but often incorporate older, pre-Christian traditions.