Jordan

3.1. Ancient Period

The region of present-day Jordan has a history of human inhabitation dating back to the Paleolithic period, with the oldest known evidence of hominid presence at least 200,000 years ago. Its location within the Levant, a corridor for migrations out of Africa, and a more humid climate during the Late Pleistocene contributed to a rich archaeological record, including Paleolithic human remains up to 20,000 years old and numerous tool finds near past lakeshore environments. The world's oldest known evidence of bread-making, dating to a 14,500-year-old Natufian site, was discovered in Jordan's northeastern desert.
The Neolithic period (10,000-4,500 BC) saw a transition from hunter-gatherer cultures to established agricultural villages. 'Ain Ghazal, near modern Amman, was one of the largest prehistoric settlements in the Near East. Dozens of plaster statues of human form dating to 7250 BC or earlier, among the oldest large-scale human representations found, were uncovered there. During the Chalcolithic period (4500-3600 BC), villages like Tulaylet Ghassul in the Jordan Valley emerged, and mysterious circular stone enclosures were built in the eastern basalt desert.
Fortified towns and urban centers first appeared in the southern Levant during the Early Bronze Age (3600-1200 BC). Wadi Feynan became a significant center for copper extraction, producing bronze on a large scale. Trade and movement of people peaked, spreading cultural innovations. Villages in Transjordan expanded rapidly, especially in areas with reliable water and arable land. Ancient Egyptian influence extended into the Levant, controlling both banks of the Jordan River at times.

During the Iron Age (1200-332 BC), following Egyptian withdrawal, Transjordan was home to the kingdoms of Ammon, Moab, and Edom. These peoples spoke Semitic languages of the Canaanite group and their polities are considered by archaeologists to be tribal kingdoms. Ammon was located on the Amman plateau, Moab in the highlands east of the Dead Sea, and Edom in the Wadi Araba region to the south. The northwestern region, Gilead, was settled by the Israelites. These kingdoms frequently clashed with the neighboring Hebrew kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The Mesha Stele, erected by the Moabite king Mesha around 840 BC, records his building projects and victory against the Israelites, representing a significant archaeological find that parallels accounts in the Bible.
Around 740-720 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire conquered Israel and Aram-Damascus, subjugating Ammon, Edom, and Moab, though allowing them some independence. After the Assyrian Empire's disintegration, the Neo-Babylonian Empire took control in 627 BC. Although these kingdoms initially supported Babylon against Judah, they later rebelled and were reduced to vassals, a status maintained under the Persian and Hellenic empires. By the time of Roman rule around 63 BC, Ammon, Edom, and Moab had lost their distinct identities and were assimilated into Roman culture. Some Edomites, driven by the Nabataeans, migrated to southern Judea (Idumaea) and were later converted to Judaism by the Hasmoneans.

3.2. Classical Period

Alexander the Great's conquest of the Persian Empire in 332 BC introduced Hellenistic culture to the Middle East. After his death, Transjordan became a contested area between the Ptolemies in Egypt and the Seleucids in Syria. The Nabataeans, nomadic Arabs based south of Edom, established an independent kingdom in 169 BC. The Nabataean Kingdom controlled significant trade routes, stretching from the Red Sea coast into the Hejaz and as far north as Damascus, which they briefly controlled (85-71 BC). Their capital, Petra, flourished in the 1st century AD due to extensive water irrigation and agriculture. The Nabataeans were skilled stone carvers, with Al-Khazneh (The Treasury), believed to be the mausoleum of King Aretas IV, being their most elaborate structure.
Roman legions under Pompey conquered much of the Levant in 63 BC, beginning four centuries of Roman rule. In 106 AD, Emperor Trajan annexed Nabataea and rebuilt the King's Highway as the Via Traiana Nova. The Romans granted autonomy to several Greek cities in Transjordan-Philadelphia (Amman), Gerasa (Jerash), Gadara (Umm Qais), Pella (Tabaqat Fahl), and Arbila (Irbid)-by forming the Decapolis, a league of ten cities. Jerash is one of the best-preserved Roman cities in the East and was visited by Emperor Hadrian.

In 324 AD, the Roman Empire split, and the Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, controlled the region until 636 AD. Christianity became legal in 313 with the Edict of Milan and the official state religion in 380 with the Edict of Thessalonica. Transjordan prospered during the Byzantine era, and numerous Christian churches were built. The Aqaba Church is considered the world's first purpose-built Christian church. Umm ar-Rasas contains at least 16 Byzantine churches. Petra's importance declined with the rise of sea trade routes and after a major earthquake in 363 AD, leading to its eventual abandonment. The Sasanian Empire became the Byzantines' rivals, and frequent wars sometimes led to Sasanian control over parts of Transjordan.

3.3. Islamic Era

In 629 AD, at the Battle of Mu'tah in present-day Karak Governorate, Byzantine forces and their Arab Christian Ghassanid allies repelled an invading Muslim Rashidun army. However, the Muslims decisively defeated the Byzantines in 636 AD at the Battle of the Yarmuk, north of Transjordan. This victory made Transjordan essential territory for the subsequent conquest of Damascus. The region became part of the Rashidun Caliphate, followed by the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750). Under the Umayyads, several desert castles, such as Qasr Al-Mshatta and Qasr Al-Hallabat, were constructed in Transjordan.
The campaign by the Abbasid Caliphate to overthrow the Umayyads began in Humayma, a village in Transjordan. The 749 earthquake is thought to have contributed to the Umayyads' defeat by the Abbasids, who subsequently moved the caliphate's capital from Damascus to Baghdad. During Abbasid rule (750-969), Arab tribes migrated northwards and settled in the Levant. The growth of maritime trade diminished Transjordan's central role, leading to increasing impoverishment.
After the Abbasids declined, Transjordan was ruled by the Fatimid Caliphate (969-1070), and then by the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (1115-1187). The Crusaders built several castles, including Montreal and Al-Karak Castle, as part of the Lordship of Oultrejordain.

The Ayyubid dynasty, founded by Saladin, defeated the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. The Ayyubids (1187-1260) constructed Ajloun Castle and repurposed older castles as military outposts. Villages in Transjordan became important stops for Muslim pilgrims traveling to Mecca. The Mamluks (1260-1516) succeeded the Ayyubids, dividing Transjordan between the provinces of Karak and Damascus and using or expanding Ayyubid castles. Transjordan faced Mongol attacks during this period, but the Mamluks ultimately repelled them at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260.

3.4. Ottoman Era

In 1516, the Ottoman Empire conquered Mamluk territory, including Transjordan. Agricultural villages in the region experienced relative prosperity in the 16th century but were later abandoned. Transjordan held marginal importance for the Ottoman authorities, with their presence often limited to annual tax collection visits. During the first three centuries of Ottoman rule, more Arab Bedouin tribes, such as the Adwan, Bani Sakhr, and Howeitat, migrated into Transjordan from Syria and the Hejaz. These tribes claimed different parts of the region, and with the lack of strong Ottoman authority, Transjordan descended into a state of anarchy that lasted until the 19th century. This period included a short-lived occupation by Wahhabi forces (1803-1812) from Najd (modern-day Saudi Arabia). Ibrahim Pasha, son of the governor of Egypt, expelled the Wahhabis by 1818 at the request of the Ottoman sultan.

In 1833, Ibrahim Pasha turned against the Ottomans and established his rule over the Levant. His policies led to the unsuccessful peasants' revolt in Palestine in 1834. The Transjordanian cities of As-Salt and Al-Karak were destroyed by Pasha's forces for harboring a revolt leader. Egyptian rule ended in 1841, and Ottoman rule was restored. The Ottomans then sought to solidify their presence in the Syria Vilayet, which included Transjordan.
The Tanzimat reforms of 1864 brought some prosperity back to agriculture and abandoned villages. However, the end of virtual autonomy led to backlash in other areas. Muslim Circassians and Chechens, fleeing Russian persecution, sought refuge in the Levant. With Ottoman support, Circassians settled near Amman in 1867 and later in surrounding villages. The Ottoman authorities' establishment of administration, conscription, and heavy taxation led to revolts, notably the Shoubak Revolt (1905) and the Karak revolt (1910), which were brutally suppressed. The construction of the Hejaz Railway in 1908, linking Damascus with Medina and passing through Transjordan, economically benefited the population as it became a stopover for pilgrims.

3.5. Modern Era

The policies of Turkification and centralization adopted by the Ottoman Empire after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution disenchanted Arabs in the Levant, contributing to the rise of Arab nationalism. This culminated in the Arab Revolt of 1916 during World War I, ending four centuries of Ottoman rule. The revolt was led by Sharif Hussein of Mecca, head of the Hashemite family, and his sons Abdullah, Faisal, and Ali. It gained support from Transjordanian tribes, including Bedouins, Circassians, and Christians. The Allies, including Britain and France, supported the revolt. Starting from Medina on June 5, 1916, the revolt pushed north, reaching Transjordan with the Battle of Aqaba on July 6, 1917. Faisal entered Damascus in October 1918, establishing an Arab-led military administration in OETA East, later declared as the Arab Kingdom of Syria, which included Transjordan. During this time, the southernmost region, including Ma'an and Aqaba, was also claimed by the Kingdom of Hejaz.
The Hashemite Kingdom over Syria surrendered to French troops on July 24, 1920, at the Battle of Maysalun. The French occupied only northern Syria, leaving Transjordan in an interregnum. Arab aspirations were undermined by the secret 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement, dividing the region into French and British spheres of influence, and the 1917 Balfour Declaration, supporting a "national home" for Jews in Palestine. These were seen as betrayals of prior agreements with the British, such as the 1915 McMahon-Hussein Correspondence.

British High Commissioner Herbert Samuel visited Transjordan in August 1920, declaring British support for local governments in Transjordan, separate from Palestine. A subsequent meeting in Umm Qais resulted in a petition demanding an independent Arab government in Transjordan led by an Arab prince, cessation of land sales to Jews and Jewish immigration, British funding for a national army, and free trade.
Abdullah, Sharif Hussein's second son, arrived in Ma'an in southern Transjordan on November 21, 1920, aiming to reclaim the Greater Syrian Kingdom. Transjordan was then in disarray. Abdullah gained the trust of tribal leaders and convinced them of the benefits of organized government. The British reluctantly accepted Abdullah as ruler after a six-month trial. In March 1921, Transjordan was added to the Mandate for Palestine, with the British implementing their "Sharifian Solution" policy without applying provisions for Jewish settlement. On April 11, 1921, the Emirate of Transjordan was established with Abdullah as emir.
In September 1922, the League of Nations recognized Transjordan as a state under the Transjordan memorandum. It remained a British mandate until 1946 but had more autonomy than the region west of the Jordan River. The Hashemite leadership faced difficulties, including local rebellions at Kura in 1921 and 1923, which were suppressed with British help. Wahhabi raids from Najd threatened the emir's position, requiring aid from local Bedouin tribes and the British, who maintained a Royal Air Force base near Amman.

3.5.1. Post-Independence

The Treaty of London, signed on March 22, 1946, by the British government and the Emir of Transjordan, recognized the state's independence. On May 25, 1946, upon ratification by the Transjordan parliament, Transjordan became the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in Arabic (though it remained the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan in English until 1949), with Abdullah as its first king. May 25 is now celebrated as Jordan's Independence Day. Jordan joined the United Nations on December 14, 1955.
On May 15, 1948, Jordan, along with other Arab states, intervened in the 1948 Palestine war. Jordan subsequently controlled the West Bank and formally annexed these territories on April 24, 1950, following the Jericho Conference. This move led some Arab countries to demand Jordan's expulsion from the Arab League. On June 12, 1950, the Arab League declared the annexation a temporary measure, with Jordan holding the territory as a "trustee" pending a future settlement.
King Abdullah I was assassinated at the Al-Aqsa Mosque in 1951 by a Palestinian militant amid rumors of his intent to sign a peace treaty with Israel. He was succeeded by his son, Talal, who introduced the country's modern constitution in 1952. Due to illness, Talal abdicated in favor of his eldest son, Hussein, who ascended to the throne in 1953 at age 17. The 1950s were a period of political upheaval, with Nasserism and Pan-Arabism sweeping the Arab world. On March 1, 1956, King Hussein Arabised the command of the Army by dismissing senior British officers to remove foreign influence. In 1958, Jordan and Hashemite Iraq formed the Arab Federation in response to the United Arab Republic (Egypt and Syria). The federation dissolved after Iraqi King Faisal II was deposed in a military coup on July 14, 1958.

Jordan signed a military pact with Egypt shortly before Israel launched a preemptive strike in the Six-Day War in June 1967, in which Jordan and Syria joined. The Arab states were defeated, and Jordan lost control of the West Bank to Israel. The War of Attrition followed, including the 1968 Battle of Karameh, where combined Jordanian Armed Forces and Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) forces repelled an Israeli attack on the Karameh camp. The battle gained wide acclaim in the Arab world, increasing support for Palestinian paramilitary groups (fedayeen) in Jordan. Fedayeen activities soon threatened Jordanian rule of law. In September 1970, the Jordanian army targeted the fedayeen, leading to the expulsion of Palestinian fighters into Lebanon in a conflict known as Black September.
In 1973, Egypt and Syria waged the Yom Kippur War against Israel. Jordan sent a brigade to Syria but did not engage Israeli forces from Jordanian territory. At the Rabat summit in 1974, Jordan and the Arab League recognized the PLO as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people." Consequently, Jordan renounced its claims to the West Bank in 1988.
At the 1991 Madrid Conference, Jordan agreed to negotiate a peace treaty, sponsored by the US and the Soviet Union. The Israel-Jordan peace treaty was signed on October 26, 1994. In 1997, Israeli agents entered Jordan and poisoned senior Hamas leader Khaled Mashal. Under intense international pressure and King Hussein's threat to annul the peace treaty, Israel provided an antidote and released political prisoners, including Sheikh Ahmed Yassin.

On February 7, 1999, Abdullah II ascended to the throne upon the death of his father, King Hussein. Abdullah II embarked on economic liberalization, leading to an economic boom until 2008. He is credited with increasing foreign investment, improving public-private partnerships, and establishing Aqaba's free-trade zone and a flourishing information and communication technology (ICT) sector. He also set up five other special economic zones. However, Jordan's economy later faced hardship due to the Great Recession and spillover from the Arab Spring.
Al-Qaeda, under Abu Musab al-Zarqawi's leadership, launched the coordinated bombings in three Amman hotel lobbies on November 9, 2005, killing 60 and injuring 115. The attacks caused widespread outrage, and Jordan's internal security was significantly improved afterward. No major terrorist attacks have occurred since.
The Arab Spring protests in 2011, demanding economic and political reforms, also affected Jordan. In response to domestic unrest, King Abdullah II replaced his prime minister and introduced reforms, including constitutional amendments and changes to laws governing public freedoms and elections. Proportional representation was reintroduced in the 2016 general election, a step towards establishing parliamentary governments. Jordan remained largely unscathed by the regional violence despite an influx of 1.4 million Syrian refugees, which strained national resources, and the emergence of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).
On April 4, 2021, 19 people were arrested, including former Crown Prince Hamzah, who was placed under house arrest, accused of working to "destabilize" the kingdom.

4.1. Topography and Borders

Jordan covers an area of approximately 34 K mile^{2 (89.34 K km2)}. The country stretches about 249 mile ^{(400 km)} from its northernmost point, Umm Qais, to its southernmost point, Aqaba. It lies between latitudes 29° and 34° N, and longitudes 34° and 40° E.
Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the northeast, Saudi Arabia to the east and south, and Israel and the Palestinian territories (West Bank) to the west.
The western part of Jordan features a highland area with arable land and Mediterranean evergreen forestry, which dramatically drops into the Jordan Rift Valley. This valley contains the Jordan River and the Dead Sea, the lowest point on Earth's surface at approximately -1378.0 ft ^{(-420 m)} below sea level. The Dead Sea forms part of the border with Israel. Jordan has a short coastline of about 16 mile ^{(26 km)} on the Gulf of Aqaba at the Red Sea in its southwest, providing its only maritime access. The Yarmuk River, an eastern tributary of the Jordan River, forms part of the border with Syria, including the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights.
The eastern part of the country is predominantly an arid plateau, part of the Syrian Desert and Arabian Desert, irrigated by oases and seasonal streams. Most major cities, including Amman, Irbid, Jerash, and Zarqa, are located in the more fertile northwestern part of the kingdom. The highest point in Jordan is Jabal Umm al Dami, at 6.1 K ft ^{(1.85 K m)} above sea level, located in the south near Wadi Rum.

4.2. Climate

Jordan's climate varies significantly across the country. Generally, areas further inland from the Mediterranean Sea experience greater temperature contrasts and less rainfall. The highlands above the Jordan Valley, the mountains near the Dead Sea, and Wadi Araba as far south as Ras Al-Naqab have a Mediterranean climate. The eastern and northeastern regions are characterized by an arid desert climate.
The average elevation of the country is 2664 ft ^{(812 m)} above sea level.
Summers, from May to September, are hot and dry, with average temperatures around 89.6 °F ^{(32 °C)}, occasionally exceeding 104 °F ^{(40 °C)} in July and August, particularly in desert regions. However, the heat is often moderated by low humidity and daytime breezes, with cool nights.
Winters, from November to March, are relatively cool, with average temperatures around 51.944 °F ^{(11.08 °C)}. Winter also brings frequent showers, and some western elevated areas, including Amman, can experience occasional snowfall.

4.3. Biodiversity and Conservation

Jordan possesses a diverse range of habitats, ecosystems, and biota due to its varied landscapes and environments. Over 2,000 plant species have been recorded in the country. Many flowering plants bloom in the spring after the winter rains. The type of vegetation is largely dependent on precipitation levels. The mountainous regions in the northwest are characterized by forests, while further south and east, the vegetation becomes more scrub-like and transitions to steppe-type vegetation. Forests cover approximately 1.5 million dunums (0.6 K mile^{2 (1.50 K km2)}), which is less than 2% of Jordan's total area, making it one of the least forested countries globally.
Plant species and genera found in Jordan include the Aleppo pine, Sarcopoterium, Salvia dominica, black iris (Jordan's national flower), Tamarix, Anabasis, Artemisia, Acacia, Mediterranean cypress, and Phoenician juniper. The mountainous regions in the northwest feature natural forests of pine, deciduous oak, evergreen oak, pistachio, and wild olive.
Mammal and reptile species include the long-eared hedgehog, Nubian ibex, wild boar, fallow deer, Arabian wolf, desert monitor, honey badger, glass snake, caracal, golden jackal, and roe deer. Bird species include the hooded crow, Eurasian jay, lappet-faced vulture, barbary falcon, hoopoe, pharaoh eagle-owl, common cuckoo, Tristram's starling, Palestine sunbird, Sinai rosefinch, lesser kestrel, house crow, and white-spectacled bulbul.
Four terrestrial ecoregions are found within Jordan's borders: Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands, Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests, Mesopotamian shrub desert, and Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert.
The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN) was established in 1966 to protect and manage Jordan's natural resources. Notable nature reserves in Jordan include the Dana Biosphere Reserve, the Azraq Wetland Reserve, the Shaumari Wildlife Reserve, and the Mujib Nature Reserve. These reserves play a crucial role in conserving Jordan's unique biodiversity and promoting eco-tourism.

5.1. Political System and Government Structure

The King of Jordan is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. The King exercises wide executive and legislative powers, including the authority to declare war and peace, ratify laws and treaties, convene and close legislative sessions, call and postpone elections, dismiss the government, and dissolve the Parliament.
The executive branch is led by the Prime Minister, who is appointed by the King. The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers (Cabinet) form the Government of Jordan. The government is responsible to the Parliament and can be dismissed by the King or through a majority vote of no confidence by the elected House of Representatives.
The Parliament is bicameral, consisting of:
1. The Senate (Majlis al-'Aayan): Composed of 65 members who are directly appointed by the King. Senators are typically veteran politicians, judges, and generals who have previously served in government or the House of Representatives.
2. The House of Representatives (Majlis an-Nuwāb): Composed of 130 members elected through party-list proportional representation in 23 constituencies for a four-year term. There are minimum quotas for women (15 seats, though they won 20 in the 2016 election), Christians (9 seats), and Circassians and Chechens (3 seats).
Legislation proposed by the government must be approved by both the House of Representatives and the Senate, and then ratified by the King to become law. A royal veto on legislation can be overridden by a two-thirds vote in a joint session of both houses. The Parliament also has the right of interpellation.
The judiciary is, according to the constitution, independent. However, in practice, it often faces challenges to its full independence. Courts are divided into civil, religious, and special categories. Civil courts handle civil and criminal matters. Religious courts deal with personal status issues (like divorce and inheritance) based partially on Islamic Sharia law for Muslims and relevant religious laws for other recognized communities. A Constitutional Court was established in 2012 to rule on the constitutionality of laws.

5.2. Administrative Divisions

Jordan is divided into 12 governorates (محافظة_muhafazah^Arabic, plural: محافظات_muhafazat^Arabic), which are the primary administrative units of the country. These governorates are informally grouped into three regions: northern, central, and southern. Each governorate is headed by a governor appointed by the central government.
The governorates are further subdivided into districts (لواء_liwa'^Arabic) and often into sub-districts (قضاء_qda'^Arabic) for administrative purposes. Each administrative unit has a chief town (ناحية_nahia^Arabic) that serves as its administrative center.

The 12 governorates of Jordan are:
Northern Region:

• Irbid: Capital Irbid, population 1,770,158 (as per 2015 census data cited in source)
• Ajloun: Capital Ajloun, population 176,080
• Jerash: Capital Jerash, population 237,059
• Mafraq: Capital Mafraq, population 549,948

Central Region:

• Amman: Capital Amman, population 4,007,256
• Balqa: Capital As-Salt, population 491,709
• Zarqa: Capital Zarqa, population 1,364,878
• Madaba: Capital Madaba, population 189,192

Southern Region:

• Karak: Capital Al-Karak, population 316,629
• Tafilah: Capital Tafila, population 96,291
• Ma'an: Capital Ma'an, population 144,083
• Aqaba: Capital Aqaba, population 188,160

The capital city of Jordan, Amman, located in the Amman Governorate, is by far the largest urban center and serves as the country's political, cultural, and economic hub.

5.3. Foreign Relations

Jordan has historically pursued a pro-Western foreign policy, maintaining close relationships with major global powers such as the United States and the United Kingdom. These ties were strained during the first Gulf War (1990) due to Jordan's neutrality and its continued relations with Iraq, but were later restored through Jordan's participation in enforcing UN sanctions against Iraq and its involvement in the Middle East peace process. Relations with Persian Gulf countries significantly improved after King Hussein's death in 1999.
Jordan is a key ally of the US and UK. Along with Egypt and the United Arab Emirates, it is one of only three Arab nations to have signed peace treaties with Israel. The Israel-Jordan peace treaty was signed in 1994. Jordan advocates for an independent Palestinian state based on the 1967 borders as part of a two-state solution, viewing this as a matter of supreme national interest. The ruling Hashemite dynasty has held custodianship over holy sites in Jerusalem since 1924, a role reinforced in the peace treaty with Israel. Tensions have arisen with Israel concerning Jordan's role in protecting Muslim and Christian sites in Jerusalem, particularly around the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound.
Jordan is a founding member of the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). It holds "advanced status" with the European Union (EU) and participates in the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), aimed at strengthening ties between the EU and its neighboring countries. In 2011, Jordan and Morocco sought to join the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), but the GCC instead offered a five-year development aid program.
Jordan's foreign policy is often characterized by pragmatism and a balancing act, given its location in a volatile region. It has played a significant role in regional diplomacy, often acting as a mediator. The country's stance on human rights issues, both domestically and internationally, is an important aspect of its foreign relations, though it faces scrutiny from international human rights organizations regarding its own record. Jordan has also been actively involved in international efforts to combat terrorism and extremism.

5.4. Military

The Jordanian Armed Forces (JAF), also known as the Arab Army, traces its origins to the "Arab Legion" established on October 22, 1920. The Legion grew from 150 men in 1920 to 8,000 by 1946. Its effectiveness was demonstrated during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, particularly in Jordan's capture of the West Bank, where it was considered the most effective among the Arab forces involved.
The JAF consists of the Royal Jordanian Army, the Royal Jordanian Air Force, the Royal Jordanian Navy (primarily focused on the Gulf of Aqaba), and the highly regarded Special Operations Forces (SOF). The Royal Jordanian Army has around 110,000 personnel and is considered one of the most professional, well-trained, and organized military forces in the region.
The Jordanian military benefits from strong support and aid from the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, reflecting Jordan's critical strategic position in the Middle East. The development of its Special Operations Forces has been particularly significant, enhancing its capability to respond to homeland security threats and to train special forces from other countries in the region and beyond. Jordan provides extensive training to the security forces of several Arab countries.

Jordan is a significant contributor to United Nations peacekeeping missions, with around 50,000 Jordanian troops having served worldwide. It ranks among the top countries internationally in terms of participation in U.N. peacekeeping operations and has one of the highest levels of troop contributions among U.N. member states. Jordan has also dispatched numerous field hospitals to conflict zones and areas affected by natural disasters across the region, providing critical humanitarian medical aid.
In recent regional conflicts, Jordan joined the U.S.-led international coalition's aerial bombardment campaign against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in 2014 as part of its intervention in the Syrian Civil War. In 2015, Jordan participated in the Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen against Houthi forces and those loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh.

5.5. Law Enforcement

Law enforcement in Jordan is primarily the responsibility of the Public Security Directorate (PSD) and the General Directorate of Gendarmerie, both of which operate under the Ministry of Interior. The PSD, with approximately 50,000 personnel, is the main police force.
The first organized police force in Jordan was established on April 11, 1921, following the fall of the Ottoman Empire. Until 1956, police duties were carried out by the Arab Legion and the Transjordan Frontier Force. The Public Security Directorate was formally established after that year.
Jordan has made efforts to include women in its police force, being the first Arab country to do so in the 1970s, and the number of female police officers has been increasing.
In terms of performance, Jordan's law enforcement was ranked 37th globally and 3rd in the Middle East by the 2016 World Internal Security and Police Index. This reflects a relatively high level of capacity and reliability in maintaining internal security and order compared to many countries in the region. However, like many law enforcement agencies globally, Jordanian police face scrutiny regarding issues such as use of force, detention practices, and responsiveness to civil liberties concerns, particularly in the context of national security and public order.

5.6. Human Rights and Democratic Development

The state of human rights and democratic development in Jordan presents a mixed picture, characterized by some progress alongside persistent challenges. While Jordan is a constitutional monarchy with a framework for democratic processes, the King retains significant powers, and the pace of democratic reform has been gradual.
Freedoms of Speech, Press, and Assembly: The constitution provides for freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, but these rights are often restricted in practice, particularly through vaguely worded laws related to national security, defamation, and criticism of the monarchy or state institutions. Media outlets face pressure, and self-censorship is common. Reporters Without Borders ranked Jordan 146th out of 180 countries in its 2023 World Press Freedom Index, indicating significant constraints. Protests and public assemblies occur, but are sometimes met with restrictions or security force intervention, especially if deemed to challenge state stability.
Women's Rights: Jordanian women have made strides in education and health, and there are legal frameworks aimed at protecting women's rights. Women participate in politics, with a quota system ensuring female representation in parliament. However, challenges remain, including gender-based discrimination in personal status laws (governed by religious courts), employment, and political participation beyond quotas. Domestic violence and "honor killings," though condemned, persist as serious concerns, and activists call for stronger legal protections and enforcement.
Minority Rights: Religious minorities, primarily Christians, are generally well-integrated and their right to worship is respected. Christians hold reserved seats in parliament. However, societal discrimination can occur, and conversion from Islam is not legally recognized and can lead to social and legal difficulties. Ethnic minorities like Circassians and Chechens are also represented in parliament and generally well-integrated, though maintaining their cultural distinctiveness. The rights of migrant workers and refugees, particularly regarding labor conditions and access to services, remain an area of concern for human rights organizations.
Democratic Reforms: Jordan has undertaken several waves of political reform, especially following the Arab Spring in 2011. These have included constitutional amendments, new election laws, and laws governing political parties and public freedoms. The reintroduction of party-list proportional representation aimed to strengthen political parties and move towards a parliamentary government where the largest bloc in parliament forms the government. However, the influence of tribal affiliations in politics remains strong, and political parties are relatively underdeveloped. The King's wide-ranging powers and the influence of security services continue to shape the political landscape.
Civil Society: Civil society organizations (CSOs) operate in Jordan, working on issues such as human rights, women's rights, and democratic reform. However, they can face restrictions on funding and activities, particularly if perceived as critical of the government.
Challenges: Key challenges to human rights and democratic development include the overarching power of the monarchy, restrictions on fundamental freedoms under the guise of national security (especially given regional instability), the slow pace of institutional reform, societal conservatism on certain issues, and economic pressures that can divert attention from political reforms. Freedom House ranked Jordan as "Not Free" in its 2022 Freedom in the World report, highlighting ongoing concerns about political rights and civil liberties. The Corruption Perceptions Index by Transparency International ranked Jordan 58th in 2021, indicating a moderate level of perceived corruption.

6.1. Overview and Key Indicators

Jordan's economy is classified by the World Bank as a lower-middle-income country, though the World Food Programme has also referred to it as upper-middle income. As of 2016, its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was approximately 39.45 B USD. The economy experienced strong growth at an average rate of 8% per annum between 2004 and 2008, but this slowed to around 2.6% from 2010 onwards, partly due to the Great Recession and the regional turmoil following the Arab Spring. GDP per capita in 2018 was $9,406 by purchasing power parity.
Unemployment and poverty are significant challenges. In 2018, approximately 15.7% of the population lived below the national poverty line. Income inequality and access to social welfare programs are ongoing concerns. Inflation rates have varied, influenced by global commodity prices and domestic policies.
The official currency is the Jordanian dinar (JOD), which is pegged to the US dollar (1 USD = 0.709 JOD). This peg has provided currency stability but can limit monetary policy flexibility.
Jordan joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2000 and signed a Free Trade Agreement with the United States in 2001, the first Arab country to do so. It also has an "advanced status" agreement with the European Union, facilitating trade.
Public debt has been a persistent issue, exacerbated by slow growth, subsidies, a large public sector, and the costs of hosting refugees. In 2016, the debt reached 35.10 B USD, representing 93% of GDP. Austerity measures and reforms, often supported by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), have aimed to control the debt-to-GDP ratio.

6.2. Major Sectors

Jordan's economy is relatively well-diversified, though services dominate.

• Services: This is the largest sector, with trade and finance accounting for nearly one-third of GDP. Transportation, communication, and public utilities also make significant contributions. The services sector is a major source of employment.
• Tourism: Historically a cornerstone of the economy and a major earner of foreign currency. However, it is highly sensitive to regional instability. (See separate section on Tourism for more detail).
• Industry and Mining: Manufacturing and mining constitute nearly another fifth of GDP. Key industrial products include potash, phosphates (Jordan is a major global producer), cement, pharmaceuticals, and textiles (benefiting from Qualified Industrial Zones). The construction sector's activity often reflects broader economic trends. The impact of industrial activities on labor rights and sustainable development is an area of focus.
• Agriculture: This sector's contribution to GDP is relatively small due to water scarcity and limited arable land (concentrated in the Jordan Valley). Products include fruits, vegetables, olives, and livestock. Water rights and sustainable farming practices are critical issues.

Employment conditions, labor rights, and the move towards sustainable development practices vary across these sectors and are important aspects of socio-economic analysis.

6.3. Natural Resources and Energy

Jordan is poor in conventional natural resources. Water scarcity is a critical challenge, with Jordan being one of the most water-poor countries globally per capita. It relies on shared river basins (Jordan and Yarmuk rivers), groundwater aquifers (like the Disi aquifer), and dams. The influx of refugees has further strained water resources.
The country has significant deposits of phosphates and potash, making it one of the world's largest producers and exporters of these minerals. These form the backbone of its mining sector.
Jordan is heavily dependent on imported energy, primarily for electricity generation. Natural gas was discovered in 1987 at the Risha field, but reserves are modest. Historically, Jordan relied on gas imports from Egypt via the Arab Gas Pipeline, but disruptions due to attacks in Sinai led to significant economic losses and a shift to more expensive heavy-fuel oils.
To address energy dependence, Jordan has been actively developing its energy strategy, focusing on:

• Renewable Energy: Jordan has high solar irradiance and good wind resources. Significant investments have been made in solar and wind power projects (e.g., Tafila Wind Farm, Shams Ma'an Solar Power Plant). The country has ambitious targets to increase the share of renewable energy in its electricity mix, aiming for 20% by 2020 and further increases beyond that.
• Oil Shale: Jordan possesses the fifth-largest oil shale reserves globally, estimated at over 70 billion tonnes. The Attarat Power Plant, its first oil-shale power plant, with a 470 MW capacity, was commissioned in 2023. Exploitation of oil shale raises environmental concerns that need careful management.
• Nuclear Energy: Jordan has considerable uranium reserves and has explored nuclear energy for power generation and water desalination. Initial plans for large reactors were scaled back due to financial constraints, with current considerations focusing on small modular reactors (SMRs). The Jordan Research and Training Reactor (JRTR), a 5 MW reactor at the Jordan University of Science and Technology, was commissioned in 2016. It serves to produce radioactive isotopes for medical use and to train a skilled workforce for potential commercial nuclear power plants.

The social and environmental impacts of resource extraction and energy projects, including water use, land rights, and pollution, are important considerations for equitable and sustainable development.

6.4. Industry

The industrial sector in Jordan, encompassing mining, manufacturing, construction, and power, contributes significantly to the GDP and employment, though its share has fluctuated. In 2004, industry accounted for approximately 26% of GDP (manufacturing 16.2%; construction 4.6%; mining 3.1%). By 2014, the broader industry sector's share of GDP was noted at 6% by one source, which might reflect a narrower definition or shifts in economic structure.
Key industrial products include:

• Mining Products: Potash and phosphates are major exports, with Jordan being a leading global producer. Cement is also an important industrial product.
• Manufacturing:
  • Textiles and Apparel: This sub-sector has benefited significantly from Qualified Industrial Zones (QIZs), which allow duty-free access to the US market if certain conditions regarding Israeli content are met. These zones have attracted foreign investment and created jobs, though working conditions and labor rights within them have sometimes been a subject of concern and scrutiny.
  • Pharmaceuticals: Jordan is considered a leading pharmaceuticals manufacturer in the MENA region. Companies like Hikma Pharmaceuticals have a strong international presence.
  • Other Manufacturing: This includes food processing, engineering products (e.g., Petra Engineering Industries Company, known for air-conditioning units, has even supplied NASA), and other consumer and industrial goods.
• Defense Industry: The Jordan Design and Development Bureau (KADDB), established in 1999, aims to provide indigenous capabilities for scientific and technical services to the Jordanian Armed Forces and has become a regional hub for security research and development. KADDB manufactures a range of military products and showcases them at the SOFEX exhibition. In 2015, it reportedly exported 72.00 M USD worth of products.
• Construction: This sector's activity is often linked to broader economic growth, infrastructure projects, and real estate development.

The industrial sector's impact on national employment, working conditions, adherence to labor rights, and contribution to sustainable development are key areas of focus. Efforts to enhance competitiveness, diversify industrial output, and promote value-added manufacturing are ongoing.

6.5. Science and Technology

Science and technology (S&T) represent one of the fastest-developing economic sectors in Jordan. Growth is evident across multiple areas, notably Information and Communication Technology (ICT), research and development (R&D), and nuclear technology.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT): The ICT sector has been a significant driver of economic growth and job creation. Jordan contributes a substantial portion (around 75%) of the Arabic content on the Internet. In 2014, the ICT sector accounted for over 84,000 jobs and contributed 12% to the GDP. The ecosystem includes hundreds of companies active in telecommunications, information technology, software development, and video game development, alongside a growing number of start-ups. Initiatives to foster innovation, entrepreneurship, and digital literacy are ongoing. Jordan was ranked 73rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.
Research and Development (R&D): Jordan has a relatively high number of researchers in R&D per million people among OIC member countries, with figures around 8,060 researchers per million people, well above the world average. Universities and research institutions play a key role in R&D activities, though funding and commercialization of research can be challenging.
Nuclear Science and Technology: Jordan has pursued nuclear technology for peaceful purposes, primarily for energy generation and research. The Jordan Research and Training Reactor (JRTR), a 5 MW reactor at the Jordan University of Science and Technology, was commissioned in 2016. It serves to produce radioactive isotopes for medical use and to train a skilled workforce for potential commercial nuclear power plants.
SESAME (Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East): Jordan hosts this major international research facility, which is the only particle accelerator in the Middle East and one of only about 60 synchrotron radiation facilities worldwide. Supported by UNESCO and CERN, SESAME opened in 2017 and promotes scientific collaboration among researchers from various, often rival, Middle Eastern countries.
The development of the S&T sector holds potential for economic diversification, job creation for a skilled workforce, and enhanced global competitiveness. However, ensuring equitable access to technology, addressing the digital divide, managing potential environmental and social risks associated with new technologies (e.g., nuclear energy), and translating research into economic benefits are important considerations.

6.6. Transportation and Infrastructure

Jordan possesses a relatively well-developed infrastructure, which has been recognized as among the better in the developing world. This is crucial given its role as a transit country for goods and services, particularly to Palestine and historically to Iraq.
Road Network: As of 2011, Jordan's road network consisted of approximately 1.8 K mile ^{(2.88 K km)} of main roads, 1.6 K mile ^{(2.59 K km)} of rural roads, and 1.1 K mile ^{(1.73 K km)} of side roads. Major highways connect key cities and border crossings. Amman has a network of public transportation buses, including the Amman Bus and the Amman Bus Rapid Transit system, and is connected to nearby Zarqa through the Amman-Zarqa Bus Rapid Transit.
Airports: Jordan has three commercial airports serving international flights:

• Queen Alia International Airport (QAIA) near Amman: This is the country's main international gateway and the hub for Royal Jordanian Airlines, the flag carrier. QAIA underwent a major expansion completed in 2013, increasing its capacity to handle over 16 million passengers annually. It has received awards for service quality in the Middle East.
• Amman Civil Airport (Marka International Airport): Located in Amman, it serves several regional routes and charter flights.
• King Hussein International Airport: Located in Aqaba, serving the southern region and the Red Sea resort area.

Ports: The Port of Aqaba is Jordan's only seaport, located on the Gulf of Aqaba. It is a critical hub for Jordan's international trade and also serves as a transit port for neighboring countries. In 2006, it was ranked as the "Best Container Terminal" in the Middle East by Lloyd's List due to its strategic location, role as a gateway for the local and regional markets, and recent improvements.
Railways: The historic Hejaz railway, built during the Ottoman era, extends from Damascus to Mecca and passes through Jordan. Currently, it has limited civilian passenger activity and is primarily used for transporting goods, particularly phosphates from mines in the south to the Port of Aqaba. Plans for a national railway project to expand and modernize the rail network have been under study, seeking funding for development.
The development and maintenance of transportation infrastructure are vital for Jordan's economic growth, facilitating trade, tourism, and domestic connectivity. Ensuring that infrastructure development is sustainable, accessible to all communities, and minimizes negative environmental and social impacts on local populations are important considerations.

6.7. Tourism

The tourism sector is a cornerstone of the Jordanian economy, serving as a significant source of employment, foreign currency, and economic growth. In 2010, Jordan received 8 million visitors, predominantly from European and Arab countries. However, the sector is highly sensitive to regional instability, and tourist arrivals experienced a sharp decline (around 70% from 2010 to 2016) following the Arab Spring and regional conflicts, before starting to recover in 2017.
Jordan is home to approximately 100,000 archaeological and tourist sites, according to the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities. Key attractions include:

• Historical and Archaeological Sites:
  • Petra: A UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the New7Wonders of the World, this ancient Nabataean city carved into rose-red cliffs is Jordan's most popular tourist attraction and an icon of the kingdom.
  • Jerash: One of the best-preserved Roman provincial cities in the Middle East, known for its colonnaded streets, temples, and theaters.
  • Umm Qais (Gadara), Pella, and other Decapolis cities.
  • Ajloun Castle: A 12th-century Muslim castle built by Saladin's nephew.
  • Crusader castles like Karak and Montreal.
• Religious Sites: As part of the Holy Land, Jordan boasts numerous sites of biblical significance:
  • Al-Maghtas (Bethany Beyond the Jordan): A UNESCO World Heritage site, traditionally believed to be the location of the Baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist.
  • Mount Nebo: Believed to be where Moses viewed the Promised Land.
  • Umm ar-Rasas: A UNESCO World Heritage site with Byzantine churches and mosaics.
  • Madaba: Famous for its Byzantine mosaics, including the Madaba Map.
  • Machaerus: The Herodian fortress where John the Baptist was reputedly imprisoned and executed.
  • Islamic sites include shrines of Prophet Muhammad's companions like Abd Allah ibn Rawahah, Zayd ibn Harithah, and Muadh ibn Jabal.

  

  • Eco-Tourism and Adventure:
    • Wadi Rum: A spectacular desert valley known for its dramatic sandstone mountains, also a UNESCO World Heritage site. It offers Bedouin hospitality, jeep tours, and rock climbing.
    • Dana Biosphere Reserve, Wadi Mujib, and other nature reserves offer hiking and wildlife viewing.
    • The Jordan Trail: A 404 mile ^{(650 km)} long-distance hiking trail traversing the entire country from north to south, connecting various historical and natural sites. Established in 2015, it aims to revive the tourism sector.
  • Modern Entertainment and Recreation: Urban areas, especially Amman, Aqaba, and Irbid, offer modern entertainment, shopping (souqs), and a growing nightlife scene with bars, discos, and nightclubs. Alcohol is widely available in tourist establishments.
  • Seaside Recreation: The Dead Sea, the lowest point on Earth, offers unique buoyancy and mineral-rich mud, attracting visitors for its therapeutic properties. Several international resorts line its shores. Aqaba on the Red Sea is a destination for diving, snorkeling, and beach holidays.
  • Medical Tourism: Jordan has been a medical tourism destination in the Middle East since the 1970s. In 2010, it was reported that 250,000 patients from 102 countries received treatment in Jordan, generating over 1.00 B USD in revenue. The World Bank has rated Jordan as the region's top medical tourism destination and fifth in the world overall. Patients come from countries like Yemen, Libya, and Syria, partly due to ongoing conflicts in those nations.

  The socio-economic impacts of tourism are significant, providing employment and income, particularly for local communities. However, ensuring that tourism development is sustainable, benefits local populations equitably, and contributes to the preservation of cultural and natural heritage are ongoing challenges. The effects of regional instability highlight the vulnerability of this vital sector.

6.8. Economic Challenges and Reforms

Jordan's economy faces a range of persistent challenges, necessitating ongoing economic reforms often undertaken with the support of international financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. The primary goals of these reforms are to achieve fiscal stability, stimulate sustainable and equitable economic growth, reduce poverty, and enhance social justice.
Key Economic Challenges:

• Public Debt: High and rising public debt has been a major concern. In 2011, it was 19.00 B USD (60% of GDP), and by 2016, it reached 35.10 B USD (93% of GDP). This increase was attributed to regional instability impacting tourism and investment, increased military spending, disruptions to energy supplies (e.g., attacks on Egyptian gas pipelines), the collapse of trade with Iraq and Syria, the costs of hosting large refugee populations (particularly Syrians), and accumulated interest on loans.
• Reliance on Foreign Aid: Jordan is heavily reliant on foreign aid and grants to finance its budget and development projects. This reliance makes the economy vulnerable to shifts in donor priorities and geopolitical dynamics.
• Resource Scarcity: Severe water scarcity and limited domestic energy resources constrain economic development and necessitate costly imports or investments in alternatives.
• Impact of Regional Conflicts and Refugees: Jordan has hosted large numbers of refugees (Palestinians, Iraqis, Syrians) for decades. The Syrian refugee crisis, in particular, placed immense strain on public services (health, education), infrastructure, the labor market, and national resources. The World Bank estimated that Syrian refugees cost Jordan over 2.50 B USD per year (6% of GDP and 25% of government annual revenue), with foreign aid covering only a portion of these costs.
• Unemployment and Poverty: High rates of unemployment, especially among youth, and persistent poverty levels are significant socio-economic challenges. Austerity measures can disproportionately affect vulnerable populations if not accompanied by adequate social safety nets.
• Subsidies and Public Sector Size: Historically, generous subsidies on items like fuel and food, along with a large public sector workforce, have contributed to fiscal deficits. Reforms have often targeted these areas, sometimes leading to public discontent (e.g., protests in 2012 over fuel subsidy cuts).

Economic Reforms:
Jordan has implemented various economic reform programs aimed at:

• Fiscal Consolidation: Reducing budget deficits and managing public debt through measures like subsidy reform, improved tax collection, and expenditure control. Austerity programs have aimed to reduce the debt-to-GDP ratio (e.g., targeting 77% by 2021).
• Structural Reforms: Enhancing the business environment to attract private investment (both domestic and foreign), improving competitiveness, liberalizing trade (e.g., WTO membership, FTAs), and reforming labor market regulations.
• Sectoral Development: Promoting growth in key sectors like tourism, ICT, renewable energy, and value-added industries.
• Social Safety Nets: Efforts to strengthen social safety nets to mitigate the impact of economic reforms and shocks on the poor and vulnerable are crucial from a social justice perspective.

The success of these reforms in achieving sustainable and equitable economic development, reducing poverty, and improving the living standards for all segments of the population, especially marginalized groups, is a continuous process that requires careful monitoring and adaptation. The socio-economic impact of these reforms, particularly austerity measures, on ordinary citizens and vulnerable groups is a critical consideration.

7.1. Population Statistics

The 2015 census recorded Jordan's population at 9,531,712. Of this, approximately 2.9 million (around 30%) were non-citizens, a figure encompassing refugees and both legal and illegal immigrants. The population has grown significantly over the decades; for example, Amman's population was 65,754 in 1946 but exceeded 4 million by 2015. The estimated population in 2018 was 10,171,480.
The 2015 census also indicated 1,977,534 households, with an average of 4.8 persons per household. This is a decrease from the 1979 census figure of 6.7 persons per household, reflecting trends towards smaller family sizes.
Jordan has a high rate of urbanization, with about 84.1% of the population living in urban areas. The population is relatively young, though the age structure is gradually maturing. Population density varies significantly, with most people concentrated in the northwestern and central-western parts of the country where rainfall and arable land are more abundant.

7.2. Ethnic Groups and Minorities

Arabs constitute the vast majority of Jordan's population, making up about 95-98%. This Arab population includes native Transjordanians (descendants of families and clans living in the region before 1948) and a significant number of Jordanians of Palestinian origin, many of whom arrived as refugees or descendants of refugees from various Arab-Israeli conflicts, particularly in 1948 and 1967. Most Palestinians in Jordan have been granted Jordanian citizenship.
The remaining 2-5% of the population consists of several ethnic minorities:

• Circassians (Adyghe): They are descendants of Muslim refugees who fled Russian persecution in the Caucasus in the 19th century and were settled in Jordan by the Ottoman Empire. They have played a notable role in Jordan's military and government and maintain their distinct cultural traditions and language, alongside Arabic. They number around 100,000-170,000.
• Chechens: Similar to Circassians, Chechens also arrived as refugees from the Caucasus in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They are a smaller community but have also integrated into Jordanian society while preserving their cultural heritage. Their population is estimated between 12,000 and 30,000.
• Armenians: Most Jordanian Armenians are descendants of survivors of the Armenian genocide during World War I who sought refuge in the Levant. They number approximately 5,000 and mainly reside in Amman, maintaining their Christian faith, language, and cultural institutions.
• Kurds: A community of around 30,000 Kurds lives in Jordan, many of whom are refugees or descendants of refugees from Iraq, Iran, and Turkey.
• Druze: A small religious and ethnic minority, numbering around 32,000, primarily residing in Azraq and some villages near the Syrian border, as well as in Zarqa.
• Assyrians/Chaldeans: Many are refugees from Iraq, particularly following conflicts and persecution. Their numbers fluctuate but were estimated around 10,000-15,000, though many are temporary.
• Afro-Jordanians: Jordanians of African descent, estimated at less than 60,000, are concentrated mainly in the Jordan Valley and southwestern parts.

These minority groups contribute to Jordan's cultural diversity. While generally well-integrated, discussions around minority rights often focus on cultural preservation, political representation (Circassians, Chechens, and Christians have quotas in parliament), and equal access to opportunities. The government's approach to social integration aims to balance national unity with respect for diverse cultural heritages.

7.3. Refugees and Immigrants

Jordan has a long and significant history of hosting refugees from regional conflicts, making it one of the largest refugee-hosting nations per capita globally. This has had profound social, economic, and demographic impacts.

• Palestinians: This is the largest and longest-standing refugee population in Jordan. The first major wave arrived during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, with subsequent influxes, notably after the 1967 Six-Day War and the 1990 Gulf War. As of December 2016, there were 2,175,491 registered Palestinian refugees in Jordan. Most have been granted Jordanian citizenship, though this practice has become rarer in recent years. Around 370,000 live in UNRWA refugee camps. After Israel captured the West Bank in 1967, Jordan revoked the citizenship of some Palestinians to prevent permanent resettlement from the West Bank to Jordan.
• Iraqis: Following the Iraq War in 2003, up to one million Iraqis sought refuge in Jordan. Many have since returned, but a significant number remained; in 2015, their count was 130,911. This group included many Iraqi Christians (often ethnic Assyrians or Chaldeans) who settled temporarily or permanently. After the rise of ISIL in 2014, another wave of Iraqi Christians sought refuge.
• Syrians: Since the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War in 2011, over 1.4 million Syrian refugees fled to Jordan. The largest Syrian refugee camp, Zaatari refugee camp, became one of the biggest in the world. The vast majority of Syrian refugees, however, live outside camps, integrated within Jordanian communities. This massive influx placed substantial strain on Jordan's resources, infrastructure, labor market, and social services (water, health, education). While Jordan has demonstrated considerable hospitality, the economic and social costs have been immense.
• Other Refugee Groups: Jordan has also hosted smaller numbers of refugees and asylum seekers from other countries, including approximately 15,000 Lebanese following the 2006 Lebanon War, and several thousand Libyans, Yemenis, and Sudanese escaping instability in their respective nations. A small number of ethnic Mandaeans, mostly refugees from Iraq, also reside in Jordan.

Migrant Workers: In addition to refugees, Jordan hosts a large number of migrant workers, both legal and illegal. Estimates suggest around 1.2 million illegal and 500,000 legal migrant workers. Many come from Egypt, South Asia (e.g., Bangladesh, Sri Lanka), and Southeast Asia (e.g., Philippines, Indonesia), often employed in domestic work, agriculture, and construction. Thousands of foreign women, mostly from the Middle East and Eastern Europe, also work in the hospitality and entertainment sectors.
The presence of large refugee and immigrant populations presents complex humanitarian, social, and economic challenges for Jordan. Issues include competition for jobs, pressure on wages, strain on public services, and social integration. Government policies and international aid are crucial in managing these impacts and ensuring the welfare of both host and refugee/immigrant communities.

7.4. Languages

The official language of Jordan is Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), which is the literary language taught in schools and used in formal settings, government, and media.
However, the most commonly spoken language in daily life is Jordanian Arabic, which is a collection of mutually intelligible Levantine Arabic dialects. There are variations within Jordanian Arabic, often distinguished by urban (madani), rural (fallahi), and Bedouin (badawi) influences.
English holds a significant status in Jordan, although it is not an official language. It is widely spoken, especially in urban areas, business, banking, and tourism. English is a de facto co-official language in the education sector; almost all university-level classes are taught in English, and English is taught as a second language in most public and private schools from an early age.
Several minority community languages are also spoken in Jordan:

• Circassian (Adyghe): Spoken by the Circassian community.
• Chechen: Spoken by the Chechen community.
• Armenian: Spoken by the Armenian community.

These communities often maintain their languages for intra-communal communication and cultural preservation, while also being fluent in Arabic.
Other languages spoken by immigrant and expatriate communities include Tagalog (among Filipino workers), Russian, and languages from South Asia.
French is offered as an elective in many schools, particularly in the private sector, and has some cultural presence. German has also gained popularity, partly due to the establishment of the German Jordanian University in 2005.
Jordanian Sign Language is the language used by the deaf community in Jordan.

7.5. Religion

Sunni Islam is the dominant religion in Jordan. Muslims constitute about 95-97% of the population, and the vast majority of these (around 93%) identify as Sunnis. Islam is the state religion, and the Hashemite royal family are Sunni Muslims. There is a very small number of Ahmadi Muslims and some Shia Muslims, many of whom are refugees from Iraq and Lebanon.

Christianity forms the largest religious minority. Christians make up about 2-4% of the population. This percentage has decreased from around 20% in 1930, due to higher Muslim immigration rates, higher Christian emigration rates to Western countries, and higher birth rates among Muslims. However, the absolute number of Christians has grown. Jordanian Christians number around 250,000 (Arabic-speaking), according to a 2014 Orthodox Church estimate, though this figure may not include minority Christian groups or the thousands of Western, Iraqi, and Syrian Christians residing in Jordan. Jordan is home to some of the oldest Christian communities in the world, dating back to the 1st century AD. Most Jordanian Christians belong to the Greek Orthodox Church, but there are also Greek Catholics (Melkites), Roman Catholics, Syriac Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and various Protestant denominations. Christians are generally well-integrated into Jordanian society and enjoy a level of religious freedom, with reserved seats in parliament (9 seats).
Smaller religious minorities include the Druze (estimated at around 32,000), Baháʼís, and Mandaeans. Most Druze live in Azraq, some villages near the Syrian border, and Zarqa. The majority of Jordanian Baháʼís live in Adassiyeh, near the Jordan Valley. Approximately 1,400 Mandaeans, mostly refugees from Iraq, live in Amman.
The Jordanian constitution provides for religious freedom but stipulates that the state religion is Islam. While Christians and other recognized minorities can practice their faith, societal and legal discrimination can be faced by Muslims who convert to another religion, and proselytizing by non-Muslims is restricted. Personal status matters (marriage, divorce, inheritance) for Muslims are governed by Sharia courts, while Christians have their own religious courts for such matters.

7.6. Education

Jordan's education system comprises two years of pre-school education, ten years of compulsory basic education, and two years of secondary academic or vocational education. After completing secondary education, students sit for the General Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (Tawjihi), which is a prerequisite for university admission.
Primary education is free in public schools. Students can attend either public or private schools. According to UNESCO, the literacy rate in Jordan was 98.01% in 2015, considered one of the highest in the Middle East and the Arab world. UNESCO also ranked Jordan's educational system 18th out of 94 nations for providing gender equality in education, with a youth female literacy rate (15-24 years) of 99.37% in 2015.
Jordan has a significant number of researchers in research and development per million people among OIC member countries, with approximately 8,060 researchers per million, compared to a world average of 2,532 per million.
There are 10 public universities, 19 private universities, and 54 community colleges in Jordan (of which 14 are public, 24 private, and others affiliated with the Jordanian Armed Forces, Civil Defence Department, Ministry of Health, and UNRWA). Over 200,000 students enroll in universities annually, with an additional 20,000 pursuing higher education abroad, primarily in the United States and Europe.
The top-ranking universities in the country, according to Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, include the University of Jordan (UJ), Jordan University of Science and Technology (JUST), and Hashemite University. UJ and JUST often rank among the top 10 Arab universities.
Challenges in the education sector include ensuring quality education across all regions and socio-economic groups, aligning educational outcomes with labor market needs to address youth unemployment, and providing adequate resources for schools and universities, particularly in light of pressures from refugee populations. Access and equity, especially for vocational training and for children in underserved areas or refugee communities, remain important focus areas for reform and development.

7.7. Health

Jordan's healthcare system is considered one of the best in the Middle East, characterized by qualified medical professionals, a favorable investment climate for private healthcare, and relative economic stability which has supported its development. Life expectancy was around 74.8 years in 2017. The leading causes of death are cardiovascular diseases, followed by cancer.
Childhood immunization rates have steadily increased, reaching over 95% for children under five by 2002 for most vaccines. Access to clean water and sanitation has significantly improved, from being available to only 10% of the population in 1950 to 98% by 2015.
The healthcare system is a mix of public and private institutions:

• Public Sector:** The Ministry of Health operates numerous primary healthcare centers and public hospitals. The Royal Medical Services (RMS) of the Jordanian Armed Forces also runs a network of hospitals. The University of Jordan Hospital is a major teaching hospital.
• Private Sector:** The private healthcare sector is well-developed and plays a significant role, providing approximately 36% of all hospital beds. Jordan Hospital, a large private facility, was the first general specialty hospital in the country to gain international accreditation from the Joint Commission (JCAHO) in 2007. The King Hussein Cancer Center is a leading comprehensive cancer treatment and research facility in the region.

Approximately 66-70% of Jordanians have medical insurance. Jordan is a prominent destination for medical tourism, attracting hundreds of thousands of patients annually from other Arab countries and beyond, contributing significantly to the economy. This is due to its advanced medical facilities, skilled doctors, and relatively lower costs compared to Western countries. The influx of patients from conflict zones in the region has also provided Jordanian medical staff with extensive experience in treating war-related injuries.
Major health challenges include managing non-communicable diseases (like diabetes and heart disease), ensuring equitable access to quality healthcare across all regions and for vulnerable populations (including refugees), and sustaining healthcare financing. The strain on the public health system due to refugee influxes has been a particular challenge.

7.8. Social Issues and Vulnerable Groups

Jordan faces a range of social issues common to developing countries, compounded by regional instability and economic pressures. Addressing these issues and ensuring the welfare of vulnerable groups are critical for social development and stability, aligning with a social liberalism perspective that emphasizes social justice and support for those in need.

• Poverty and Unemployment: Poverty remains a significant challenge, with a notable percentage of the population living below the national poverty line. Unemployment, particularly among youth and women, is high. Economic difficulties, austerity measures, and the influx of refugees competing for limited job opportunities exacerbate these problems. Effective poverty reduction strategies and job creation initiatives are crucial.
• Gender Inequality: While Jordanian women have made progress in education and health, gender inequality persists in economic participation, political representation (despite quotas), and legal rights, especially under personal status laws governed by religious courts. Women face barriers to entering and advancing in the workforce, and issues like the gender pay gap and limited access to leadership positions are prevalent. Gender-based violence, including domestic violence and "honor killings" (though less frequent and widely condemned), remains a serious concern.
• Welfare of Vulnerable Groups:
  • Children: Issues affecting children include access to quality education (especially for refugees and in impoverished areas), child labor (particularly among refugee communities), and protection from abuse and exploitation.
  • The Elderly: As the population ages, providing adequate healthcare, social support, and pension systems for the elderly becomes increasingly important.
  • Persons with Disabilities: Persons with disabilities face challenges in accessing education, employment, healthcare, and public spaces. While laws and policies exist to protect their rights, implementation and societal inclusion can be lacking.
  • Refugees: As detailed previously, refugees (Palestinians, Syrians, Iraqis, etc.) form a large vulnerable group, facing difficulties in accessing livelihoods, adequate housing, healthcare, and education, despite Jordan's generally welcoming policies and the efforts of international organizations.
• Refugee Impact: The large presence of refugees places immense strain on social services, infrastructure, and resources, potentially leading to social tensions if not managed carefully with adequate support for both host and refugee communities.
• Water Scarcity: This is a fundamental social and economic issue, impacting agriculture, health, and daily life, with potential for inequitable distribution affecting vulnerable communities most severely.
• Social Cohesion and Identity: Managing diverse identities (tribal, national, Palestinian, minority groups) and fostering a sense of national unity while respecting diversity is an ongoing social dynamic.

Efforts to promote social development include government programs, initiatives by civil society organizations, and international aid. These efforts often focus on strengthening social safety nets, empowering women, improving educational and employment opportunities, and protecting the rights of vulnerable populations. A human rights-based approach to social development, emphasizing inclusivity and equity, is critical.

8.1. Arts and Museums

Jordan's art scene has been developing, with numerous institutions dedicated to promoting cultural awareness of Jordanian art and representing artistic movements in painting, sculpture, graffiti, and photography. Amman, in particular, has become a haven for artists from surrounding countries.
Key museums include:

• The Jordan Museum (Amman): The largest museum in Jordan, housing significant archaeological findings, including some of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Neolithic limestone statues from 'Ain Ghazal, and a copy of the Mesha Stele.
• Jordan National Gallery of Fine Arts (Amman): A major contemporary art museum featuring works from Jordanian, Islamic, and international artists.
• The Children's Museum Jordan (Amman): An interactive museum for children.
• The Martyr's Memorial and Museum (Amman): Commemorates the history of Jordan's armed forces.
• Royal Automobile Museum (Amman): Showcases the late King Hussein's collection of cars and motorcycles.
• Aqaba Archaeological Museum (Aqaba): Displays artifacts from the region around Aqaba.

Jordan has also unveiled an underwater military museum off the coast of Aqaba, featuring submerged military vehicles to create an artificial reef and tourist attraction.

8.2. Music and Cinema

Jordanian music is evolving, with many new bands and artists gaining popularity across the Middle East. Traditional Bedouin music, characterized by instruments like the rababah and oud, remains an important part of the cultural heritage. Contemporary Arab pop music is widely popular, with Jordanian artists such as Omar Al-Abdallat, Toni Qattan, Diana Karazon, and Hani Mitwasi achieving success.
There is also a growing alternative Arabic rock and independent music scene, with bands like El Morabba3, Autostrad, JadaL, Akher Zapheer, and Aziz Maraka dominating the scene in the Arab world.
Pianist and composer Zade Dirani has gained international recognition. The Jerash Festival is an annual event featuring performances by popular Arab and international singers, musicians, and folklore troupes.
Jordanian cinema has been developing, with some films gaining international attention. Theeb (2014) was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 2016, a first for Jordan. The country's diverse landscapes have also made it a popular filming location for international productions.

8.3. Media

The media landscape in Jordan includes print, broadcast (radio and television), and online media outlets. Both public and private institutions operate in the sector. Popular Jordanian newspapers include Al Ghad (Arabic) and The Jordan Times (English). Key television channels include the state-run Jordan Radio and Television Corporation (JRTV), and private channels like Al-Mamlaka and Roya TV.
Media freedom is a subject of ongoing discussion. While the constitution provides for freedom of expression, laws related to national security, defamation, and criticism of the monarchy can lead to restrictions and self-censorship. Reporters Without Borders ranked Jordan 146th out of 180 countries in its 2023 World Press Freedom Index. The Arab Spring and regional conflicts reportedly led authorities to tighten their grip on media, particularly online platforms. Internet penetration in Jordan reached 76% in 2015.

8.4. Cuisine

Jordanian cuisine is a Levantine cuisine that shares many characteristics with the cuisines of neighboring countries like Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria, while also having unique Bedouin influences. Olive oil is a staple, as Jordan is one of the world's top ten producers of olives.
Common appetizers (mezze) include hummus (chickpea puree with tahini, lemon, and garlic), ful medames (fava bean dip), baba ghanoush (eggplant dip), tabbouleh (parsley salad), kibbeh (bulgur and minced meat), and labaneh (strained yogurt). These are often served with khubz (pita bread).
The national dish of Jordan is Mansaf, a dish of lamb cooked in a sauce of fermented dried yogurt (jameed) and served with rice or bulgur. It is a symbol of Jordanian hospitality and is traditionally eaten communally from a large platter, often using the right hand.
Other popular dishes include Maqluba (an "upside-down" dish of rice, meat, and fried vegetables), Musakhan (chicken with onions, sumac, and pine nuts baked over bread), stuffed vegetables (Mahshi), and various grilled meats (Mashawi).
Sweets often feature nuts, cheese, and semolina, such as baklava, knafeh (a cheese pastry soaked in sweet syrup), hareeseh (semolina cake), and qatayef (sweet dumplings popular during Ramadan).
Coffee (qahwa) and tea (often flavored with mint or sage) are integral to social life and hospitality. Arak, an anise-flavored spirit, is a traditional alcoholic beverage. Jordanian wine and beer are also produced and available.

8.5. Sports

Sports are popular in Jordan, with football (soccer) being the most widely followed. The national football team has achieved notable successes, including reaching the final of the 2023 AFC Asian Cup (finishing as runners-up) and previously reaching the quarter-finals in 2004 and 2011. They also came close to qualifying for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. The Jordanian Pro League is the top professional football league.
Basketball is also popular. The national basketball team has qualified for the FIBA World Championship (in 2010 and 2019) and narrowly missed qualifying for the 2012 Summer Olympics after finishing second in the 2011 FIBA Asia Championship.
Taekwondo has brought Jordan its most significant international achievements, including its first-ever Olympic medal when Ahmad Abughaush won gold at the 2016 Summer Olympics. The sport remains a favorite.
Other popular sports include martial arts like karate, kickboxing, Muay Thai, and ju-jitsu. Boxing also has a following.
Jordan has a strong policy for inclusive sport and invests in encouraging girls and women to participate. The women's national football team has gained reputation, and in 2016, Jordan hosted the 2016 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup, the first FIFA women's tournament in the Middle East.
Less common sports are also gaining traction. Rugby union is increasing in popularity, with a recognized rugby union supervising national teams. Cycling is developing as a lifestyle sport, especially among youth. In 2014, the 7Hills Skatepark, the first skatepark in the country, was built in Downtown Amman by an NGO.

8.6. Major Archaeological and Tourist Sites

Jordan is exceptionally rich in archaeological and historical sites, reflecting millennia of civilizations. Many of these are major tourist attractions:

• Petra: An ancient Nabataean city carved into rock, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the New7Wonders of the World. Key structures include Al-Khazneh (The Treasury) and Ad-Deir (The Monastery).
• Wadi Rum: A desert valley known for its dramatic sandstone mountains and Bedouin culture, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Jerash: One of the best-preserved Greco-Roman provincial cities, part of the Decapolis.
• Dead Sea: The lowest point on Earth, known for its high salinity and therapeutic mud.
• Umm Qais (Gadara): Another Decapolis city with Roman ruins and panoramic views.
• Madaba: Famous for its Byzantine mosaics, especially the 6th-century Madaba Map of the Holy Land.
• Mount Nebo: The traditional site where Moses viewed the Promised Land.
• Al-Maghtas (Bethany Beyond the Jordan): A UNESCO World Heritage site, believed to be the site of Jesus's baptism.
• Karak and Shoubak: Prominent Crusader castles.
• Ajloun Castle: A 12th-century Muslim castle.
• Qasr Amra: An Umayyad desert castle, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, known for its frescoes.
• Umm ar-Rasas (Kastrom Mefa'a): A UNESCO World Heritage Site with Roman, Byzantine, and early Islamic ruins, including churches with well-preserved mosaic floors.
• Aqaba: Jordan's only coastal city, on the Red Sea, offering diving and historical sites like the Aqaba Fort.

These sites draw tourists for historical, cultural, religious, and adventure purposes, forming a vital part of Jordan's economy and cultural identity.

8.7. Public Holidays

Official public holidays in Jordan include a mix of national and religious observances. Islamic holidays are based on the lunar calendar and their dates vary annually according to the Gregorian calendar.
Fixed Public Holidays:

• January 1: New Year's Day
• January 30: King Abdullah II's Birthday
• May 1: Labour Day
• May 25: Independence Day (celebrating independence in 1946)
• June 9: King Abdullah II's Accession Day
• June 10: Army Day and Great Arab Revolt Anniversary
• November 14: The late King Hussein's Birthday (now often "Hussein's Loyalty Day")
• December 25: Christmas Day (Christians form a recognized minority, and Christmas is an official holiday)

Islamic Public Holidays (dates vary annually):

• Islamic New Year (Ras Al-Sana Al-Hijriyah)
• Prophet Muhammad's Birthday (Mawlid an-Nabi)
• Al-Isra' wa al-Miraj (The Prophet's Ascension)
• Eid al-Fitr: Marks the end of Ramadan (fasting month). Typically a 3-4 day holiday.
• Eid al-Adha: Marks the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). Typically a 4-5 day holiday.

Ramadan itself is not a public holiday, but working hours are often shortened, and the pace of life changes significantly during the fasting month. Some Christian holidays like Easter (based on the Eastern Christian calendar) are observed by the Christian community and may be recognized as holidays for Christians.