Kuwait

3.1. Antiquity

Following the post-glacial flooding of the Persian Gulf basin, debris from the Tigris-Euphrates river system formed a substantial delta, creating most of the land in present-day Kuwait and establishing its current coastlines. One of the earliest pieces of evidence of human habitation in Kuwait dates back to the Mesolithic era (circa 8000 BC). Historically, most of present-day Kuwait was part of ancient Mesopotamia.

During the Ubaid period (c. 5500-3700 BC), Kuwait was a central site of interaction between the peoples of Mesopotamia and Neolithic Eastern Arabia, with important sites like Bahra 1 and H3 in Subiya. The Neolithic inhabitants of Kuwait were among the world's earliest maritime traders. One of the world's earliest reed boats was discovered at site H3, dating back to the Ubaid period. Other Neolithic sites in Kuwait are located in Khiran and Sulaibikhat.

Mesopotamians first settled in the Kuwaiti island of Failaka around 2000 BC. Traders from the Sumerian city of Ur inhabited Failaka and ran a mercantile business. The island featured many Mesopotamian-style buildings typical of those found in Iraq from that period. From 4000 BC until 2000 BC, Kuwait was home to the Dilmun civilization, which included sites like Al-Shadadiya, Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Failaka. At its peak in 2000 BC, Dilmun controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes. During the Dilmun era, Failaka was known as "Agarum", the land of Enzak, a prominent god in the Dilmun civilization. After the Dilmun civilization, Failaka was inhabited by the Kassites of Mesopotamia and was formally under the control of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon. Traces of human settlement on Failaka date back to as early as the end of the 3rd millennium BC and extend until the 20th century AD.

Under Nebuchadnezzar II, the bay of Kuwait was under Babylonian control. Cuneiform documents found in Failaka indicate the presence of Babylonians on the island. Nabonidus, a Babylonian King, had a governor in Failaka, and Nebuchadnezzar II had a palace and temple there. Failaka also contained temples dedicated to the worship of Shamash, the Mesopotamian sun god.

Following the Fall of Babylon, the bay of Kuwait came under the control of the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-330 BC) and was repopulated after seven centuries of abandonment. Aramaic inscriptions testify to Achaemenid presence. In the fourth century BC, ancient Greeks colonized the bay of Kuwait under Alexander the Great. The Greeks named mainland Kuwait Larissa and Failaka Island was named Ikaros. The bay of Kuwait itself was named Hieros Kolpos. Large Hellenistic forts and Greek temples were uncovered. Archaeological remains of Greek colonization were also discovered in Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Subiya.

At the time of Alexander the Great, the mouth of the Euphrates River was located in northern Kuwait, flowing directly into the Persian Gulf via Khor Subiya, then a river channel. Failaka was located 9.3 mile ^{(15 km)} from the mouth of the Euphrates river. By the first century BC, the Khor Subiya river channel had dried out completely.

In 127 BC, Kuwait became part of the Parthian Empire, and the kingdom of Characene was established around Teredon in present-day Kuwait. Characene was centered in the region encompassing southern Mesopotamia. Characene coins were discovered in Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Failaka, indicating a busy Parthian commercial station in Kuwait.

In 224 AD, Kuwait became part of the Sasanian Empire. During this period, Kuwait was known as Meshan, an alternative name for the kingdom of Characene. Akkaz was a Partho-Sasanian site; a Sasanian tower of silence was discovered in northern Akkaz. Late Sasanian settlements were also found in Failaka. On Bubiyan Island, archaeological evidence, such as torpedo-jar pottery shards, indicates human presence from the Sasanian to early Islamic periods.

In 636 AD, the Battle of Chains between the Sasanian Empire and the Rashidun Caliphate was fought in Kuwait. As a result of the Rashidun victory, the bay of Kuwait became home to the city of Kazma (also known as "Kadhima" or "Kāzimah") in the early Islamic era. This city served as a trade stop and a point on pilgrimage routes.

3.2. Ottoman Empire and Sabah Dynasty Period

In the early to mid-1700s, Kuwait City was a small fishing village. Administratively, it was a sheikhdom, ruled by local sheikhs from the Bani Khalid clan. Sometime in the mid-1700s, the Bani Utbah tribe settled in Kuwait City. After the fall of the Bani Khalid Emirate, the Utub, through successive matrimonial alliances, were able to gain control of Kuwait. In 1756, the Sabah family emerged as leaders, with Sheikh Sabah I bin Jaber becoming the first ruler, establishing a dynasty that continues to govern Kuwait. During this period, Kuwait was nominally under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, with its administrative center in Basra.

In the latter half of the eighteenth century, Kuwait began establishing itself as a maritime port and gradually became a principal commercial center for the transit of goods between Baghdad, India, Persia, Muscat, and the Arabian Peninsula. By the late-1700s, Kuwait had established itself as a trading route from the Persian Gulf to Aleppo. During the Persian siege of Basra in 1775-1779, Iraqi merchants took refuge in Kuwait and were partly instrumental in the expansion of Kuwait's boat-building and trading activities. As a result, Kuwait's maritime commerce boomed, as the Indian trade routes with Baghdad, Aleppo, Smyrna (modern İzmir), and Constantinople (modern Istanbul) were diverted to Kuwait. The East India Company also diverted its operations to Kuwait in 1792, securing sea routes between Kuwait, India, and the east coasts of Africa. Even after the Persians withdrew from Basra in 1779, Kuwait continued to attract trade away from Basra, contributing to Basra's commercial stagnation.

Kuwait became renowned as the center of boat building in the Persian Gulf, with its ships recognized throughout the Indian Ocean. Its sailors developed a positive reputation. In the 19th century, Kuwait became significant in the horse trade, with regular shipments in sailing vessels, exporting an average of 800 horses to India annually by the mid-19th century.

In 1871, Sheikh Abdullah II Al-Sabah formally became an Ottoman qaimmaqam (sub-governor) under the governor of Basra, though Kuwait retained considerable autonomy. This period saw increasing Ottoman attempts to assert more direct control, countered by the Sabah rulers' efforts to maintain their authority and Kuwait's distinct character as a trading hub.

3.3. British Protectorate Period

In the late 19th century, Sheikh Mubarak Al-Sabah ("Mubarak the Great"), fearing annexation by the Ottoman Empire and seeking to consolidate his power, sought closer ties with Great Britain. On January 23, 1899, Sheikh Mubarak signed the Anglo-Kuwaiti Agreement of 1899 with the British government in India. This treaty effectively made Kuwait a British protectorate. Under the terms of the agreement, Kuwait pledged not to cede any territory or receive agents or representatives of any foreign power without British consent. In return, Britain offered naval protection and financial support, granting Britain exclusive access and trade with Kuwait while denying Ottoman and German ambitions for a port on the Persian Gulf. The Sheikhdom of Kuwait remained a British protectorate until 1961. This period marked a shift in Kuwait's foreign policy and secured its autonomy from direct Ottoman rule, although nominal Ottoman suzerainty continued until World War I.

After the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913, Kuwait was formally recognized by both powers as an autonomous kaza (district) of the Ottoman Empire, while remaining a de facto British protectorate. During World War I, the British Empire imposed a trade blockade against Kuwait because its ruler at the time, Sheikh Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah, supported the Ottoman Empire. This blockade severely damaged Kuwait's economy.

The post-World War I era saw significant regional shifts. In 1919, Sheikh Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah intended to build a commercial city in southern Kuwait, leading to a diplomatic crisis with Najd (later part of Saudi Arabia). Britain intervened, discouraging Sheikh Salim. In 1920, an attempt by the Ikhwan (militant Wahhabi tribesmen allied with Ibn Saud) to build a stronghold in southern Kuwait led to the Battle of Hamdh. This was followed by the Battle of Jahra, where Ikhwan forces besieged the Red Fort at Al Jahra. British military assistance, including airplanes and warships, helped repel the attacks. Following these battles, Ibn Saud's Ikhwan demanded that Kuwait adopt several strict religious and social rules, which were resisted.

The Kuwait-Najd War of 1919-1920 occurred because Ibn Saud of Najd aimed to annex Kuwait. The conflict resulted in sporadic border clashes and hundreds of Kuwaiti deaths. The Uqair Protocol of 1922, mediated by Britain without Kuwaiti representation, formally set the boundaries between Kuwait and Najd. This agreement resulted in Kuwait losing more than half of its claimed territory and established the Saudi-Kuwaiti neutral zone. Following this, Ibn Saud imposed a trade blockade against Kuwait from 1923 until 1937, severely damaging Kuwait's economy and diminishing its regional economic importance.

The Great Depression further harmed Kuwait's economy. International trading, a primary income source, declined. Kuwait's renowned pearl industry collapsed due to the depression and the Japanese invention of cultured pearls. Before Mary Bruins Allison visited Kuwait in 1934, Kuwait had already lost its prominence in long-distance trade. Freya Stark's writings from this period described widespread poverty in Kuwait.

The discovery of oil in the Burgan field on February 22, 1938, by the Kuwait Oil Company (a joint venture between Gulf Oil and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company) marked a turning point for Kuwait, though large-scale production and export would only begin after World War II.

3.4. Independence and State-Building (1946-1980)

The period between 1946 and 1980 is often referred to as the "golden era of Kuwait," characterized by prosperity driven by oil revenues and a relatively liberal cultural and social atmosphere. Crude oil was first exported in 1946. In 1950, a major public works program began, enabling Kuwaiti citizens to enjoy a high standard of living. By 1952, Kuwait had become the largest oil exporter in the Persian Gulf region. This rapid economic growth attracted many foreign workers, especially from Palestine, Iran, India, and Egypt.

On June 19, 1961, Kuwait gained full independence from Britain with the end of the protectorate, and Sheikh Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah became the first Emir of Kuwait. Kuwait's national day is celebrated on February 25th, the anniversary of Sheikh Abdullah's coronation (it was originally on June 19th, but moved due to summer heat). Immediately after independence, Iraq, under Abd al-Karim Qasim, renewed its claim that Kuwait was part of Iraq. This led to the brief Operation Vantage crisis in July 1961, where British troops were deployed at Kuwait's request to deter a potential Iraqi invasion. The Arab League subsequently formed an international Arab force to support Kuwait's sovereignty, and British forces withdrew by October 1961. Iraq eventually recognized Kuwaiti independence in 1963 following Qasim's overthrow, and a treaty of friendship was signed that year recognizing the 1932 border.

Under the newly drafted Constitution of 1962, Kuwait held its first parliamentary elections in 1963. This constitution established Kuwait as a constitutional monarchy with an elected National Assembly, making it one of the earliest states in the Gulf to adopt such a political framework. This period saw the development of state institutions and infrastructure. Kuwait University was established in 1966.

Kuwait became known as a pioneer in the Middle East for diversifying its earnings away from direct oil exports, establishing the Kuwait Investment Authority in 1953, the world's first sovereign wealth fund. From the 1970s onward, Kuwait consistently scored highest among Arab countries on the Human Development Index. Its press was described as one of the freest in the world, and Al-Arabi magazine, first published in 1958, became highly popular across the Arab world. Many foreign writers and intellectuals were attracted to Kuwait due to its greater freedom of expression compared to other Middle Eastern countries. Kuwaiti society embraced liberal and non-traditional attitudes; for example, most Kuwaiti women did not wear the hijab during the 1960s and 1970s. The performing arts, particularly theatre, flourished and became well-known regionally.

However, democratic development faced challenges. The National Assembly was suspended by the Emir in 1976, an event that would later contribute to pro-democracy movements. Despite these political undercurrents, the era was largely defined by social progress and economic prosperity fueled by oil revenues, which were used to build a comprehensive welfare state for Kuwaiti citizens. Kuwait International Airport was opened in 1979.

3.5. Wars and Crisis (1981-1991)

The 1980s were a period of significant geopolitical instability and economic crisis for Kuwait. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) had a profound impact. Kuwait, along with other Gulf Arab states, supported Iraq financially and logistically against Iran. This support made Kuwait a target for pro-Iran attacks and acts of terrorism. Throughout the 1980s, Kuwait experienced various terror attacks, including the 1983 bombings targeting US and French embassies and other key installations, an assassination attempt on Emir Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah in May 1985, the 1985 bombings in popular cafes, and the hijacking of several Kuwait Airways planes. These events led to heightened security measures and negatively affected Kuwait's economy and its previously vibrant scientific research sector. The ruling Al Sabah family also began to more strongly advocate Islamism during this period, partly as a response to perceived threats and to shore up domestic support, leading to Islamists gaining more influence in some state agencies.

Economically, Kuwait faced a major crisis following the Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash in 1982. This informal stock market had seen speculative trading reach unsustainable levels, and its collapse led to billions of dollars in losses, personal bankruptcies, and a prolonged period of economic stagnation. This was compounded by the decrease in global oil prices during the mid-1980s.

After the Iran-Iraq War ended in 1988, tensions between Kuwait and Iraq escalated. Iraq, heavily indebted from the war (including substantial loans from Kuwait), accused Kuwait of exceeding its OPEC oil production quotas, thereby depressing oil prices and harming Iraq's economy. Iraq also revived longstanding territorial claims and accused Kuwait of slant drilling for oil from the shared Rumaila field. Kuwait declined Iraq's request to forgive its war debt of around 65.00 B USD.

On August 2, 1990, Iraqi forces under Saddam Hussein invaded and rapidly occupied Kuwait. Iraq declared Kuwait its 19th province, installing a puppet regime known as the Republic of Kuwait before formally annexing the territory. The invasion was met with widespread international condemnation. The United Nations Security Council passed numerous resolutions demanding Iraq's withdrawal and imposing severe economic sanctions. Emir Jaber and the Kuwaiti government fled to Saudi Arabia, establishing a government-in-exile.

The Gulf War began on January 17, 1991, when an American-led international coalition launched Operation Desert Storm to liberate Kuwait. After weeks of aerial bombardment, a ground offensive commenced on February 24. Kuwait was liberated on February 26, 1991. As Iraqi forces retreated, they implemented a scorched earth policy, setting fire to over 700 Kuwaiti oil wells, causing catastrophic environmental damage and creating vast oil lakes. The occupation resulted in the deaths of nearly 1,000 Kuwaiti civilians, and around 600 Kuwaitis went missing, many of whose remains were later found in mass graves in Iraq. The human rights abuses committed by Iraqi forces during the occupation were extensive, including arbitrary arrests, torture, and executions, deeply traumatizing Kuwaiti society.

3.6. Modern Era (1992-present)

Following the liberation from Iraqi occupation in 1991, Kuwait embarked on a massive national reconstruction effort. The oil fires took months to extinguish, and the environmental and economic damage was immense. Politically, the post-war period saw increased calls for democratic reforms. The National Assembly, which had been suspended in 1986, was reinstated, and elections were held in 1992.

A significant and controversial development in the immediate post-war years was the treatment of communities perceived to have collaborated with the Iraqi regime or whose loyalty was questioned. This led to the expulsion or departure of nearly 400,000 Palestinians, a response to the PLO's alignment with Saddam Hussein. This mass displacement had severe humanitarian consequences and was criticized as a form of collective punishment. Thousands of Iraqis and Yemenis were also deported. Additionally, hundreds of thousands of stateless Bedoon (long-term residents without citizenship) were expelled or faced increased marginalization in the early to mid-1990s. Reports from human rights organizations and even the House of Commons of the United Kingdom in 1995 highlighted the dire conditions faced by Bedoon deported to desert camps. Many Bedoon fled to Iraq, where their stateless status often continued. The Bedoon issue remains a significant human rights concern in Kuwait, with many still lacking basic civil rights and access to services.

In March 2003, Kuwait served as a primary staging ground for the US-led invasion of Iraq. This decision, while supportive of its key ally, the United States, also highlighted Kuwait's complex regional security concerns.

A major social milestone was achieved in 2005 when women gained the right to vote and run in elections, a significant step for women's rights in the country, though their political participation continues to face challenges.

The death of Emir Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah in January 2006 led to a brief succession crisis. His successor, Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, was removed by the National Assembly nine days later due to ill health, and Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah was sworn in as Emir. His reign was marked by ongoing political tensions between the appointed government (dominated by the Al Sabah family) and the elected parliament. This political deadlock frequently resulted in cabinet reshuffles and dissolutions of parliament, which hampered investment, economic reforms (such as those outlined in Kuwait Vision 2035), and infrastructure development, making Kuwait's economy increasingly dependent on oil.

Despite political instability, Kuwait maintained a high Human Development Index ranking in the Arab world for several years. The Kuwait Investment Authority continued to be a major global investor. In 2014 and 2015, however, Kuwait faced accusations from various international sources, including the US Treasury, of being a significant source of funding for terrorist groups like ISIS and Al-Qaeda. These accusations prompted Kuwait to take measures to tighten financial controls. On June 26, 2015, a suicide bombing at a Shia Muslim mosque in Kuwait City, claimed by ISIS, killed 27 people and wounded 227, marking the largest terror attack in Kuwait's history.

The mid-to-late 2010s oil price decline led to one of the worst economic crunches in Kuwait's recent history, resulting in budget deficits. The COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated these economic challenges. Emir Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah passed away in September 2020 and was succeeded by his half-brother, Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah. Sheikh Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah became Crown Prince. Emir Nawaf passed away in December 2023, and Sheikh Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah became the new Emir.

Kuwait continues to host a large US military presence, with Camp Arifjan being a key base for US operations in the Middle East. Economic diversification efforts, particularly under Kuwait Vision 2035 and the Belt and Road Initiative (with projects like Al-Mutlaa city and the Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah Causeway), are ongoing but face challenges from political gridlock and bureaucratic hurdles. Since March 2024, Emir Mishal has overseen the revocation of citizenship for thousands of individuals by decree, a move criticized by human rights organizations as a tool for political control and potentially exacerbating statelessness. Issues concerning the rights of migrant workers, who form a majority of the population, and the stateless Bedoon continue to be prominent human rights concerns.

4.1. Climate

Kuwait has a desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) characterized by extremely hot, dry summers and mild, short winters. Due to its proximity to Iraq and Iran, Kuwait's winter season is generally colder than other coastal countries in the Persian Gulf region, such as the UAE, Qatar, and Bahrain. Kuwait is also typically less humid than its southern Gulf neighbors.

The summer months, from May to September, are intensely hot and dry, with average high temperatures frequently exceeding 113 °F ^{(45 °C)}. Temperatures can soar above 122 °F ^{(50 °C)} during heatwaves. The highest recorded temperature in Kuwait was 129.2 °F ^{(54 °C)} at Mitribah on July 21, 2016, which is one of the highest temperatures ever reliably recorded in Asia and the world.

Winters, from November to February, are mild with cooler temperatures. Daytime highs in winter average around 64.4 °F ^{(18 °C)} to 68 °F ^{(20 °C)}, while nighttime lows can drop to around 44.6 °F ^{(7 °C)} to 48.2 °F ^{(9 °C)}, and occasionally lower. Frost can occur, though rarely.

Rainfall is scarce and erratic, averaging around 3.9 in ^{(100 mm)} to 5.9 in ^{(150 mm)} annually, mostly occurring during the winter and spring months (November to April). Occasional thunderstorms can bring heavy downpours in short periods, sometimes leading to localized flooding.

A significant weather phenomenon is the Shamal, a strong northwesterly wind that is common during June and July. The Shamal can cause dramatic and prolonged sandstorms and dust storms, reducing visibility and impacting daily life. Hot and dry south winds (Kaus or Qaws) can also prevail in spring and early summer. Southeasterly damp winds can occur between July and October, bringing some humidity.

Environmental issues include limited natural fresh water resources, air and water pollution, and desertification. Kuwait has one of the highest per capita carbon dioxide emissions in the world, largely due to its reliance on fossil fuels for energy generation and desalination.

4.2. Nature Reserves and Biodiversity

Despite its arid desert environment, Kuwait supports a variety of flora and fauna, particularly adapted to harsh conditions. The government has established several protected areas to conserve biodiversity. As of recent data, there are five protected areas recognized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

One of the most significant is the Mubarak al-Kabeer reserve on Bubiyan Island. Designated as Kuwait's first Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention, this 126 K acre ^{(50.95 K ha)} reserve consists of small lagoons and shallow salt marshes. It serves as a crucial stop-over point for millions of migrating birds on two major migration routes: the Central Asian Flyway and the East Africa-West Asia Flyway. The reserve is particularly noted for hosting the world's largest breeding colony of the crab-plover (Dromas ardeola).

Kuwait's marine and littoral ecosystems contain the bulk of the country's biodiversity heritage. The marshes in northern Kuwait and Al Jahra have become increasingly important as refuges for passage migrants. The national flower of Kuwait is the Arfaj (Rhanterium epapposum).

Currently, 444 species of birds have been recorded in Kuwait, with 18 species breeding in the country. Mammalian fauna includes 28 species such as gerboas, desert rabbits, and hedgehogs, which are common in the desert. Larger carnivores like the wolf, caracal, and jackal are now extremely rare or absent due to habitat loss and human activity. Endangered mammalian species include the red fox and wild cat. Forty reptile species have been recorded, though none are endemic to Kuwait.

Kuwait's marine environment, though impacted by past oil spills, supports diverse life. Kuwait, Oman, and Yemen are the only confirmed locations for the endangered smoothtooth blacktip shark. Kuwaiti islands like Kubbar Island are important breeding areas for four species of tern (such as the white-cheeked tern) and the Socotra cormorant. Kubbar Island has been recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International.

Conservation efforts focus on protecting these habitats and species from threats such as urbanization, pollution, and overgrazing.

4.3. Water Resources and Desalination

Kuwait faces extreme water scarcity as it has no permanent rivers or lakes and receives very little rainfall. Its natural freshwater resources are limited to groundwater, which is often brackish and depleting. Consequently, Kuwait heavily relies on seawater desalination as its primary source of potable water for drinking and domestic purposes.

Kuwait was a pioneer in the large-scale use of desalination technology. The first distillation plant was commissioned in 1951. Today, the country operates more than six major desalination plants, among the largest and most advanced in the world. These facilities, primarily using multi-stage flash distillation (MSF) and increasingly reverse osmosis (RO) technologies, provide the vast majority of Kuwait's fresh water needs. The energy-intensive nature of desalination contributes significantly to Kuwait's high per capita energy consumption and carbon emissions.

The Kuwait Water Towers, including the iconic Kuwait Towers, are a distinctive feature of the country's water distribution system. Designed in the 1960s and 70s, these towers store desalinated water before it is supplied to consumers.

In addition to desalination, Kuwait utilizes treated wastewater for non-potable uses such as irrigation of public green spaces and agriculture, helping to conserve its limited freshwater resources. There are three major municipal wastewater treatment plants, and the national sewage network covers over 98% of facilities in the country. Research and investment continue in water resource management, including enhancing desalination efficiency, exploring rainwater harvesting, and improving wastewater treatment and reuse, crucial for the nation's sustainability. Kuwait is part of the Tigris-Euphrates river system basin, and several confluences of these rivers form parts of the Kuwait-Iraq border. Bubiyan Island is part of the Shatt al-Arab delta, and Kuwait is partially part of the Mesopotamian Marshes. Wadi al-Batin is a notable wadi forming part of the Kuwait-Iraq border. Khawr Abd Allah, now an estuary, was once where the Shatt al-Arab emptied into the Persian Gulf.

5.1. Political System

Kuwait is a constitutional emirate. The Emir is the head of state and belongs to the ruling Al Sabah family. The political system is often described as semi-democratic or anocratic, combining democratic elements with autocratic features. While the Polity data series and the Economist Democracy Index have categorized Kuwait as an autocracy or dictatorship, Freedom House has previously rated it as "Partly Free."

Executive power is exercised by the government, which is headed by a Prime Minister appointed by the Emir. The Prime Minister, in turn, chooses the cabinet ministers. Key ministerial portfolios, such as defense, interior, and foreign affairs, are often held by members of the Al Sabah family. The Emir has significant powers, including the appointment and dismissal of the prime minister and ministers, the dissolution of parliament, and the promulgation of laws.

The legislative branch is the National Assembly (Majlis Al-Umma), a unicameral body of 50 members elected for four-year terms through popular vote in five multi-member constituencies. Appointed government ministers who are not elected MPs also become ex-officio members of the parliament. The National Assembly has powers to legislate, question ministers (including the Prime Minister), and pass votes of no confidence. However, political parties are officially banned, though political "blocs" or societies operate as de facto parties. The relationship between the executive and the elected parliament is often contentious, leading to frequent dissolutions of parliament by the Emir and calls for new elections, which has contributed to political instability and hampered policy-making and long-term development.

The judiciary is, in principle, independent, with the Emir appointing judges. The Constitution establishes a Constitutional Court charged with ruling on the conformity of laws and decrees with the constitution. This court has, at times, played a significant role in resolving political disputes, including annulling parliamentary elections or Amiri decrees.

Despite the presence of an elected parliament, the concentration of power within the Al Sabah family and the Emir's overriding authority significantly shape Kuwait's political landscape. Calls for greater democratic reforms, transparency, and accountability are recurrent themes in Kuwaiti political discourse.

5.2. Al Sabah Dynasty

The House of Sabah has ruled Kuwait since its emergence as a distinct political entity in the mid-18th century, around 1752. They are adherents of the Maliki school of Sunni Islam. Article 4 of the Constitution of Kuwait stipulates that Kuwait is a hereditary emirate and the Emir must be a descendant of Sheikh Mubarak Al-Sabah ("Mubarak the Great," r. 1896-1915).

Historically, there was an informal pattern of alternation in succession between two main branches of Mubarak Al-Sabah's descendants: the Jaber branch (descendants of Jaber II Al-Sabah) and the Salem branch (descendants of Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah). This tradition was largely followed, with some exceptions, until 2006.

The succession process involves the Emir nominating a Crown Prince, who must then be approved by an absolute majority of the National Assembly. If the Assembly does not approve the nominee, the Emir is constitutionally required to submit three alternative candidates, one of whom the Assembly must then choose. This process has occasionally led to internal family deliberations becoming public and involving political maneuvering within the Assembly.

In January 2006, upon the death of Emir Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah (Jaber branch), Crown Prince Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah (Salem branch) became Emir. However, due to his failing health, he was removed by a consensus involving the ruling family and the National Assembly just nine days later. Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (Jaber branch), who was then Prime Minister, became Emir. Emir Sabah Al-Ahmad broke with the alternating tradition by appointing his half-brother, Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (also Jaber branch), as Crown Prince, and his nephew Sheikh Nasser Al-Mohammed Al-Sabah (Jaber branch) as Prime Minister. This move consolidated the Jaber branch's hold on power.

Emir Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah succeeded his half-brother upon his death in September 2020. Sheikh Nawaf then appointed Sheikh Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (another son of Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah from the Jaber branch) as Crown Prince. Upon Emir Nawaf's death in December 2023, Sheikh Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah became the current Emir of Kuwait.

The Al Sabah family continues to dominate Kuwait's political system, holding key cabinet positions and influencing state policy significantly. Internal family dynamics and consensus-building within the ruling family council play a crucial role in governance and succession.

5.3. Legal System

Kuwait's legal system is primarily based on civil law, significantly influenced by the French legal system and the Egyptian civil code. It is largely secular in its commercial and criminal aspects. According to the United Nations, Kuwait's legal system is a mix of English common law, French civil law, Egyptian civil law, and Islamic law.

The Constitution of Kuwait, promulgated in 1962, is the supreme law of the land. It guarantees various rights and freedoms, though their application can be contentious, particularly concerning issues like freedom of speech and assembly. The judiciary is nominally independent, with a hierarchy of courts. The Court of Cassation is the highest court for civil, commercial, and criminal matters, while the Constitutional Court rules on the constitutionality of laws and decrees. Judges are appointed by the Emir, and many judges, particularly in lower courts, have historically been foreign nationals, often from Egypt.

Sharia (Islamic law) governs personal status matters for Muslim residents, such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, and child custody. There are separate court sections for Sunni Muslims (primarily following the Maliki school of jurisprudence, which is the official state madhhab) and Shia Muslims, applying their respective interpretations of Sharia. Non-Muslims in Kuwait have a secular family law applicable to them, or may refer to the laws of their home countries in certain personal status matters if consistent with Kuwaiti public order.

Kuwait does not have separate Sharia courts for criminal or commercial law; these are handled by the civil court system. The country has the most secular commercial law in the Gulf Arab region. Consumption of alcohol was criminalized by parliament in 1983. The Code of Personal Status was promulgated in 1984, codifying aspects of family law.

Challenges to the legal system include concerns about the full independence of the judiciary, lengthy court processes, and the implementation and enforcement of laws, particularly those related to human rights and labor rights for expatriates.

5.4. Human Rights and Corruption

The human rights situation in Kuwait has been a subject of ongoing concern and criticism from international organizations and local activists. Key issues include the treatment of foreign workers, the status of the stateless (Bedoon) population, restrictions on freedom of speech and freedom of assembly, and the rights of women and LGBT individuals.

Foreign Workers: Foreign nationals constitute a majority of Kuwait's population and workforce. Many are employed under the kafala system (sponsorship system), which ties a worker's legal status to their employer, making them vulnerable to exploitation. Abuses reported include non-payment or delayed payment of wages, poor working conditions, excessively long working hours, confiscation of passports, restrictions on movement, and physical or sexual abuse, particularly for domestic workers. While Kuwait has introduced some labor law reforms, including for domestic workers, enforcement remains a challenge. Human trafficking for forced labor and sexual exploitation is also a concern. Administrative deportation for minor offenses, including traffic violations, is common. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Kuwait faced accusations of discriminatory practices in its vaccine rollout and treatment of expatriates. Diplomatic crises, such as with the Philippines in 2018 over the mistreatment of Filipino domestic workers, have highlighted these issues.

Stateless Bedoon: The Bedoon are long-term residents of Kuwait who lack citizenship and are considered stateless. Their numbers are estimated to be around 100,000 or more. They face significant discrimination and are denied basic civil rights, including access to government jobs, free education, healthcare, and official documentation like birth certificates, marriage certificates, and driving licenses. The Kuwaiti government has historically viewed many Bedoon as illegal immigrants. Their situation has been described by human rights organizations as a humanitarian crisis, with some accusing Kuwait of ethnic cleansing or discriminatory policies leading to inter-generational erasure. Since 1986, the government has largely ceased granting citizenship to Bedoon, and recent citizenship revocations by decree have further fueled concerns about the weaponization of citizenship for political control.

Freedom of Expression and Assembly: While Kuwait has a relatively more open public sphere compared to some Gulf neighbors, with an elected parliament and active media, freedom of expression is restricted. Laws criminalize criticism of the Emir, Islam, and friendly nations, and individuals, including activists, bloggers, and former MPs, have been prosecuted and imprisoned for expressing critical views. Public assemblies and protests require government permission and are often restricted.

Women's Rights: Kuwaiti women gained suffrage in 2005 and are among the most emancipated in the GCC region, with high participation in the labor force and education. However, they still face discrimination in personal status laws (governed by Sharia for Muslims), which can affect marriage, divorce, inheritance, and child custody. Women's representation in parliament and high-level government positions remains limited.

Corruption: Corruption within the government and public sector is a significant issue, leading to public discontent and political tensions. Kuwait has seen various high-profile corruption cases and protests against alleged financial mismanagement. Efforts to combat corruption through bodies like the Kuwait Anti-Corruption Authority (Nazaha) have been made, but challenges persist in ensuring accountability, particularly for high-level officials. Kuwait's ranking in the Corruption Perceptions Index has fluctuated, indicating ongoing concerns.

Reform efforts, often driven by civil society groups and some parliamentarians, aim to address these human rights and governance challenges, but progress is often slow and faces resistance.

6.1. Relations with South Korea

Kuwait and South Korea established diplomatic relations in December 1979. Since then, the two countries have developed a strong partnership, primarily centered on economic cooperation. Kuwait has been a significant supplier of crude oil to South Korea, forming a cornerstone of their economic ties. South Korean construction companies have also played a major role in Kuwait's infrastructure development, participating in numerous large-scale projects, particularly in the post-Gulf War reconstruction era and in ongoing development projects under Kuwait Vision 2035.

Beyond energy and construction, bilateral trade includes various goods and services. There has been increasing interest in expanding cooperation into new sectors such as healthcare, information technology, renewable energy, and smart city development. High-level official visits and business delegations are regularly exchanged to foster these ties.

Cultural exchange between Kuwait and South Korea has also grown, with interest in Korean popular culture (K-pop, K-dramas) in Kuwait, and efforts to promote Kuwaiti culture in South Korea through cultural events and exhibitions. Educational exchanges and collaborations between universities and research institutions are also areas of developing cooperation. Both countries often share similar views on various international issues and cooperate in international forums.

6.2. Relations with Neighboring Countries

Kuwait's relations with its immediate neighbors-Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Iran-are pivotal to its foreign policy and regional stability.

• Iraq:** Relations with Iraq have been historically complex and often tense. Iraq's longstanding territorial claims over Kuwait, dating back to the Ottoman era, culminated in the devastating 1990 invasion and subsequent Gulf War. After the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in 2003, relations began a slow process of normalization. Diplomatic ties were restored, and efforts have been made to resolve outstanding issues such as border demarcation (finalized under UN auspices), war reparations (which Iraq largely completed paying in 2021), and the return of Kuwaiti archives and property looted during the invasion. Despite improved governmental relations, historical mistrust persists, and Kuwait remains vigilant about security along its northern border. Economic ties, particularly trade, have been gradually increasing.

• Saudi Arabia:** Kuwait shares a long border and deep historical, cultural, and political ties with Saudi Arabia. As fellow conservative Sunni-led monarchies and founding members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), they are close allies. Cooperation is strong in security, defense (including participation in joint GCC military exercises), and economic matters. The two countries jointly manage oil production in the partitioned Neutral Zone. Saudi Arabia played a crucial role in hosting the Kuwaiti government-in-exile and supporting the international coalition during the Gulf War. Both nations generally coordinate their foreign policies on major regional issues.

• Iran:** Kuwait's relationship with Iran is characterized by a pragmatic approach balancing geographical proximity and historical ties with regional security concerns. Kuwait has a significant Shia Muslim population, some of whom have ancestral links to Iran, adding a domestic dimension to the bilateral relationship. Unlike some other GCC states that have taken a more confrontational stance, Kuwait has often sought to maintain open channels of communication with Tehran and has, at times, attempted to play a mediatory role in regional disputes involving Iran. However, Kuwait shares the broader GCC concerns about Iran's nuclear program, its ballistic missile capabilities, and its perceived interference in the internal affairs of Arab states. Occasional incidents, such as the discovery of alleged Iranian-linked spy or terror cells in Kuwait, have led to diplomatic tensions. Economically, there is some trade, and the two countries share maritime borders in the Persian Gulf, necessitating cooperation on issues like maritime security and environmental protection.

9.1. Petroleum and Natural Gas

Petroleum and natural gas are the cornerstones of Kuwait's economy, accounting for nearly half of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and over 90% of its export revenues and government income. Kuwait holds approximately 104 billion barrels of proven crude oil reserves, representing about 6-10% of the world's total reserves, ranking it among the top countries globally. The Great Burgan field in southern Kuwait is one of the largest oil fields in the world. All natural resources, including oil and gas, are state property.

The Kuwait Petroleum Corporation (KPC), a state-owned entity, oversees all aspects of the hydrocarbon sector, including exploration, production, refining, petrochemicals, and transportation, through its various subsidiaries like the Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) for upstream activities and Kuwait National Petroleum Company (KNPC) for downstream operations.

Kuwait is a significant oil producer and a long-standing member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Its production capacity is around 3 M barrels per day, though actual production levels often adhere to OPEC quotas. The country also possesses substantial natural gas reserves, which are increasingly being developed for domestic power generation and industrial use to free up more crude oil for export.

As part of its Kuwait Vision 2035 strategy, Kuwait aims to become a global hub for the petrochemical industry and to enhance its downstream capabilities. Major projects in this sector include:

• The Al Zour Refinery, which is one of the largest refineries in the Middle East, designed to process heavy Kuwaiti crude and produce cleaner fuels for domestic power plants and for export. It is noted as an environmentally friendly refinery concerning local impact.
• The Al Zour LNG Terminal, the Middle East's largest import terminal for liquefied natural gas (LNG), designed to meet Kuwait's growing energy demands, especially during peak summer months.
• The Clean Fuels Project (CFP), which involved upgrading and expanding the Mina Al-Ahmadi and Mina Abdullah refineries to produce higher-quality, environmentally friendly petroleum products compliant with international standards.

The environmental impact of the oil industry is a significant concern, particularly highlighted by the catastrophic Kuwaiti oil fires set by retreating Iraqi forces in 1991, which caused widespread pollution. Efforts to remediate contaminated soil and improve environmental standards in the oil sector are ongoing. Labor conditions in the sector, which employs both Kuwaiti nationals and expatriates, are subject to national labor laws. In January 2025, the Kuwait Oil Company announced a major hydrocarbon discovery at the Al Jlaiaa offshore field, seen as a significant step in enhancing its offshore exploration and production capabilities.

9.2. Manufacturing

Beyond the dominant petroleum and petrochemical industries, Kuwait's manufacturing sector is relatively small but includes several key areas. The most significant non-oil manufacturing industry is steel manufacturing. Companies like United Steel Industrial Company (KWT Steel) are major players, catering primarily to the domestic market's demand for steel products, especially for the construction sector. Kuwait is largely self-sufficient in certain types of steel, such as rebar.

Other manufacturing activities include the production of construction materials (cement, bricks, pipes), food processing and beverages, chemicals (other than petrochemicals), fabricated metal products, furniture, and apparel. Many of these industries serve the local market and aim to reduce reliance on imports for certain goods.

The government has encouraged the growth of the non-oil manufacturing sector as part of its economic diversification strategy under Kuwait Vision 2035. Initiatives include the development of industrial zones, offering incentives for investment in manufacturing, and promoting small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). However, the sector faces challenges such as a small domestic market, reliance on expatriate labor, competition from imports, and the overarching dominance of the oil economy. The development of supporting industries and a skilled local workforce are key factors for the future growth of Kuwait's manufacturing base.

9.3. Agriculture

Agriculture in Kuwait is limited due to its desert climate, scarce water resources, and poor soil quality. Only about 0.6% of Kuwait's land is considered arable land, although agricultural land (including pastures) constitutes around 8.5% of the total territory. Historically, oases like Al Jahra were important agricultural areas.

Despite these constraints, Kuwait has made efforts to develop its agricultural sector to enhance food security and reduce reliance on imports. In 2016, Kuwait's food self-sufficiency ratio was reported as 49.5% in vegetables, 38.7% in meat, 24.9% in fruits, 12.4% in dairy, and only 0.4% in cereals.

Major cultivated crops include vegetables (tomatoes, cucumbers, eggplants, peppers), dates, and some fodder crops for livestock. Production primarily occurs in scattered farms, often relying on groundwater for irrigation, which is a diminishing resource.

Modern agricultural technologies are being adopted to overcome environmental limitations. These include:

• Controlled environment agriculture (CEA) such as greenhouses to protect crops from extreme temperatures and reduce water evaporation.
• Hydroponics and soilless culture techniques, which allow for crop production with significantly less water compared to traditional farming. South Korean companies have been involved in building smart farms in Kuwait using such technologies.
• Aquaculture for fish farming, particularly species like tilapia and barramundi, is also being developed to supplement seafood supplies.

Livestock production, including poultry, sheep, goats, and cattle, is another component of the agricultural sector, often relying on imported feed. The Public Authority for Agriculture Affairs and Fish Resources (PAAFR) is the government body responsible for promoting and regulating agriculture and fisheries in Kuwait. Despite efforts, Kuwait remains heavily dependent on food imports to meet the needs of its population.

9.4. Finance

Kuwait has a well-developed and historically significant financial industry, which plays a crucial role in its economy alongside the oil sector. It has a leading position in finance within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).

The Kuwait Investment Authority (KIA) is Kuwait's primary sovereign wealth fund and the world's oldest, established in 1953 (as the Kuwait Investment Board). It manages the country's substantial financial reserves derived from oil revenues, investing in a diversified portfolio of assets globally, including equities, fixed income, real estate, and alternative investments. As of 2021, its holdings were valued at around 700.00 B USD, making it one of the largest sovereign wealth funds globally. KIA operates two main funds: the General Reserve Fund (GRF), which also functions as the state treasury, and the Future Generations Fund (FGF), which is a long-term savings vehicle mandated to accumulate wealth for when oil resources deplete.

The banking sector is robust, comprising conventional and Islamic banks. The National Bank of Kuwait (NBK), founded in 1952, was the first local publicly traded corporation in the GCC region and remains one of the largest and most prominent banks in the Arab world. The Central Bank of Kuwait (CBK) regulates the banking sector, manages monetary policy, and oversees the Kuwaiti dinar.

Boursa Kuwait (formerly the Kuwait Stock Exchange) is one of the oldest stock markets in the region. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, an alternative, largely unregulated stock market called the Souk Al-Manakh experienced a speculative bubble and a subsequent crash in 1982, which had a severe impact on the Kuwaiti economy. Since then, the official stock market has undergone significant reforms and modernization. Financial and banking companies constitute a large portion of its market capitalization.

Kuwaiti investment companies have a significant presence in the region, managing substantial assets both domestically and internationally. The wealth management industry is also well-established.

The Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development (KFAED), an autonomous state institution established in 1961, is a major channel for Kuwait's foreign economic assistance, providing concessional loans and grants to developing countries worldwide for development projects.

As part of Kuwait Vision 2035, there is an emphasis on further developing the financial sector, promoting Kuwait as a regional financial hub, and encouraging FinTech innovation. However, political instability and bureaucratic hurdles have sometimes hampered the pace of financial market reforms and development.

9.5. Science, Technology, and Space Program

Kuwait has been making investments in its science and technology sectors, aiming to diversify its economy and build a knowledge-based society as part of Kuwait Vision 2035. Major research institutions include Kuwait University and the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), which conducts research in areas such as petroleum, water resources, environmental science, and technology.

In terms of innovation, Kuwait was ranked 71st in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. According to the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), Kuwait registered 448 patents as of December 31, 2015. In the early to mid-2010s, Kuwait reportedly produced the largest number of scientific publications and patents per capita in the OIC (Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) region and registered the highest growth regionally in US patents.

Kuwait was among the first countries in the region to implement 5G technology and is considered one of the world's leading markets in 5G penetration.

Space Program:
Kuwait has an emerging space industry, largely driven by private sector initiatives and collaborations with academic institutions.

• Historical Context:** Kuwait inaugurated the first satellite ground station in the Middle East, "Um Alaish," in October 1969, seven years after the launch of Telstar 1. This complex housed several stations providing satellite communication until its destruction during the 1990 Iraqi invasion.
• Recent Initiatives:**
  • In 2019, Kuwait's Orbital Space established an amateur satellite ground station named Um Alaish 4, continuing the legacy of the original station. It provides free access to signals from satellites and is part of international networks like FUNcube and SatNOGS.
  • Orbital Space, in collaboration with the Space Challenges Program and EnduroSat, introduced "Code in Space," allowing students worldwide to send code to a CubeSat (nanosatellite) named "QMR-KWT" (Moon of Kuwait). QMR-KWT, Kuwait's first satellite, was launched on June 30, 2021, aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket and deployed into orbit on July 16, 2021.
  • The Kuwait Space Rocket (KSR) project aims to build and launch the first suborbital liquid bipropellant rocket in Arabia. The project involves KSR-1 (for 5.0 mile ^{(8 km)} altitude tests) and KSR-2 (planned for 62 mile ^{(100 km)} altitude).
  • Kuwait's Orbital Space and the Kuwait Scientific Center (TSCK) facilitated a student science experiment sent to the International Space Station (ISS) aboard SpaceX CRS-21 in December 2020. The experiment, "E.coli Consuming Carbon Dioxide to Combat Climate Change," was conducted by astronaut Shannon Walker.
  • In July 2021, Kuwait University announced a national satellite project as part of state-led efforts to develop a sustainable space sector.

  These initiatives indicate a growing interest and investment in space science and technology, focusing on education, research, and small satellite development.

9.6. Tourism

Tourism in Kuwait is a developing sector, with the country aiming to attract more visitors as part of its Kuwait Vision 2035 economic diversification plan. However, it remains relatively limited compared to some other GCC states, partly due to stricter social regulations, including an alcohol ban, and less developed dedicated tourism infrastructure in the past.

In 2020, Kuwait's domestic travel and tourism spending was 6.10 B USD. The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) identified Kuwait as one of the world's fastest-growing countries in travel and tourism GDP in 2019, with an 11.6% year-on-year growth. In 2016, the tourism industry generated nearly 500.00 M USD in revenue, and in 2015, tourism accounted for approximately 1.5% of the GDP.

Key attractions and aspects of Kuwait's tourism include:

• Cultural Sites and Museums:**
  • The Kuwait National Cultural District (KNCD) is a major initiative, comprising the Sheikh Abdullah Al Salem Cultural Centre (one of the largest museum complexes in the Middle East), the Sheikh Jaber Al Ahmad Cultural Centre (JACC, an opera house and performing arts center), Al Shaheed Park (featuring botanical gardens, museums, and jogging tracks, and the largest green roof project in the Arab world), and Al Salam Palace (a museum showcasing Kuwait's history). The KNCD represents a significant investment (over 1.00 B USD) in cultural tourism.
  • Other museums include the Kuwait National Museum, Tareq Rajab Museum (Islamic art and calligraphy), Sadu House (traditional Bedouin weaving), Bait Al-Othman Museum (Kuwaiti history), and The Scientific Center (aquarium and IMAX).
• Modern Architecture and Landmarks:** Kuwait Towers are iconic symbols of modern Kuwait. The Al Hamra Tower is one of the tallest sculpted towers in the world.
• Shopping:** Kuwait City offers numerous modern shopping malls, such as The Avenues (one of the largest in the Middle East), 360 Mall, and Marina Mall, which are popular with both locals and visitors from neighboring countries.
• Festivals and Events:** The annual "Hala Febrayer" (Welcome February) festival is a month-long event commemorating Kuwait's National Day (February 25) and Liberation Day (February 26). It includes concerts, parades, carnivals, shopping promotions, and cultural activities, attracting many visitors from the GCC region.
• Coastal and Marine Activities:** Kuwait has a long coastline with beaches and opportunities for water sports, boating, and fishing. Sabah Al Ahmad Sea City, a large-scale waterway-based development in Khiran, is a significant attraction for leisure and residential tourism.
• Cuisine:** Kuwaiti cuisine, with its blend of Arabian, Persian, and Indian influences, is an attraction for food enthusiasts.

Efforts to boost tourism include infrastructure development (hotels, resorts), visa facilitation for certain nationalities, and marketing campaigns. The focus is often on family tourism, cultural tourism, and attracting business travelers. However, the industry faces challenges related to regional competition and the need for further development of specialized tourist offerings.

10.1. Road Transport

Kuwait's road network is extensive and highly developed, with a total length of approximately 3.6 K mile ^{(5.75 K km)}, of which about 3.0 K mile ^{(4.89 K km)} is paved. The country boasts a network of multi-lane highways connecting major cities and regions. The car is the dominant mode of transportation, with over two million passenger cars registered, alongside around 500,000 commercial vehicles (taxis, buses, trucks). This car-centric culture is supported by relatively low fuel prices. The maximum speed limit on major highways is typically 75 mph ^{(120 km/h)}. Traffic congestion in urban areas, particularly in and around Kuwait City, can be significant during peak hours.

Public transportation by road consists almost entirely of bus services. The state-owned Kuwait Public Transportation Company (KPTC), established in 1962, operates numerous local bus routes across Kuwait and some longer-distance services to other Gulf states. Private bus companies, such as CityBus and Kuwait Gulf Link Public Transport Services (KGL), also operate local and intercity routes, supplementing the public network.

There is currently no operational railway system in Kuwait, though plans for a national rail network and a GCC-wide railway have been discussed for many years as part of long-term infrastructure development. The Kuwait Metro is a proposed urban rail system for Kuwait City, which has been in planning stages, aiming to alleviate traffic congestion.

10.2. Air Transport

Kuwait International Airport (KWI), located south of Kuwait City, is the country's main gateway for international air travel and a hub for several airlines. It handles passenger and cargo flights to destinations across the Middle East, Asia, Europe, Africa, and North America. The airport has undergone significant expansion and modernization projects, including the construction of new terminals, to increase its capacity and improve passenger experience.

The national airline is Kuwait Airways, which is state-owned. Jazeera Airways, launched in 2004, was Kuwait's first private airline and operates as a low-cost carrier. Wataniya Airways, another private airline, was founded in 2005, though its operations have seen periods of suspension and relaunch. A portion of the Kuwait International Airport complex is designated as Al Mubarak Air Base, which houses the headquarters of the Kuwait Air Force and the Kuwait Air Force Museum.

10.3. Maritime Transport

Kuwait has a significant shipping industry, reflecting its historical role as a trading port and its current status as a major oil exporter. The Kuwait Ports Authority (KPA) manages and operates the country's commercial seaports.

• Shuwaikh Port**: Located within Kuwait Bay, close to Kuwait City, Shuwaikh Port is a major commercial port handling containerized cargo, general cargo, and bulk goods.
• Shuaiba Port**: Situated south of Kuwait City, Shuaiba Port is another key commercial and industrial port, serving the Shuaiba Industrial Area. It handles containers, bulk cargo, and refined petroleum products.
• Mina Al-Ahmadi**: This is Kuwait's largest port and the primary oil export terminal, handling the bulk of the country's crude oil and refined product exports. It is operated by the Kuwait National Petroleum Company (KNPC).
• Mina Abdullah** and **Mina Al Zour**: These are also significant oil export terminals.

A major ongoing project is the development of Mubarak Al Kabeer Port on Bubiyan Island. This new deep-sea port is envisioned as a major regional shipping hub, aiming to handle millions of TEUs annually once fully operational. The project is part of Kuwait's broader strategy to enhance its logistics capabilities and diversify its economy.

11.1. Population Composition

As of 2024, Kuwait's total population is approximately 4.82 million people. A distinctive feature of Kuwait's demographics is the high proportion of expatriate workers. Kuwaiti citizens number around 1.53 million, constituting only about 32% of the total population. The remaining 3.29 million (around 68%) are foreign nationals from over 100 countries. Kuwait has one of the largest foreign-born populations in the world proportionally.

The largest expatriate communities are from India and Egypt, followed by significant numbers from other South Asian countries (such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka), the Philippines, Syria, and other Arab nations. This large expatriate population plays a crucial role in Kuwait's economy, filling jobs across various sectors from manual labor to professional services. However, their presence also raises social, economic, and political issues, including concerns about demographic balance, pressure on infrastructure and services, and labor rights.

A significant and longstanding issue is the status of the stateless Bedoon population. These are individuals who are long-term residents of Kuwait but are not recognized as citizens and lack nationality documents. Their numbers are estimated to be around 100,000. The Bedoon face significant challenges in accessing basic rights such as education, healthcare, employment, and official documentation, leading to widespread criticism from human rights organizations. The government has periodically announced measures to address the Bedoon issue, but a comprehensive solution remains elusive.

11.2. Languages

The official language of Kuwait is Arabic. Kuwaiti Arabic, a dialect of Gulf Arabic, is the vernacular spoken in everyday life. Kuwaiti Arabic shares similarities with dialects in neighboring coastal areas of Eastern Arabia and has been influenced by historical trade, borrowing words from Persian, Indian languages, Balochi, Turkish, English, and Italian.

English is widely understood and extensively used as a business language and in higher education. It is also taught as a second language in schools. French is taught as a third language for students in humanities streams in schools for a limited period.

Due to the large expatriate population, numerous other languages are spoken in Kuwait, including Hindi, Urdu, Malayalam, Tagalog, Bengali, and Persian. Kuwaiti Persian is used among Ajam Kuwaitis, who are citizens of Iranian ancestry. Iranian sub-dialects like Larestani, Khonji, Bastaki, and Gerashi have also influenced the vocabulary of Kuwaiti Arabic.

11.3. Religion

Islam is the official state religion of Kuwait, and the majority of Kuwaiti citizens are Muslims. Official statistics on sectarian breakdown are not regularly published, but estimates suggest that Sunnis constitute about 60-70% of the Muslim citizen population, while Shias make up 30-40%. The Al Sabah ruling family adheres to the Maliki school of Sunni Islam, which is also the official madhhab (school of jurisprudence) of the state.

The Constitution guarantees freedom of belief, though religious practice for non-Muslims is subject to certain regulations. There is a native Kuwaiti Christian community, estimated to consist of between 259 and 400 citizens. They are a recognized minority and are allowed to practice their faith. Kuwait is one of the few GCC countries, along with Bahrain, to have a local Christian population holding citizenship.

The large expatriate population brings diverse religious faiths. As of 2020, Christians (mostly expatriates) were estimated to be around 17.93% of the total population. Other religions practiced by expatriates include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. There are dedicated places of worship for some non-Muslim faiths, such as Christian churches. A small number of Kuwaiti citizens follow the Baháʼí Faith.

While Kuwaiti society is generally tolerant, religious discourse can sometimes be a sensitive issue, and laws prohibit blasphemy and proselytizing by non-Muslims.

11.4. Social Characteristics

Kuwaiti society is often described as more open and liberal compared to some of its conservative Gulf neighbors, though it still retains strong traditional and Islamic values. This openness is partly attributed to its history as a trading port, its early adoption of a parliamentary system, and its relatively vibrant civil society.

The social status and rights of women have seen significant advancements. Kuwaiti women were granted full political rights (to vote and stand for election) in 2005. They have high rates of education and participation in the workforce, outnumbering men in certain sectors. In 2014 and 2015, Kuwait ranked first among Arab countries in the Global Gender Gap Report. However, women still face legal and societal discrimination, particularly in personal status laws governed by Sharia, and their representation in high-level political and economic positions remains limited.

Traditional family structures and tribal affiliations continue to play an important role in Kuwaiti society, influencing social interactions, marriage, and politics. The Diwaniya, a traditional male gathering place for social and political discussion, remains a key feature of Kuwaiti social life, though its exclusivity has been challenged.

Modern societal changes are evident, driven by wealth, globalization, and access to information. There is a large youth population exposed to global trends through media and travel. However, tensions can arise between modern aspirations and traditional norms.

Issues of democratic development are central to Kuwait's social and political discourse. While there is an elected parliament and a degree of press freedom, the dominance of the ruling family and restrictions on political parties limit the scope of democratic participation. The rights of minorities, particularly the stateless Bedoon, and vulnerable groups like migrant workers, are persistent concerns. There is an active civil society that advocates for human rights, political reform, and social justice, though they operate within certain governmental constraints.

11.5. Education

Kuwait places a strong emphasis on education, which is free for Kuwaiti citizens at all levels, from kindergarten through university. The country achieved the highest literacy rate in the Arab world in 2010.

The general education system consists of four main levels:

• Kindergarten:** Two years.
• Primary Education:** Five years.
• Intermediate Education (Middle School):** Four years.
• Secondary Education (High School):** Three years.

Schooling at the primary and intermediate levels is compulsory for all students aged 6 to 14.

The public education system, overseen by the Ministry of Education, has undergone various reforms and development projects, some in conjunction with the World Bank, aimed at modernizing curricula and teaching methods.

• Higher Education:**
  • Kuwait University**: Established in 1966, it is the primary public university offering a wide range of undergraduate and postgraduate programs.
  • Public Authority for Applied Education and Training (PAAET)**: Provides vocational training and applied higher education.
  • Private Universities:** Kuwait has a growing number of private universities and colleges, offering diverse programs, often in partnership with international institutions. As of recent counts, there are around 14 private universities.

  The government provides scholarships for Kuwaiti students to study abroad, particularly for specializations not available locally. This has resulted in a high level of international student mobility. Literacy rates are high for both men and women. Challenges in the education sector include ensuring the quality of education, aligning educational outcomes with labor market needs, and reducing reliance on expatriate teachers in the public school system.

11.6. Health

Kuwait has a state-funded healthcare system that provides comprehensive medical services to Kuwaiti nationals largely free of charge. The Ministry of Health oversees the public healthcare sector. Outpatient clinics are available in every residential area, providing primary care services. A public health insurance scheme also exists to provide healthcare at reduced costs to expatriate residents.

The public healthcare infrastructure includes numerous general and specialized hospitals. In recent years, as part of Kuwait Vision 2035, Kuwait has invested significantly in expanding and modernizing its healthcare facilities. Several new hospitals have opened, increasing bed capacity and introducing advanced medical technologies. The Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Hospital, inaugurated in recent years, is one of the largest hospitals in the Middle East. As of recent data, Kuwait has around 20 public hospitals.

Private healthcare providers also play a significant role, operating hospitals and clinics that offer a wide range of medical services, often catering to those with private health insurance. There are approximately 16 private hospitals in Kuwait. The private sector is increasingly focused on specialized treatments and aims to attract patients who might otherwise seek treatment abroad, as well as developing inbound medical tourism.

Kuwait generally has high health standards, with good life expectancy rates. Major health concerns include a high prevalence of lifestyle-related diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease, linked to dietary habits and sedentary lifestyles. The government implements public health campaigns and policies to address these issues.

The COVID-19 pandemic placed significant strain on the healthcare system, but Kuwait's prior investments in healthcare infrastructure helped in its response. Challenges in the health sector include managing the increasing demand for services due to population growth, ensuring a sufficient supply of skilled healthcare professionals (many of whom are expatriates), and continuing to improve the quality and efficiency of care.

11.7. Mass Media

Kuwait has a relatively active and diverse media landscape compared to many other countries in the Middle East. It produces more newspapers and magazines per capita than its neighbors.

• Press:** There are numerous daily newspapers in both Arabic and English, such as Al-Qabas, Al-Anba, Al-Rai, Arab Times, and Kuwait Times. These newspapers cover local, regional, and international news and often feature a range of opinions and editorials.

• Broadcasting:**
  • Television:** The state-owned Kuwait Television (KTV) operates several channels, offering news, entertainment, cultural, and religious programming. KTV first offered color broadcasts in 1974. There are also privately-owned satellite television channels based in or catering to Kuwait.
  • Radio:** Government-funded Radio Kuwait provides daily programming in various languages, including Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and English, on AM and shortwave frequencies. Private radio stations also operate, offering music and entertainment.
  • Internet and Digital Media:** Internet penetration is high in Kuwait. Online news portals, blogs, and social media platforms are widely used and have become important sources of information and avenues for public discourse.
  • Press Freedom:** Kuwait's media is annually classified as "Partly Free" in the Freedom of the Press survey by Freedom House. Since 2005, Kuwait has frequently earned the highest ranking among Arab countries in the annual Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders, and in some years (e.g., 2009, 2011, 2013, 2014), it surpassed Israel as the country with the greatest press freedom in the Middle East according to this index. However, freedom of the press is not absolute. The Ministry of Information regulates the media industry. Laws prohibit criticism of the Emir, blasphemy, and content deemed to undermine national security or public morals. Journalists and social media users have faced prosecution for violating these laws. Despite these restrictions, the Kuwaiti media often engages in critical discussion of government policies and social issues, contributing to a more open public sphere than in many neighboring states. The Kuwait News Agency (KUNA) is the official state-run news agency.

12.1. Performing Arts

Kuwait has the oldest and one of the most vibrant performing arts industries in the Arabian Peninsula, often earning it the nickname "Hollywood of the Gulf."

• Theatre:** Kuwait has a strong and unique tradition of theatre, dating back to the 1920s with the first spoken dramas. The theatrical movement is a major part of the country's cultural life and is subsidized by the government through the National Council for Culture, Arts, and Letters (NCCAL). Public theatres exist in every urban district, with the one in Salmiya named after the iconic actor Abdulhussain Abdulredha. The annual Kuwait Theater Festival is a significant event. Kuwait is also the main center for scenographic and performing arts education in the GCC, with the Higher Institute of Theatrical Arts (HIDA), established in 1973, attracting students from across the region. Many prominent actors, such as Souad Abdullah and Mansour Al-Mansour, are graduates.
• Television Drama:** Kuwait's television drama industry is the largest and most active in the Gulf, annually producing at least fifteen serials. These soap operas (musalsalat), often performed in the Kuwaiti dialect, are widely watched throughout the Arab world, especially during Ramadan. They cover a range of social, comedic, and historical themes.
• Music:** Kuwait is the birthplace of various popular traditional musical genres, such as sawt (a complex urban music form) and fijiri (sea shanties of pearl divers). Traditional Kuwaiti music reflects its seafaring heritage and influences from diverse cultures. Kuwait is considered a center of traditional music in the GCC. It also pioneered contemporary Khaliji music. Artists like Saleh and Daoud Al-Kuwaity were instrumental in developing the sawt genre. Contemporary Kuwaiti musicians like Nawal El Kuwaitia, Nabeel Shoail, and Abdallah Al Rowaished are popular throughout the Arab world. Kuwait hosts various music festivals, including the International Music Festival. The Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Cultural Centre (JACC) houses the largest opera house in the Middle East and regularly hosts musical performances. Academic institutions like the Higher Institute of Musical Arts and the College of Basic Education offer university-level music education.
• Cinema:** The Kuwaiti film industry is smaller compared to its television and theatre sectors but has produced notable films. Efforts are ongoing to develop it further.

12.2. Visual Arts

Kuwait has the oldest modern arts movement in the Arabian Peninsula. It was the first Gulf Arab country to grant scholarships in the arts, starting in 1936. The Kuwaiti artist Mojeb al-Dousari is considered the earliest recognized visual artist in the Gulf region and the founder of portrait art there. Khalifa Al-Qattan was another pioneering artist who founded "circulism," a new art theory, in the early 1960s. Other notable artists include Sami Mohammad, Thuraya Al-Baqsami, and Suzan Bushnaq.

Kuwait is home to more than 30 art galleries, and its contemporary art scene has boomed in recent years. The Sultan Gallery was the first professional Arab art gallery in the Gulf. The government organizes various arts festivals, including the Al Qurain Cultural Festival and the Formative Arts Festival. The Kuwait International Biennial, inaugurated in 1967, has featured artists from over 20 Arab and foreign countries, including prominent figures like Layla Al-Attar. The Al Kharafi Biennial for Contemporary Arab Art was inaugurated in 2004. The Museum of Modern Art in Kuwait City showcases the history of modern art in Kuwait and the region.

12.3. Cuisine

Kuwaiti cuisine is a fusion of Arabian, Iranian, Indian, and Mesopotamian influences, reflecting its historical trade connections. It is part of the broader Eastern Arabian cuisine.

• Main Dishes:**
  • Machboos is a prominent national dish, a rice-based dish usually prepared with basmati rice seasoned with a variety of spices, and served with chicken (dajaj), mutton (laham), or fish (samak).
  • Mutabbaq samak is another national fish dish, where fish is served over spiced rice.
  • Harees is a traditional dish made of wheat cooked with meat, then mashed.
  • Jireesh (Yireesh) is a dish of spelt cooked with chicken or lamb, tomatoes, and some spices.
• Seafood:** Given its coastal location, seafood is a significant part of the Kuwaiti diet. Popular fish include hamour (grouper), safi (rabbitfish), maid (mullet), and sobaity (sea bream), often served grilled, fried, or with biryani rice.
• Bread:** The traditional flatbread is called khubz Irani (Iranian bread). It is a large, thin flatbread baked in a special oven (tandoor) and often topped with sesame seeds. It is commonly served with mahyawa fish sauce.
• Other Elements:** Dates, dairy products (like yogurt and labneh), and spices such as saffron, cardamom, cinnamon, and turmeric are widely used. Traditional Kuwaiti meals often begin with dates and Arabic coffee. Sweets like luqaimat (sweet dumplings) and gers ogaily (a saffron and cardamom cake) are popular.

The Diwaniya, a traditional gathering place, often serves as a venue for sharing meals and hospitality, which is a cornerstone of Kuwaiti culture.

12.4. Museums

Kuwait hosts a variety of museums that showcase its history, culture, art, and scientific achievements. Many of these are part of the Kuwait National Cultural District (KNCD), a significant government investment in cultural infrastructure.

• Sheikh Abdullah Al Salem Cultural Centre (ASCC):** One of the largest museum complexes in the Middle East, ASCC comprises several museums: Natural History Museum, Science and Technology Museum, Arabic Islamic Science Museum, Space Museum, and a Fine Arts Centre.
• Sheikh Jaber Al Ahmad Cultural Centre (JACC):** While primarily a performing arts center with the largest opera house in the Middle East, JACC also hosts cultural exhibitions and events.
• Kuwait National Museum:** Established in 1983, it houses collections related to Kuwait's archaeology, heritage, and Islamic art. Though described in the past as "underused," it remains a key institution.
• Tareq Rajab Museums:** A private collection of Islamic art, calligraphy, manuscripts, ceramics, metalwork, textiles, costumes, and jewelry from across the Islamic world. There are two museums: the Tareq Rajab Museum and the Tareq Rajab Museum of Islamic Calligraphy.
• Dar al Athar al Islamiyyah (DAI):** Manages the Al-Sabah Collection, one of the world's most comprehensive collections of Islamic art. DAI operates cultural centers, such as at the Amricani Cultural Centre and Yarmouk Cultural Centre, which include exhibition halls, education wings, conservation labs, and research libraries.
• Sadu House:** Dedicated to preserving and promoting traditional Bedouin Sadu weaving and textile arts. It features exhibits, workshops, and a shop.
• Bait Al-Othman Museum:** A large private museum showcasing Kuwait's history and heritage through various artifacts, documents, and reconstructed scenes.
• The Scientific Center:** An educational facility that includes an aquarium (one of the largest in the Middle East), an IMAX theater, and a Discovery Place.
• Museum of Modern Art:** Located in a historic school building, it displays works by Kuwaiti and Arab modern artists.
• Kuwait Maritime Museum:** Presents the country's rich maritime heritage from the pre-oil era, including pearling, fishing, and dhow building. Several traditional Kuwaiti dhow ships are publicly accessible, such as Fateh Al-Khayr and the impressive Al-Hashemi-II, which is noted in the Guinness World Records as the largest wooden dhow ever built and is located at the Radisson Blu Hotel.
• Historical, Vintage, and Classical Cars Museum:** Showcases a collection of vintage and classic cars, reflecting Kuwait's motoring heritage.
• Khalifa Al-Qattan's Mirror House:** The private residence of artists Khalifa and Lidia Al-Qattan, transformed into a unique art piece covered in mirror mosaics. It is a popular art museum.
• Al Salam Palace:** A historic palace restored and converted into a museum that narrates the history of Kuwait through its rulers and key historical events.

The development of museums in Kuwait reflects both government initiatives and strong private sector/civil society engagement, showcasing a diverse range of cultural and historical narratives.

12.5. Literature

Kuwaiti literature has a rich history, with strong traditions in both poetry and prose. The country has produced several prominent contemporary writers whose works are recognized across the Arab world.

• Poetry:** Historically, poetry has been a significant form of artistic expression in Kuwait, with both classical Arabic poetry and local Nabati (Bedouin) poetry being popular.
• Prose:** The novel and short story genres gained prominence in the 20th century. Ismail Fahd Ismail (1940-2018) is considered one of Kuwait's most important novelists, having authored over twenty novels and numerous short story collections that often explored themes of identity, displacement, and social change in Kuwait and the Arab world. Other notable writers include Laila al-Othman, known for her bold portrayal of social issues and women's experiences, and Thuraya Al-Baqsami, who is also a visual artist and writes poetry and short stories. Saud Alsanousi gained international acclaim for his novel The Bamboo Stalk (ساق البامبو_{Sāq al-Bāmbū}^Arabic), which won the International Prize for Arabic Fiction in 2013 and addressed themes of identity, belonging, and the lives of mixed-heritage individuals in Kuwait.
• Literary Scene:** Kuwait has fostered a literary environment through publications, cultural festivals like the Al Qurain Cultural Festival, and book fairs. The National Council for Culture, Arts, and Letters (NCCAL) plays a role in supporting literary activities. There is evidence that Kuwaiti literature has long interacted with English literature and French literature, reflecting Kuwait's historical openness to foreign cultural influences. Modern Kuwaiti literature often tackles contemporary social issues, cultural transformations, and the complexities of life in a rapidly changing Gulf society.

12.6. Sports

Sports are a popular pastime and an area of national pride in Kuwait.

• Football (Soccer):** This is the most popular sport. The Kuwait Football Association (KFA) governs the sport and organizes the men's, women's, and futsal national teams. The Kuwaiti Premier League is the top domestic football league. The men's national team achieved significant success in the past, winning the 1980 AFC Asian Cup, finishing as runners-up in the 1976 AFC Asian Cup, and taking third place in the 1984 AFC Asian Cup. Kuwait qualified for the FIFA World Cup once, in 1982, where they drew with Czechoslovakia but did not advance from the group stage. Prominent football clubs include Al-Arabi, Al-Qadsia SC, Al-Kuwait SC, and Kazma SC. The rivalry between Al-Arabi and Al-Qadsia is one of the biggest in Kuwaiti sports.
• Handball**: Widely considered the national sport in terms of consistent international success and popularity after football. The Kuwait national handball team has been a strong contender in Asian championships.
• Basketball**: Another popular sport. The Kuwait national basketball team is governed by the Kuwait Basketball Association (KBA) and has participated in the FIBA Asian Championship multiple times. The Kuwaiti Division I Basketball League is the top professional league.
• Cricket**: Growing in popularity, especially among the large South Asian expatriate community. The Kuwait Cricket Association governs the sport.
• Ice hockey**: Kuwait has an ice hockey team and is a member of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). The Kuwait Ice Hockey Association governs the sport. Kuwait won the IIHF Challenge Cup of Asia in 2015.
• Water Sports**: Given its coastline, water sports like powerboating are enjoyed. In February 2020, Kuwait hosted a leg of the UIM Aquabike World Championship.
• Other Sports**: Other sports practiced include athletics, karate, judo, swimming, and rugby union.
• Multi-Sport Events**: Kuwait participates in the Olympic Games, Asian Games, and GCC Games. In May 2022, Kuwait hosted the Third Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Games, featuring 16 different sports and attracting over 1,700 athletes.

The Public Authority for Sport is the governmental body responsible for overseeing and promoting sports activities in the country.

12.7. Public Holidays

Kuwait observes several national and Islamic religious holidays. Official public holidays include:

• New Year's Day:** January 1
• National Day**: February 25. Commemorates the coronation of Sheikh Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, who became Emir in 1950 and led Kuwait to independence. (Originally, independence day was June 19, but it was moved to February 25 due to the extreme summer heat).
• Liberation Day**: February 26. Marks the anniversary of Kuwait's liberation from Iraqi occupation in 1991.
• Isra and Mi'raj** (Al-Isra'a Wal-Miraj): Islamic holiday, date varies according to the Islamic calendar. Commemorates the Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey.
• Eid al-Fitr**: Islamic holiday, marks the end of Ramadan (the month of fasting). Celebrated for several days. Date varies.
• Eid al-Adha**: Islamic holiday, known as the Feast of Sacrifice. Commemorates Ibrahim's (Abraham's) willingness to sacrifice his son. Celebrated for several days. Date varies and coincides with the Hajj pilgrimage.
• Islamic New Year** (Hijri New Year): Marks the beginning of the Islamic lunar calendar. Date varies.
• The Prophet's Birthday** (Mawlid al-Nabi): Commemorates the birth of the Prophet Muhammad. Date varies.

The dates for Islamic holidays are determined by lunar sightings and may vary slightly each year. Government offices and many businesses close on these public holidays.