Tonga

3.1. Prehistory and Lapita Culture

The first inhabitants of Tonga are believed to be people associated with the Lapita culture, an Austronesian-speaking group that migrated from Island Melanesia. Archaeological evidence suggests that these settlers arrived in Tonga sometime between 1500 and 1000 BC. Thorium dating of artifacts found in Nukuleka, on the main island of Tongatapu, indicates that this site, considered the earliest known settlement in Tonga, was inhabited by 888 BC (± 8 years). These early Polynesians were skilled navigators and agriculturalists, bringing with them taro, yam, bananas, coconuts, and domesticated animals such as pigs, dogs, and chickens.

Over centuries, these settlers developed a distinct Tongan identity, language, and culture. Early Tongan society was characterized by a complex hierarchical structure, with powerful chiefs and a system of land tenure. Archaeological findings from this period include distinctive Lapita pottery, tools made from stone and shell, and evidence of early agricultural practices. The Lapita people gradually expanded throughout the Tongan archipelago, establishing settlements on various islands. Tonga's pre-contact history was primarily transmitted through rich oral traditions, including myths, legends, and genealogies, which were passed down from generation to generation and later recorded after European contact. According to Tongan mythology, the demigod Maui fished the islands of Tongatapu, the Haʻapai group, and Vavaʻu from the ocean, forming the core of what is now Tonga.

3.2. Tuʻi Tonga Empire

By the 10th century AD, Tonga had emerged as a significant regional power, leading to the establishment of the Tuʻi Tonga Empire. The empire's influence, at its zenith between the 12th and 15th centuries, extended over a vast area of the Pacific, making it a formidable maritime thalassocracy. The first Tongan king, ʻAhoʻeitu, is traditionally credited with founding the Tuʻi Tonga dynasty around 950 AD, consolidating power and laying the groundwork for imperial expansion.

The Tuʻi Tonga Empire was characterized by a centralized political system headed by the Tuʻi Tonga, who held both sacred and secular authority. The capital was located at Muʻa on Tongatapu, which became a major political and ceremonial center. The empire's reach extended from parts of the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, and Fiji in the west, to Samoa, Niue, and even as far as parts of modern-day French Polynesia in the east. This influence was maintained through a combination of military might, strategic marriages, trade networks, and cultural prestige. Conquered territories often paid tribute to the Tuʻi Tonga.

The social structure of the empire was highly stratified, with a complex system of chiefs, nobles, and commoners. The Tuʻi Tonga was considered semi-divine, and a sophisticated system of rituals and ceremonies reinforced his authority. Over time, the immense power of the Tuʻi Tonga led to internal pressures. To manage the growing administrative and secular burdens, the Tuʻi Tonga later delegated some temporal powers, leading to the creation of collateral chiefly lines, such as the Tuʻi Haʻatakalaua in the 15th century and later the Tuʻi Kanokupolu in the 17th century. These lines gradually gained more political influence.

The decline of the Tuʻi Tonga Empire began in the 13th century, notably with the Samoan revolution which challenged Tongan dominance in that region. Internal strife, civil wars (particularly in the 15th and 17th centuries), and the rising power of collateral chiefly lines further weakened the central authority of the Tuʻi Tonga. Despite its eventual decline, the legacy of the Tuʻi Tonga Empire shaped the political and cultural landscape of Tonga and the wider Pacific region for centuries. Its economic, ethnic, and cultural influence remained significant even after its political power waned.

3.3. Early European Contact and Unification (c. 1616 - 1875)

The first documented European contact with Tonga occurred in 1616 when the Dutch vessel Eendracht, captained by Willem Schouten and with Jacob Le Maire, made a brief visit to the northern islands, including Niuatoputapu, for trade. In 1643, another Dutch explorer, Abel Tasman, visited Tongatapu and the Haʻapai group. These early encounters were fleeting and had limited immediate impact on Tongan society.

More significant European contact began in the late 18th century. Captain James Cook of the British Royal Navy visited Tonga on three separate voyages in 1773, 1774, and 1777. Cook famously named Tonga the "Friendly Islands" due to the apparently warm reception he received, although later accounts suggest there were undercurrents of suspicion and even plots against him by some chiefs. Cook's voyages brought Tonga to wider European attention and were followed by other explorers, including the Spanish Navy explorers Francisco Mourelle de la Rúa in 1781 and Alessandro Malaspina in 1793.

The early 19th century saw the arrival of Christianity missionaries. The first London Missionary Society missionaries arrived in 1797 but had little success. Wesleyan Methodist missionaries, beginning with Reverend Walter Lawry in 1822, were more influential, particularly through their conversion of powerful chiefs. The introduction of Christianity led to profound social and cultural changes, gradually displacing traditional religious beliefs and practices. Whaling vessels also became regular visitors from the late 18th century (the first recorded being the Ann and Hope in 1799) through the 19th century, seeking supplies and sometimes recruiting Tongan men as crew. The United States Exploring Expedition visited Tonga in 1840.

Internally, Tonga was experiencing a period of political upheaval and civil war among rival chiefly factions. This tumultuous period paved the way for the rise of Tāufaʻāhau, an ambitious young warrior, strategist, and orator from the Tuʻi Kanokupolu line. Baptized as Siaosi (George) by Methodist missionaries in 1831, Tāufaʻāhau strategically consolidated power through warfare and alliances. By 1845, he had effectively united the Tongan islands under his rule, becoming King George Tupou I.

With the assistance of missionary Shirley Waldemar Baker, King George Tupou I embarked on a series of major reforms to modernize Tonga and centralize power. In 1875, he promulgated Tonga's first written constitution, establishing a constitutional monarchy based on the Western model. This constitution formally adopted a Western royal style, emancipated commoners (serfs), enshrined a code of law and a system of land tenure (which prevented the sale of land to foreigners, a key factor in Tonga retaining its sovereignty), guaranteed freedom of the press, and limited the traditional powers of the chiefs. These reforms laid the foundation for the modern Tongan state.

3.4. Kingdom of Tonga and British Protectorate (1875 - 1970)

Following the unification of Tonga and the promulgation of the 1875 constitution under King George Tupou I, Tonga embarked on its journey as a constitutional monarchy. This period was marked by efforts to maintain internal stability and sovereignty amidst increasing European colonial pressures in the Pacific. The constitution established a framework for governance that included a monarch, a legislative assembly, a judiciary, and a system of land tenure designed to protect Tongan ownership.

Despite these efforts, internal rivalries and external influences continued. After the death of George Tupou I in 1893, his great-grandson George Tupou II ascended to the throne. Facing attempts by European settlers and rival Tongan chiefs to oust him, and amidst growing geopolitical competition among colonial powers, Tonga entered into a Treaty of Friendship with Great Britain on 18 May 1900. This treaty established Tonga as a British protectorate, formally known as the British Protected State of Tonga.

Under the protectorate status, Tonga retained its monarchy and a significant degree of internal autonomy. The Tongan government continued to manage its domestic affairs, but its foreign affairs were handled by Britain. A British Consul (from 1901 to 1970) was stationed in Tonga as Britain's representative, but unlike many other Pacific islands, Tonga never had a resident British governor, nor did it relinquish its sovereignty directly to the British Crown. The Tongan monarchy, with its uninterrupted line of hereditary rulers from one family, remained a central institution. This unique status allowed Tonga to avoid direct colonization, a distinction it holds among Pacific nations.

Social changes continued during this period, influenced by Christianity, increased contact with the outside world, and the policies of the Tongan government. Education and healthcare systems saw development, often with the involvement of missionary organizations. The 1918 flu pandemic had a devastating impact, brought by a ship from New Zealand, killing approximately 1,800 Tongans, which represented about 8% of the population at the time. Throughout the protectorate, Tongan leaders, notably Queen Sālote Tupou III (reigned 1918-1965), skillfully navigated the relationship with Britain, safeguarding Tongan interests and paving the way for eventual full independence. Queen Sālote was instrumental in making arrangements for the termination of the protectorate status before her death in 1965.

3.5. Independence and Modern Tonga (1970 - present)

Tonga regained its full sovereignty and independence from Great Britain on June 4, 1970, terminating the protectorate status that had been in place since 1900. This transition was managed under arrangements set in motion by Queen Sālote Tupou III before her death and was overseen by her son, King Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV (reigned 1965-2006). Upon independence, Tonga joined the Commonwealth of Nations, atypically as a nation with its own indigenous monarch rather than recognizing the British monarch as Head of State, a status shared with countries like Malaysia, Lesotho, and Eswatini. Tonga later became a member of the United Nations in September 1999.

The post-independence era has been characterized by efforts to modernize the economy, develop infrastructure, and navigate its place in the regional and international community. However, a significant theme has been the ongoing political development and the push for greater democracy.

4.1. Topography and Islands

The Tongan archipelago comprises a diverse range of islands, primarily of two geological types: volcanic islands and coral islands (limestone-based). The islands are generally aligned in two parallel chains running roughly north-south.

• The western chain consists of volcanic islands, some of which are active volcanoes. These islands are typically higher and more rugged. Examples include Kao, which is the highest point in Tonga at 3.4 K ft ^{(1.03 K m)}, and Tofua, which has an active caldera. Other volcanic islands include Late, Fonualei, and the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai volcanic complex.
• The eastern chain consists mainly of low-lying coral atolls and uplifted coral limestone islands. These islands were formed by the accumulation of coral growth on subsiding volcanic bases or through tectonic uplift. Tongatapu, the largest island, is a relatively flat, uplifted coral limestone island. The Haʻapai group is predominantly made up of low coral islands, while Vavaʻu features a more complex topography with uplifted limestone forming a network of waterways and sheltered bays. The Niuas group, in the far north, includes both volcanic (e.g., Niuafoʻou) and limestone islands (e.g., Niuatoputapu).

Notable landforms include the numerous small islands (motu) that dot the archipelago, extensive coral reef systems surrounding many islands, and coastal features such as beaches, cliffs, and lagoons. A significant submarine feature associated with Tonga is the Tonga Trench, located to the east of the island chain. It is one of the deepest oceanic trenches in the world, reaching a maximum depth of over 35 K ft ^{(10.80 K m)} at the Horizon Deep. This trench is a result of the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Indo-Australian Plate. The islands are generally characterized by fertile volcanic soils on the volcanic islands and thinner, less fertile soils on the coral islands, though often enriched by volcanic ash deposits.

4.2. Geology and Volcanism

The Tongan islands are situated in a geologically active region along the Pacific Ring of Fire. Their formation and ongoing geological processes are primarily driven by the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Indo-Australian Plate at the Tonga Trench. This subduction zone is one ofthe most seismically active in the world and is responsible for the chain of volcanoes that form the western part of the Tongan archipelago, known as the Tongan Volcanic Arc.

The islands themselves are diverse in origin. The western islands are predominantly volcanic, formed by magma rising from the subducting Pacific Plate. Some of these volcanoes are active, with notable recent eruptions including Hunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai (which had a major eruption in 2022), Tofua, and Fonualei. Volcanic activity has also led to the formation of new, ephemeral islands, such as Home Reef, which has emerged and submerged multiple times following eruptions. The volcanic islands are characterized by fertile soils derived from volcanic ash.

The eastern islands are primarily limestone-based, formed from uplifted coral formations or coral growth on older, submerged volcanic edifices. Tongatapu, the largest island, is a prime example of an uplifted coral limestone platform. The Haʻapai group consists mainly of low-lying coral islands and atolls, while Vavaʻu is a complex of uplifted limestone islands.

Due to its location on an active plate boundary, Tonga is prone to significant seismic activity, including earthquakes and associated tsunamis. The convergence rate at the Tonga Trench is among the fastest on Earth, contributing to the high frequency of earthquakes. The geological setting also means Tonga possesses potential for geothermal energy, though this resource is yet to be substantially exploited. The dynamic geology of Tonga continues to shape its landscape and presents ongoing natural hazards for its population.

4.3. Climate

Tonga has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: Af), characterized by warm temperatures and high humidity year-round, with a distinct warmer, wetter season and a cooler, drier season.
The warm, rainy season typically runs from December to April. During this period, temperatures often rise above 89.6 °F ^{(32 °C)}. This is also the main tropical cyclone season, which officially runs from November 1 to April 30, although cyclones can occasionally form outside this window. Tonga is vulnerable to the impacts of these powerful storms, which can bring destructive winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges.

The cooler, drier season occurs from May to November. Temperatures during this time are milder, rarely exceeding 80.6 °F ^{(27 °C)}. This period is influenced by the southeast trade winds, which bring more stable weather conditions.

Rainfall varies across the archipelago. The northern islands, being closer to the Equator, generally receive higher rainfall (around 0.1 K in ^{(2.97 K mm)} annually) and experience warmer temperatures (average around 80.6 °F ^{(27 °C)}) compared to the southern islands like Tongatapu, which receives around 0.1 K in ^{(1.70 K mm)} of rain annually with average temperatures around 73.4 °F ^{(23 °C)}. The wettest period is usually around March, with an average rainfall of about 10 in ^{(263 mm)} in Nukuʻalofa. Average daily humidity is consistently high, around 80%.

The highest temperature recorded in Tonga was 95 °F ^{(35 °C)} on February 11, 1979, in Vavaʻu. The coldest temperature recorded was 47.66 °F ^{(8.7 °C)} on September 8, 1994, in Fuaʻamotu on Tongatapu. Temperatures of 59 °F ^{(15 °C)} or lower are more common during the dry season in southern Tonga.

Tonga is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including sea level rise, which threatens low-lying coastal areas and atolls, increased intensity of tropical cyclones, changes in rainfall patterns leading to droughts or flooding, and ocean acidification impacting coral reefs and fisheries. The WorldRiskReport 2021 ranked Tonga as third among countries with the highest disaster risk worldwide, primarily due to its exposure to multiple natural hazards.

4.4. Ecology and Biodiversity

Tonga is part of the Tongan tropical moist forests terrestrial ecoregion. The country's biodiversity encompasses a range of terrestrial and marine ecosystems, reflecting its tropical island setting.

Terrestrial ecosystems include tropical moist forests, coastal strand vegetation, and scrublands. The original forest cover has been significantly reduced due to land clearing for agriculture and settlement, particularly on the more populated islands like Tongatapu. However, remnants of native forest persist, especially in less accessible areas and on some uninhabited islands. These forests harbor various plant species, including endemic trees and ferns. ʻEua National Park on the island of ʻEua is a key protected area for terrestrial biodiversity, known for its cloud forests and unique plant life.

Tonga's marine biodiversity is rich, centered around its extensive coral reef systems. These reefs support a wide array of fish species, corals, mollusks, crustaceans, and other marine invertebrates. The waters of Tonga are also important migratory routes and breeding grounds for marine mammals, most notably humpback whales, which visit Tongan waters annually (primarily around Vavaʻu and Haʻapai) to breed and calve. Dolphins and sea turtles are also common.

Notable flora includes various species of palms, flowering trees, and ferns. Endemic plant species, though not numerous, are found, particularly on isolated islands or in specialized habitats. Fauna includes a variety of bird species, with 73 species recorded, including two endemics: the Tongan whistler (Pachycephala jacquinoti) found in Vavaʻu, and the Tongan megapode (Megapodius pritchardii), a ground-nesting bird primarily found on Niuafoʻou. Flying foxes (fruit bats) are a distinctive part of Tonga's fauna and hold cultural significance; they are considered sacred and the property of the monarchy, which has afforded them protection and allowed their populations to thrive on many islands. Reptiles include various lizards and geckos, with some endemic species.

Conservation efforts in Tonga aim to protect its natural heritage. These include the establishment of national parks and marine protected areas, community-based resource management programs, and initiatives to combat invasive species. However, Tonga's biodiversity faces threats from habitat loss, over-exploitation of resources (such as overfishing), pollution, invasive species, and the impacts of climate change, including coral bleaching and sea level rise. The devastating 2022 Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai eruption and tsunami also had significant impacts on both marine and terrestrial ecosystems, the full extent of which is still being assessed.

5.1. Government and Constitution

The Constitution of Tonga, originally granted in 1875 by King George Tupou I, is the supreme law of the land and has been amended several times, most significantly in 2010 to facilitate greater democracy.
The framework of the Tongan government consists of three branches:

• The Monarch**: The King of Tonga is the Head of State. The current monarch is King Tupou VI. While the King's direct political powers have been reduced, the monarch retains significant ceremonial roles, influence, and certain prerogative powers, including the power to assent to legislation, dissolve Parliament on the advice of the Prime Minister, and appoint judges on the recommendation of judicial bodies. The monarch is also the Commander-in-Chief of His Majesty's Armed Forces. Reverence for the monarch remains a strong element of Tongan culture.

• The Legislative Assembly (Fale Alea)**: Tonga has a unicameral Legislative Assembly (Fale Alea). Following the 2010 reforms, the Assembly consists of 26 members. Seventeen members are People's Representatives, elected by popular vote from multi-member constituencies for a four-year term. Nine members are Nobles' Representatives, elected by and from amongst the 33 hereditary nobles of Tonga. The Speaker of the Assembly is elected by the members from among their number or from outside the Assembly. The Fale Alea is responsible for passing laws, approving the national budget, and holding the government accountable.

• The Executive**: The executive branch is headed by the Prime Minister, who is elected by a majority of the members of the Legislative Assembly and then formally appointed by the King. The Prime Minister is the head of government. The Prime Minister appoints Cabinet ministers, who are primarily chosen from the elected members of the Assembly. The Cabinet is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the government and is collectively responsible to the Fale Alea.

• The Judiciary**: The judiciary is independent of the executive and legislative branches. It comprises the Court of Appeal (the highest appellate court), the Supreme Court, the Magistrates' Courts, and the Land Court. Judges are appointed by the King on the recommendation of the Judicial Appointments and Discipline Panel. The Privy Council, in its judicial capacity, can also hear certain appeals. The constitution provides for the protection of fundamental rights and freedoms.

This structure reflects Tonga's unique blend of traditional authority and modern democratic principles. The transition towards a more democratic system continues to evolve, with ongoing discussions about constitutional roles and governance.

5.2. Political Culture, Human Rights, and Democratization

Tonga's political culture is a complex interplay of traditional Polynesian values, the enduring influence of the monarchy and nobility, and a growing embrace of democratic principles. For much of its history, Tongan society was characterized by a hierarchical structure with deep respect for authority, particularly that of the King and nobles. However, the late 20th and early 21st centuries saw the rise of a significant pro-democracy movement, advocating for greater popular representation, accountability, and transparency. This movement, often facing resistance, was instrumental in pushing for the constitutional and political reforms of 2008-2010, which shifted significant executive power from the monarch to an elected parliament and government.

The process of democratization is ongoing, with challenges including ensuring the full independence of democratic institutions, fostering a vibrant civil society, and managing the relationship between elected representatives and traditional leaders. Political debate can be robust, and issues such as land rights, economic development, and governance remain central to public discourse.

Human rights are protected under the Tongan Constitution, which guarantees fundamental freedoms. However, concerns have been raised by domestic and international observers regarding certain areas:

• Freedom of Speech and Press**: While generally respected, there have been instances of government attempts to control or influence the media. The media landscape includes both state-owned and private outlets.
• Freedom of Assembly**: The right to peaceful assembly is generally upheld, though demonstrations have at times faced restrictions.
• LGBT Rights**: Male same-sex sexual activity remains criminalized under Tongan law, although these laws are reportedly not strictly enforced. There is limited legal recognition or protection for LGBT individuals, and social discrimination can occur. Advocacy for LGBT rights is emerging but faces cultural and religious opposition.
• Women's Rights**: Women participate in many aspects of Tongan life, but underrepresentation in political leadership and issues related to domestic violence are ongoing concerns. Efforts are being made to promote gender equality.
• Accountability and Governance**: Issues of corruption and the need for greater accountability in government have been subjects of public concern and political debate. Strengthening mechanisms for oversight and transparency is a focus of ongoing reform efforts.

Civil society organizations, including churches, NGOs, and community groups, play an important role in Tongan society, often advocating for social issues, human rights, and good governance. The journey towards a more fully realized democracy continues to be a defining feature of Tonga's contemporary political landscape, reflecting a society navigating the balance between its rich traditions and modern democratic aspirations.

5.3. Administrative Divisions

Tonga is divided into five main administrative divisions, which serve as the primary level of sub-national government. These divisions are largely based on the main island groups. Each division is headed by a governor, appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The divisions are:

1. **ʻEua**: This division comprises the island of ʻEua and its surrounding smaller islets. ʻEua is known for its rugged terrain and national park. The main town is ʻOhonua.
2. **Haʻapai**: This division consists of a scattered group of islands in the central part of the archipelago, including low-lying coral islands and some volcanic islands. The administrative center is Pangai on the island of Lifuka.
3. **Niuas**: The northernmost division, comprising the islands of Niuatoputapu, Niuafoʻou, and Tafahi. These are the most remote islands of Tonga. The main settlement on Niuatoputapu is Hihifo.
4. **Tongatapu**: This division includes the main island of Tongatapu, where the capital city Nukuʻalofa is located, along with several nearby smaller islands. It is the most populous and economically important division.
5. **Vavaʻu**: This division encompasses the Vavaʻu island group in the northern part of Tonga, known for its scenic beauty and sheltered harbor. The main town and administrative center is Neiafu.

These divisions are further subdivided into districts (vahe) and villages (kolo). Local governance structures exist at these lower levels, often involving town officers (ʻofisa kolo) and district officers (ʻofisa vahe), who play a role in local administration and community affairs, working under the authority of the central government and the divisional governors.

8.1. Key Sectors

The Tongan economy is built upon several key sectors, each with its own contributions and societal impacts. These include agriculture and fisheries, which form the backbone of rural livelihoods, tourism, which is a growing source of foreign exchange, and the significant inflow of remittances.

8.1.1. Agriculture and Fisheries

Agriculture and fisheries are fundamental to the Tongan economy, providing the majority of employment, a significant portion of foreign exchange earnings, and essential food security for the population. Rural Tongans largely depend on both plantation (cash crop) and subsistence farming.
Key agricultural products include:

• Squash**: A major export crop, primarily destined for the Japanese market, particularly during the Northern Hemisphere's off-season. The industry began in the late 1980s and has been a vital source of income, though it is subject to price fluctuations and market risks.
• Coconuts**: Coconuts and their products, such as copra (dried coconut kernel) and coconut oil, have historically been important. Desiccated coconut was once a significant industry, but declining world prices and lack of replanting have impacted this sector.
• Vanilla**: Vanilla beans are another important cash crop, cultivated for export.
• Root Crops**: Staple food crops for domestic consumption and some export include taro, yam, cassava, and sweet potato. These form the basis of the traditional Tongan diet.

Other crops include bananas, coffee beans, ginger, and various fruits and vegetables.

Livestock production primarily involves pigs and poultry, which are important for local consumption and cultural feasts. Horses are kept for draft purposes, especially by farmers. Cattle raising is increasing, leading to a decline in beef imports. Forestry resources are limited.

The fisheries sector is also crucial. Tonga has a substantial Exclusive Economic Zone rich in marine resources. The sector includes:

• Coastal Fisheries**: Supplying local markets and subsistence needs. This involves reef fish, shellfish, and other coastal marine life.
• Offshore Fisheries**: Primarily targeting tuna (such as albacore, yellowfin, and bigeye) for export. The government licenses both domestic and foreign fishing vessels.
• Aquaculture**: There are efforts to develop aquaculture, particularly for species like seaweed and giant clams.

Sustainability challenges in both agriculture and fisheries are significant. These include overfishing in coastal areas, the impacts of climate change (e.g., on coral reefs and crop yields), soil degradation, and vulnerability to natural disasters. Traditional land tenure systems, where farmers may not have full ownership security, can also affect long-term investment in agricultural improvements. Efforts are underway to promote sustainable farming and fishing practices, improve post-harvest handling, and diversify agricultural exports.

8.1.2. Tourism

Tourism is a significant and growing sector in the Tongan economy, recognized by the government as having major potential for economic development and foreign exchange earnings. The industry is relatively undeveloped compared to some other Pacific destinations but offers unique attractions.

Key attractions for tourists include:

• Whale watching**: Tonga is renowned as one of the world's premier destinations for swimming with and observing humpback whales. These whales migrate to Tongan waters (particularly around Vavaʻu, Haʻapai, and ʻEua) between July and October to breed and calve. This is a major drawcard for international visitors.
• Cultural Experiences**: Tourists can engage with Tongan culture through village visits, traditional feasts (pola), music and dance performances (like the Lakalaka and Tauʻolunga), and learning about local crafts such as ngatu (tapa cloth) making.
• Beaches and Marine Activities**: Tonga's numerous islands offer pristine beaches, clear waters, and extensive coral reefs, making it suitable for snorkeling, diving, kayaking, sailing, and game fishing. Vavaʻu, with its sheltered harbor, is a particularly popular hub for yachting.
• Natural Beauty**: The diverse island landscapes, from volcanic peaks to lush tropical forests and limestone caves, appeal to eco-tourists and adventurers.

The economic impact of tourism is substantial, contributing to employment, income generation, and supporting local businesses such as hotels, tour operators, and handicraft producers. Community involvement in tourism is encouraged, with efforts to ensure that benefits flow to local communities.

The government and tourism authorities are working towards sustainable tourism development. This includes initiatives to protect the marine environment (especially crucial for whale watching), manage visitor numbers to prevent overcrowding, promote eco-friendly practices, and enhance infrastructure such as airports, roads, and accommodation. Challenges include air access, marketing the destination internationally, and ensuring consistent service quality. Cruise ships frequently stop in Vavaʻu and Nukuʻalofa, contributing to visitor arrivals. Tonga's postage stamps, often featuring colorful and unusual designs (including heart-shaped and banana-shaped stamps), are also popular with philatelists and can be considered a niche tourism-related product. The tourism industry saw a decline in visitors after the onset of the 2008 global economic crisis, with numbers under 90,000 tourists per year for a period, but efforts continue to revitalize and grow this key sector.

8.2. Trade, Remittances, and Aid

Tonga's economy is significantly influenced by its external economic relationships, particularly in the areas of international trade, the flow of remittances from its diaspora, and reliance on foreign aid.

• Trade**: Tonga has a narrow export base, primarily reliant on agricultural products and fish.
  • Exports**: Key exports include squash (mainly to Japan), fish (especially tuna), vanilla beans, root crops, and some handicrafts.
  • Imports**: Tonga imports a wide range of goods, including food products, fuel, machinery, manufactured goods, and vehicles.
  • Trading Partners**: Major export destinations include Japan, the United States, New Zealand, and South Korea. Primary sources of imports are Fiji, New Zealand, China, and the United States.

  Tonga faces a persistent trade deficit, with the value of imports significantly exceeding that of exports. Challenges to expanding trade include high transportation costs, distance from major markets, and vulnerability to global price fluctuations for its primary commodities.

  • Remittances**: Remittances from Tongans living and working abroad are a critical component of the Tongan economy, often constituting one of the largest sources of foreign exchange and significantly supporting household incomes. The Tongan diaspora is substantial, with large communities in New Zealand, Australia, and the United States. These overseas Tongans regularly send money back to their families in Tonga. Remittances help to alleviate poverty, support consumption, and fund small-scale investments. However, the flow of remittances can be vulnerable to economic conditions in host countries, as seen with declines following the 2008 global economic crisis. The government has recognized the importance of the diaspora and has taken steps such as amending citizenship laws in 2007 to allow Tongans to hold dual citizenship, partly to maintain these vital connections.
  • Aid**: Foreign aid (Official Development Assistance) plays a crucial role in Tonga's development, funding infrastructure projects (such as roads, airports, and utilities), social services (like health and education), and capacity-building initiatives. Major aid donors include Australia, New Zealand, Japan, the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank, and increasingly, China. Aid effectiveness and the management of aid-funded projects are important considerations for the Tongan government. The reliance on aid also makes Tonga susceptible to the priorities and policies of donor countries and institutions.

  These three elements - trade, remittances, and aid - underscore Tonga's interconnectedness with the global economy and the particular vulnerabilities and opportunities faced by a small island developing state.

8.3. Energy

Tonga's energy sector is heavily reliant on imported fossil fuels, primarily diesel, for electricity generation and transportation. This dependence makes the country vulnerable to volatile global oil prices and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Energy consumption was projected to reach around 66 gigawatt-hours by 2020.

Electricity is mainly generated by diesel-powered plants operated by Tonga Power Ltd., the state-owned utility. Access to electricity is relatively high on the main island of Tongatapu but can be more limited or reliant on smaller, independent generators on outer islands. The cost of electricity is generally high due to the reliance on imported fuels.

Recognizing the economic and environmental unsustainability of fossil fuel dependence, Tonga has set ambitious goals for transitioning to renewable energy. The Tonga Energy Road Map (TERM) 2010-2020 aimed for a 50% reduction in diesel importation for power generation by 2020, to be achieved through a mix of renewable technologies and energy efficiency measures. As of 2018, Tonga was generating about 10% of its electricity from renewable sources. The country has continued to pursue renewable energy targets beyond 2020.

Key renewable energy initiatives include:

• Solar power**: Solar energy is considered the most promising renewable resource for Tonga. Several solar photovoltaic (PV) projects have been implemented, including grid-connected solar farms and smaller off-grid systems for outer islands and individual households. In 2019, Tonga announced the construction of a 6-megawatt solar farm on Tongatapu, intended to be the second-largest solar plant in the Pacific at the time of its completion.
• Wind power**: Wind power potential has also been explored, though large-scale deployment has been more limited compared to solar.
• Energy Efficiency**: Efforts are also underway to promote energy efficiency in households, businesses, and government operations.

The transition to renewable energy faces challenges, including the high upfront costs of renewable technologies, the need for grid upgrades to accommodate intermittent renewable sources, technical capacity building, and securing sustainable financing. International partners and organizations like the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and the Green Climate Fund have been instrumental in supporting Tonga's renewable energy projects. The Pacific Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (PCREEE) was established in Tonga in 2016 to advise the private sector, provide capacity development, and promote business investment in renewable energy. This center is part of a global network aimed at attracting international investment in the sector.

8.4. Economic Challenges and Social Impact

Tonga faces a range of significant economic challenges common to many Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which have profound social impacts on its population. Efforts towards poverty reduction and equitable development are central to addressing these issues.

Key economic challenges include:

• Small Scale and Remoteness**: The small size of the domestic market and Tonga's geographical isolation lead to high transportation costs, limited economies of scale, and difficulty in competing in global markets.
• Narrow Economic Base**: The economy is heavily reliant on a few sectors, primarily agriculture (especially squash and vanilla), fisheries, tourism, and remittances. This lack of diversification makes it vulnerable to shocks in any one sector (e.g., crop failures, downturns in tourism, or fluctuations in remittance flows).
• Vulnerability to External Shocks**: Tonga is highly susceptible to global economic downturns (which can affect tourism and remittances), fluctuations in commodity prices (for its exports and imported fuel), and the impacts of natural disasters.
• Natural Disasters and Climate Change**: The country is frequently affected by tropical cyclones, volcanic activity (as seen with the 2022 Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai eruption), and earthquakes. Climate change exacerbates these risks through sea-level rise, increased storm intensity, and threats to agriculture and fisheries. The costs of disaster recovery and adaptation are substantial.
• National Debt**: Tonga has accumulated significant external debt, partly due to loans for infrastructure projects. Managing this debt sustainably is a major challenge, particularly given its limited revenue-generating capacity. A significant portion of this debt is owed to China.
• Limited Private Sector Development**: While efforts are underway to promote the private sector, it remains relatively small. Challenges include access to finance, a complex regulatory environment, and a shortage of skilled labor in some areas.
• Brain Drain**: The emigration of skilled Tongans seeking better opportunities abroad, while generating remittances, can also lead to a shortage of skilled professionals within the country.

Social impacts of these economic challenges include:

• Poverty and Inequality**: While Tonga has made progress in human development, poverty and income inequality persist. Vulnerable groups, including those in outer islands and those reliant on agriculture, can be particularly affected by economic downturns or disasters.
• Employment**: Limited formal employment opportunities, especially for youth, are a concern. Many Tongans rely on informal sector activities, subsistence agriculture, or seek employment overseas.
• Cost of Living**: Reliance on imported goods, including food and fuel, can lead to a high cost of living, particularly when global prices rise.
• Access to Services**: Providing equitable access to essential services like healthcare, education, and infrastructure across all islands remains a challenge due to geographical dispersion and resource constraints.

The Tongan government, often with support from international partners, implements various strategies to address these challenges. These include efforts to diversify the economy (e.g., by developing niche agricultural products or expanding tourism), invest in resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable resource management, improve fiscal management, and strengthen social safety nets. Poverty reduction programs and initiatives aimed at equitable development are key components of national development plans, seeking to ensure that economic progress benefits all segments of Tongan society.

9.1. Population and Ethnic Groups

According to the United Nations estimates, Tonga had a population of approximately 104,494 as of 2021. Over 70% of the inhabitants reside on the main island of Tongatapu, particularly in and around the capital, Nukuʻalofa, which is the only significant urban center. While urbanization is increasing, village life remains influential. The population grew from about 32,000 in the 1930s to over 90,000 by 1976, despite emigration.

Ethnically, the population is predominantly Polynesian. According to government sources, Tongans, who are Polynesian with some Melanesian admixture, represent more than 98% of the inhabitants. About 1.5% are of mixed Tongan descent. Other minority groups are very small and include Europeans (mostly British), other Pacific Islanders, and Asians. In 2001, there were an estimated 3,000 to 4,000 ethnic Chinese residents, constituting 3-4% of the population. However, following the 2006 Nukuʻalofa riots, which targeted some Chinese-owned businesses, a number of Chinese residents emigrated, reducing their numbers to around 300 according to some estimates.

Population density varies across the islands, being highest on Tongatapu. Population distribution is also affected by internal migration from outer islands to Tongatapu in search of economic and educational opportunities.

The Tongan diaspora is substantial, with more Tongans living abroad (primarily in New Zealand, Australia, and the United States) than in Tonga itself. In 2018, 82,389 people of Tongan ethnicity lived in New Zealand. As of 2000, 36,840 Tongans lived in the US, and over 8,000 in Australia. This diaspora plays a crucial role in the Tongan economy through remittances and maintains strong ties with relatives in Tonga.

9.2. Languages

The official languages of Tonga are Tongan (lea fakatonga_{Tongan language}^{Tonga (Tonga Islands)}) and English.

• Tongan** is an Austronesian language belonging to the Polynesian branch, specifically the Tongic subgroup. It is closely related to Niuean (the language of Niue) and the nearly extinct Niuafoʻouan. It is more distantly related to other Polynesian languages such as Samoan, Hawaiian, Māori, and Tahitian. Tongan is the primary language spoken in everyday life by the vast majority of the population. It is used in homes, communities, and many official settings. There are dialectal variations, particularly between the main island groups.

• English** is widely used in government, business, education, and for international communication. It is taught in schools from an early age, and many Tongans, especially in urban areas and among younger generations, are bilingual. Official documents and media are often available in both Tongan and English.

The literacy rate in Tonga is high. There are no other indigenous languages spoken in Tonga, though languages of immigrant communities (such as Chinese) may be used within those groups. The preservation and promotion of the Tongan language are important cultural priorities.

9.3. Religion

Religion plays a highly significant role in Tongan society, influencing daily life, culture, law, and politics. Christianity is the dominant religion, with the vast majority of the population identifying as Christian. Tonga does not have an official state religion, and the Constitution of Tonga provides for freedom of religion.

The main Christian denominations in Tonga, according to the 2011 census, include:

• Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga (Siasi Uēsiliana Tauʻatāina ʻo Tonga)**: This is the largest denomination, with about 36% of the population (36,592 adherents in 2011). It has historical ties to the monarchy, and Queen Sālote Tupou III established it as the state church in 1928, a status that has since changed, though it retains significant influence. The chief pastor of the Free Wesleyan Church often plays a role in state ceremonies like coronations.
• The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)**: This denomination has a substantial presence, with about 18% of the population (18,554 adherents in 2011). Missionaries from the LDS Church first arrived in 1891.
• Roman Catholic Church**: Adhered to by about 15% of the population (15,441 adherents in 2011).
• Free Church of Tonga (Siasi ʻo Tonga Tauʻatāina)**: This denomination accounted for about 12% of the population (11,863 adherents in 2011). It separated from the Free Wesleyan Church in 1928 in opposition to its establishment as a state religion at that time.

The influence of Christianity is pervasive. Sunday is observed as a strict day of rest (Sabbath), as mandated by the Constitution. Most commercial and entertainment activities cease from midnight Saturday to midnight Sunday. Church attendance is generally high, and religious values are deeply ingrained in the social fabric. Religious leaders often hold respected positions in the community.

While Christianity is predominant, other religions are present in much smaller numbers. Islam is a minority religion, with a small Sunni Muslim community and a mosque (Al-Khadeejah Mosque) in Tonga. Religious freedom is generally respected, but the strong Christian ethos of the country can influence social attitudes and public policy.

9.4. Education

Education is highly valued in Tongan society, and the country has achieved relatively high literacy rates and educational attainment levels compared to some other Pacific island nations. The literacy rate is reported to be 98.9%.

• Structure and Policies**:

• Levels of Education**:
  • Primary Education**: Focuses on foundational literacy, numeracy, and general subjects.
  • Secondary Education**: Offers a broader range of subjects, preparing students for further education or vocational training. Nominal fees may be charged for secondary education in state schools, while mission schools have their own fee structures.
  • Higher Education and Vocational Training**: Opportunities for higher education within Tonga are somewhat limited but include:
    • Teacher training colleges.
    • Nursing and medical training programs.
    • A small private university.
    • A women's business college.
    • Several private agricultural schools.
    • The University of the South Pacific (USP) has a campus in Tonga, offering a range of degree and certificate programs.

    Many Tongans pursue higher education degrees (including medical and graduate degrees) overseas, often through scholarships funded by foreign governments or institutions, particularly in New Zealand, Australia, and Fiji.

    • Opportunities and Challenges**:
      • Access**: While primary education is compulsory and largely accessible, access to quality secondary and higher education can be more challenging, especially for students from outer islands or lower-income families.
      • Quality**: Maintaining and improving the quality of education, including teacher training, curriculum relevance, and learning resources, is an ongoing focus.
      • Brain Drain**: The emigration of educated and skilled Tongans can pose a challenge, although remittances from the diaspora also contribute significantly to the economy.
      • Kukū Kaunaka Collection**: Tongan scholars and their academic achievements are held in high esteem. The Kukū Kaunaka Collection, curated at the Institute for Education in Tonga, archives every doctoral and master's dissertation written by any Tongan worldwide, reflecting the value placed on academic knowledge.

      Overall, Tonga's education system aims to provide foundational learning for all citizens and pathways for further development, though it faces resource constraints and challenges common to small island developing states.

9.5. Health

Public health in Tonga faces a mix of challenges typical of developing nations and specific issues related to lifestyle and environment in the Pacific islands. The government provides a national healthcare system with services largely free or at minimal cost to citizens.

• Key Health Indicators and Concerns**:
  • Life Expectancy**: Life expectancy at birth is around 71 years for males and 74 years for females (estimates vary).
  • Infant Mortality**: Infant mortality rates have seen improvement but remain a concern compared to more developed nations.
  • Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)**: Tonga has one of the highest rates of obesity in the world. According to World Health Organization (WHO) data from 2014, Tonga ranked fourth globally in mean body mass index (BMI). In 2011, 90% of the adult population was considered overweight, with over 60% classified as obese. High rates of obesity contribute to a significant burden of NCDs such as diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease. These are major causes of morbidity and mortality. Dietary changes, including increased consumption of imported processed foods (like mutton flaps) and reduced intake of traditional, healthier foods, along with sedentary lifestyles, are contributing factors.
  • Infectious Diseases**: While NCDs are the primary concern, Tonga also manages infectious diseases, though major tropical diseases are not as prevalent as in some other regions. Immunization programs are in place.
  • COVID-19**: Tonga remained free of COVID-19 for a significant period due to strict border controls. It reported its first case in late October 2021 from an air passenger arriving from New Zealand. The 2022 volcanic eruption and tsunami complicated COVID-19 prevention efforts during the initial international aid response.
  • Healthcare System**:

Challenges to the healthcare system include limited financial and human resources, the high cost of medical supplies and equipment (much of which is imported), and the logistical difficulties of providing services across a dispersed archipelago. Addressing the NCD crisis through public health campaigns, promoting healthy lifestyles, and improving access to preventative care are major priorities for Tonga's health sector.

10.1. Transport

Tonga's transportation network is vital for connecting its scattered islands and facilitating trade and movement of people.

• Air Transport**:
  • Fuaʻamotu International Airport (TBU) on Tongatapu is the main international gateway, serving flights to and from countries like New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, and Samoa. Airlines operating international routes include Air New Zealand, Fiji Airways, and Qantas.
  • Domestic air services connect Tongatapu with other island groups like Vavaʻu, Haʻapai, and ʻEua. Lupepauʻu International Airport (VAV) in Vavaʻu also handles some international flights, primarily from Fiji. Domestic air travel is crucial for inter-island connectivity, especially for more distant islands. Real Tonga Airlines was the primary domestic carrier for a period. Challenges include the cost of domestic flights and maintaining regular services to all inhabited islands.
  • Maritime Transport**:
    • Inter-island shipping is essential for the movement of goods and passengers between Tonga's islands. A fleet of ferries and cargo vessels operates, though services can sometimes be irregular or affected by weather conditions. Safety and reliability of inter-island shipping are ongoing concerns.
    • The main international port is the Port of Nukuʻalofa on Tongatapu, which handles most of the country's cargo imports and exports. Other significant ports include Neiafu in Vavaʻu (popular with yachts) and Pangai in Haʻapai.
    • Road Systems**:
      • Tonga has a network of roads, particularly on the main island of Tongatapu. The total road length is approximately 423 mile ^{(680 km)}, of which a portion is paved (around 114 mile ^{(184 km)}).
      • Road conditions vary, with paved roads generally found in urban areas and main routes, while rural and outer island roads may be unpaved and of lower quality.
      • Maintenance of the road network is a challenge due to resource constraints and the impact of weather events like heavy rain and cyclones.
      • Vehicles drive on the left-hand side of the road. Public transport primarily consists of buses and taxis, especially in Nukuʻalofa.

      Challenges in the transport sector include the high cost of fuel, maintaining infrastructure across numerous islands, ensuring safety standards, and building resilience to natural disasters which can damage ports, airports, and roads. Improving inter-island connectivity remains a priority for economic development and access to services for outer island populations.

10.2. Communications and Media

Tonga's communications infrastructure and media landscape have been developing, though challenges related to its geography and economy persist.

• Telecommunications**:
  • Telephone Services**: Fixed-line telephone services are available, primarily in urban areas. Mobile phone penetration is relatively high, with services provided by companies like Digicel Tonga and Tonga Communications Corporation (TCC). Mobile networks cover most inhabited islands.
  • Internet**: Internet access has been improving, largely through mobile broadband and the Tonga Cable System, a submarine fiber optic cable connecting Tonga to international networks via Fiji. This cable significantly improved internet speeds and reliability compared to previous satellite-based connections. However, the cable was severely damaged during the 2022 Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai eruption and tsunami, highlighting the vulnerability of this critical infrastructure; repairs took several weeks. Internet cafes are available in Nukuʻalofa, and access is expanding, though affordability and digital literacy can still be barriers.
  • Media Landscape**:
    • Print**: Several newspapers operate in Tonga. Matangi Tonga is a prominent online news source and former magazine. The Taimi ʻo Tonga (Times of Tonga) was a significant, sometimes controversial, newspaper often printed overseas and distributed in Tonga. Government-owned publications like the Tonga Chronicle also exist. Other newspapers include Keleʻa, Talaki, and Kakalu.
    • Radio**: Radio is an important medium, especially for reaching outer islands. The Tonga Broadcasting Commission (TBC) operates Radio Tonga 1 (AM) and Radio Tonga 2 - Kool 90FM. There are also privately-owned radio stations.
    • Television**: The TBC also operates Television Tonga. Digicel offers satellite television services. Access to television varies, with higher penetration in urban areas.
    • Online Media**: With increasing internet access, online news websites, blogs, and social media are becoming more influential sources of information and platforms for discussion.
    • Media Freedom**: The Constitution of Tonga provides for freedom of speech and the press. However, there have been periods of tension between the government and the media, with concerns raised about attempts to restrict media criticism or impose licensing requirements that could limit press freedom. For example, in the mid-2000s, the government passed constitutional amendments and media laws aimed at "Tonganizing" the press and licensing media outlets, which led to protests and legal challenges. The media continues to play a role in public discourse and scrutiny of government.

    Ensuring reliable and affordable communications services across all islands, strengthening media independence, and improving digital literacy are ongoing objectives for Tonga.

11.1. Traditional Social Structure and Customs

Traditional Tongan society is organized around a complex hierarchical system and strong kinship ties. Key elements include:

• Monarchy and Nobility**: At the apex of the traditional structure is the monarch (Tuʻi) and the hereditary nobility (nopele). There are 33 noble titles, whose holders historically controlled land and wielded significant influence. This system, though modified by constitutional reforms, continues to play a role in modern Tongan society and land tenure.
• Kinship System**: The extended family (famili) is the fundamental social unit. Kinship ties are intricate and define an individual's roles, responsibilities, and relationships within the community. Respect for elders and seniority is paramount.
• Fahu System**: A unique aspect of Tongan kinship is the fahu system, which grants special status and privileges to the father's sister (mehekitanga) and her children over her brother's children. The fahu has a position of authority and honor within the family, particularly during important ceremonies like weddings and funerals. This system underscores the importance of the maternal line in certain contexts. While its political strength has diminished, fahu rights remain a notable part of contemporary social practices. Some scholars suggest that such social structures could be beneficial for adapting to environmental threats by providing networks for resource sharing and relocation during events like hurricanes. However, disruptions to this hierarchy, potentially influenced by market demands for resources (as suggested in the context of sandalwood depletion in the 1980s, though the direct causal link needs clearer explanation), could have environmental consequences.
• Community Life (Kāinga)**: Tongan life is traditionally communal, with strong emphasis on cooperation, sharing, and collective responsibility within the kāinga (a broader kin group or community).
• Traditional Ceremonies and Rituals**: Tonga has a rich ceremonial life. Important events such as births, weddings, funerals, and royal occasions are marked by elaborate ceremonies involving traditional protocols, feasting (pola), gift-giving (especially of ngatu and mats), music, dance, and the ceremonial consumption of kava.
• Kava Ceremony**: The drinking of kava, a beverage made from the roots of the Piper methysticum plant, is a central custom in Tongan social and ceremonial life. Kava circles (faikava) are important forums for discussion, decision-making, and social bonding, particularly among men. Specific protocols govern the preparation and consumption of kava.
• Respect (Fakaʻapaʻapa)**: A core Tongan value is fakaʻapaʻapa, which encompasses respect, humility, and deference to those of higher status, elders, and in formal settings.

These traditional structures and customs provide a framework for social interaction, maintain social cohesion, and are integral to Tongan cultural identity, coexisting and sometimes interacting with modern influences.

11.2. Arts, Crafts, and Literature

Tongan arts and crafts are rich expressions of its Polynesian heritage, often characterized by intricate designs, natural materials, and deep cultural significance. These traditions are passed down through generations and continue to thrive.

• Traditional Arts and Crafts**:
  • Ngatu (Tapa Cloth)**: Perhaps the most iconic Tongan art form, ngatu is a type of barkcloth made from the inner bark of the paper mulberry tree (hiapo). The process of making ngatu is labor-intensive, primarily undertaken by women. Strips of bark are beaten, joined together to form large sheets, and then decorated with intricate geometric patterns and motifs derived from nature and Tongan cosmology. These designs are typically stenciled or hand-painted using natural dyes. Ngatu is highly valued and plays a crucial role in ceremonies such as weddings, funerals, and royal events, where it is presented as gifts, used as wall hangings, or worn as ceremonial attire. Artist Tanya Edwards is noted for her work with ngatu.
  • Mat and Basket Weaving (Lalanga)**: Weaving is another important craft, with women creating finely woven mats (fala) and baskets (kato) from pandanus leaves (louʻakau) and other plant fibers. Mats vary in texture, design, and purpose, ranging from everyday household mats to highly prized ceremonial mats (kie) that are considered family heirlooms and important forms of wealth.
  • Wood Carving (Tufunga Fono)**: Traditionally, Tongan men were skilled wood carvers, creating items such as war clubs (ʻakau tau), kava bowls (kumete kava), headrests (kali), canoes (vaka), and architectural elements for houses and meeting places. Carvings often feature intricate patterns and symbolic motifs. While the creation of some traditional items like war clubs has declined, wood carving continues, often for decorative or ceremonial purposes.
  • Personal Adornment**: Tongans traditionally adorned themselves with items made from shells, seeds, flowers (in the form of sisi or garlands), and feathers.
  • Contemporary Artistic Expressions**:

  In recent decades, there has been a surge of contemporary Tongan artists, many based in Tonga or in diaspora communities (particularly New Zealand). These artists often blend traditional techniques and motifs with modern styles and themes, exploring issues of identity, culture, and social change. Notable contemporary artists include Benjamin Work, Telly Tuita, and Sione Monū, who are widely exhibited internationally. Sēmisi Fetokai Potauaine created a five-storey Tongan sculpture in central Christchurch, New Zealand. In 2023, Bergman Gallery in Auckland hosted Tukufakaholo, Tongan Contemporary, featuring eight Tongan artists.

  • Literature**:

  Tonga has a strong oral tradition, with myths, legends, poetry (taʻanga), and historical accounts passed down through generations. Written literature in Tongan is a more recent development, emerging with the introduction of literacy through missionary work. The Bible was one of the first major works translated into Tongan. Contemporary Tongan literature includes poetry, short stories, and historical writings, often exploring themes of Tongan culture, history, and identity in a changing world. Scholars like Professor Futa Helu, founder of the ʻAtenisi Institute, have also contributed significantly to Tongan intellectual and literary life.
  
  These artistic and literary traditions are vital for preserving and transmitting Tongan culture, history, and values.

11.3. Music and Dance

Music and dance are integral to Tongan culture, serving as powerful forms of storytelling, ceremonial expression, social cohesion, and entertainment. Traditional forms are highly valued and often accompanied by intricate costumes and body adornment.

• Traditional Music**:

Tongan traditional music is predominantly vocal, characterized by polyphonic harmonies. Choral singing is a prominent feature, often performed in groups without instrumental accompaniment or with simple percussion. Traditional songs (hiva) cover a wide range of themes, including history, genealogy, love, nature, and daily life. Important song genres include hiva kakala (sweet-smelling songs, often about love and nature) and more formal compositions for specific occasions. Traditional musical instruments, though less central than vocal music, include:

• Percussion: Various types of slit drums (lali), stamping tubes made of bamboo (ʻofe), and nose flutes (fangufangu). The lali is a large wooden drum beaten with sticks, used for signaling and accompanying dances.
• Stringed instruments: While less common traditionally, some forms of stringed instruments existed.

• Traditional Dance**:

Tongan dance is diverse and highly symbolic, often involving synchronized movements, gestures (haka) that convey meaning, and expressive facial expressions. Dances are typically performed by groups and are a key component of festivals, ceremonies, and social gatherings. Some of the most prominent traditional dances include:

• Lakalaka**: This is considered Tonga's national dance and was proclaimed by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2003. The Lakalaka is a group dance performed by both men and women, often numbering in the hundreds. It involves intricate choreography, synchronized movements of the arms and legs, and sung poetry (taʻanga) that narrates stories or commemorates events. Performers are arranged in rows, with men on one side and women on the other, each performing distinct but complementary movements.
• Maʻuluʻulu**: A seated group dance performed by women (or sometimes mixed groups), characterized by graceful hand and arm movements. It is often performed at formal occasions.
• Kailao**: A war dance performed by men, involving vigorous movements, the brandishing of clubs or spears, and warrior-like expressions. It is often performed to welcome dignitaries or at celebratory events. The Sipi Tau, the Tongan national rugby team's pre-match challenge, is a form of Kailao.
• Tauʻolunga**: A solo dance, typically performed by a young, unmarried woman, often at weddings or other special occasions. It is characterized by graceful and fluid movements of the hands and arms, with the dancer's body remaining relatively still. Audience members often show their appreciation by placing money on the dancer's oiled skin.
• ʻOtuhaka**: A lively seated group dance, usually performed by women, involving rhythmic hand-clapping and body percussion.

• Modern Musical Trends**:

While traditional music remains strong, contemporary Tongan music incorporates influences from Western popular music, reggae, hip-hop, and gospel music. Church choirs are a significant part of musical life, and gospel music is very popular. Modern Tongan bands and artists create music that blends traditional elements with contemporary styles.

Music and dance are not just entertainment in Tonga; they are vital expressions of cultural identity, history, and social values, passed down through generations and celebrated with pride.

11.4. Cuisine

Tongan cuisine is based on fresh, locally sourced ingredients, primarily root crops, coconuts, seafood, and pork. Traditional cooking methods often involve an ʻumu (earth oven), where food is wrapped in leaves and slow-cooked over hot stones. Feasts (pola or kai pola) are a significant part of Tongan culture, featuring an abundance of food served on woven platters made of coconut fronds.

• Staple Foods**:
  • Root Crops**: These form the cornerstone of the Tongan diet. Common root vegetables include taro (talo), yam (ʻufi), cassava (manioke), and sweet potato (kumala). They are typically boiled, baked in the ʻumu, or fried.
  • Coconut**: Coconut is used extensively in Tongan cooking. Coconut milk (lolo) is a key ingredient in many dishes, adding richness and flavor. Grated coconut is also used.
  • Seafood**: Given Tonga's island geography, fish and other seafood (ika) are important sources of protein. Fish is often grilled, baked, or eaten raw (as in ʻota ʻika). Shellfish, octopus (feke), and lobster are also consumed.
  • Pork (Puaka)**: Pork is highly valued, especially for feasts and special occasions. Roast suckling pig (puaka toho) is a celebratory dish.
  • Chicken (Moa) and Other Meats**: Chicken is common, and beef (often imported corned beef, or kaleve pulu) is also popular.
  • Popular Dishes**:
    • Lu pulu (or Lu sipi if made with lamb)**: A classic Tongan dish made by wrapping taro leaves (lau lu) around a filling of meat (often corned beef or lamb), onions, and coconut milk, then baking it in an ʻumu or conventional oven.
    • ʻOta ʻika**: Raw fish (typically tuna or snapper) marinated in lemon or lime juice, coconut milk, and chopped vegetables like onions, tomatoes, and peppers. Similar to Fijian kokoda or Tahitian poisson cru.
    • Feʻunuaki Kapa**: Baked or grilled fish, often whole, seasoned with local ingredients.
    • Faikakai Topai**: Dumplings made from flour or root crops, cooked in a sweet coconut syrup.
    • Kale Moa**: Chicken curry, often made with coconut milk.
    • ʻUfi Lole**: Sweetened mashed yams, often with coconut milk.
    • Feasts (Pola)**:

    Feasts are elaborate affairs where large quantities and varieties of food are presented. Food is typically served on long, woven platters called pola. These events are central to Tongan hospitality and social gatherings, marking important occasions like weddings, funerals, birthdays, and church events.

    • Kava**:

    While not a food, kava is a culturally significant traditional beverage made from the roots of the Piper methysticum plant. It has a mild psychoactive effect, inducing relaxation. Kava is consumed in ceremonial and social settings, particularly in faikava (kava circles), which are important for social bonding, discussion, and decision-making, especially among men. It has an earthy taste and plays a vital role in Tongan traditions.
    
    Tongan cuisine reflects a close connection to the land and sea, with an emphasis on fresh ingredients and communal sharing of food. While traditional foods remain central, modern influences and imported ingredients have also become part of the contemporary Tongan diet.

11.5. Sport

Sport plays a significant role in Tongan society, both for recreation and as a source of national pride. Tonga has produced athletes who have competed successfully on the international stage, particularly in contact sports.

• Rugby Union**: Rugby union is widely regarded as the national sport of Tonga. The national team, known as the Ikale Tahi (Sea Eagles), is a competitive force in Pacific rugby and has participated in multiple Rugby World Cup tournaments since its first appearance in 1987. They are known for their physical style of play and perform a traditional war dance, the Sipi Tau (a form of Kailao), before their matches. The 2007 and 2011 Rugby World Cups were particularly successful, with Tonga winning two out of four matches in each and notably defeating France in 2011. Tonga competes in the World Rugby Pacific Nations Cup. Many players of Tongan descent also represent other nations, particularly New Zealand (the All Blacks) and Australia (the Wallabies), and have achieved global recognition. Prominent examples include Jonah Lomu, Malakai Fekitoa, Charles Piutau, Sekope Kepu, George Smith, Taulupe Faletau, Mako and Billy Vunipola. Rugby is popular in schools, with institutions like Tonga College and Tupou College being regular sources of talent.

• Rugby League**: Rugby league also has a strong following in Tonga. The national team (Mate Ma'a Tonga) has gained significant international success, particularly since the 2017 Rugby League World Cup, where a number of high-profile players eligible for Tier 1 nations chose to represent Tonga. This led to historic victories over New Zealand (2017), Great Britain (2019), and Australia (2019). The team's success has generated immense national pride and support from the Tongan diaspora. Many Tongan players star in the Australian National Rugby League (NRL) and the Super League in Europe. Examples include Jason Taumalolo, Andrew Fifita, Konrad Hurrell, and Will Hopoate.

• Netball**: Netball is a popular sport among Tongan women and girls, played at community and school levels.

• Boxing**: Tonga has a tradition in boxing. Paea Wolfgramm won a silver medal in the super heavyweight division at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, which remains Tonga's only Olympic medal to date.

• Soccer**: Soccer is played in Tonga, though it does not have the same high profile as rugby. The national team competes in Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) tournaments.

• Olympics and Pacific Games**: Tonga participates in the Olympic Games (both Summer and Winter) and the Pacific Games. Pita Taufatofua gained international fame for competing in taekwondo at the 2016 and 2020 Summer Olympics and in cross-country skiing at the 2018 Winter Olympics, often appearing shirtless in traditional Tongan attire at the opening ceremonies.

• American Football**: A number of Tongans and players of Tongan descent have played in the National Football League in the United States, including Star Lotulelei and Vita Vea.

Sport is an important avenue for Tongan youth and a way for the nation to gain international recognition. The success of its national rugby teams, in particular, has a unifying effect and is celebrated enthusiastically both in Tonga and by Tongans around the world.

11.6. Public Holidays

Public holidays in Tonga are a mix of national, religious, and monarchical observances that reflect the country's cultural and historical heritage. Business and government offices are typically closed on these days. Key public holidays include:

• January 1**: New Year's Day
• Good Friday**: Date varies (Christian observance)
• Easter Monday**: Date varies (Christian observance)
• April 25**: Anzac Day (Commemorates soldiers who fought and died for Australia and New Zealand, reflecting historical ties and Tongan participation in armed conflicts alongside these nations)
• June 4**: Emancipation Day (Commemorates King George Tupou I's emancipation of the Tongan people from the traditional feudal system in 1862)
• July 4**: Birthday of His Majesty King Tupou VI (Current monarch's official birthday)
• September 17**: Birthday of Crown Prince Tupoutoʻa ʻUlukalala (Heir to the throne's birthday)
• November 4**: Constitution Day (Commemorates the granting of Tonga's first constitution by King George Tupou I in 1875)
• December 4**: King George Tupou I Day (Commemorates the legacy of the unifier and first king of modern Tonga)
• December 25**: Christmas Day (Christian observance)
• December 26**: Boxing Day

The Sabbath (Sunday) is also a constitutionally mandated day of rest, during which most commercial activities cease. These holidays are important occasions for family gatherings, community events, church services, and traditional celebrations, reinforcing Tongan cultural identity and national unity. Specific dates for royal birthdays may sometimes be observed on a nearby Monday to create a long weekend.