Solomon Islands

3.1. Prehistory

The Solomon Islands were first settled by people migrating from the Bismarck Islands and New Guinea during the Pleistocene era, between 30,000 and 28,800 BC. Archaeological evidence for this early settlement has been found at Kilu Cave on Buka Island, which is now part of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville in Papua New Guinea. During this period, sea levels were lower, and Buka and Bougainville were physically connected to the southern Solomons, forming a single landmass sometimes referred to as "Greater Bougainville." The extent to which these early settlers spread southwards is unclear, as no other archaeological sites from this specific period have been discovered further south in the archipelago.
As the Ice Age ended and sea levels rose between 4000 and 3500 BC, the Greater Bougainville landmass fragmented into the numerous islands seen today. Later evidence of human settlements, dating to between 4500 and 2500 BC, has been found at Poha Cave and Vatuluma Posovi Cave on Guadalcanal. The ethnic identity of these early peoples is not definitively known, but it is thought that the speakers of the Central Solomon languages-a unique language family unrelated to other languages in the Solomons-may be descendants of these initial settlers.
A significant subsequent wave of migration occurred between 1200 and 800 BC with the arrival of the Austronesian Lapita people from the Bismarcks. They are recognized by their characteristic ceramic pottery. Evidence of Lapita presence has been found throughout the Solomon archipelago, including the Santa Cruz Islands in the southeast, with different islands being settled at various times. Linguistic and genetic studies suggest that the Lapita people initially "leap-frogged" the already inhabited main Solomon Islands and settled first in the Santa Cruz group. Later, back-migrations brought their culture to the main islands.
These Lapita migrants mixed with the existing indigenous populations. Over time, their languages became dominant, and most of the 60 to 70 languages spoken in Solomon Islands today belong to the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian language family. Communities generally existed in small villages, practicing subsistence agriculture, though extensive inter-island trade networks were also established. Numerous ancient burial sites and other evidence of permanent settlements from the period AD 1000-1500 have been found throughout the islands. A prominent example is the Roviana cultural complex, centered on the islands off the southern coast of New Georgia, where a large number of megalithic shrines and other structures were built in the 13th century. Before the arrival of Europeans, the people of Solomon Islands were known for practices such as headhunting and, in some instances, cannibalism.

3.2. Arrival of Europeans (1568-1886)

The first European to visit the islands was the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira, who sailed from Peru in 1568. He landed on Santa Isabel on February 7 and subsequently explored several other islands, including Makira, Guadalcanal, and Malaita. Initial relations with the indigenous Solomon Islanders were cordial but often deteriorated over time due to misunderstandings and conflicts. Consequently, Mendaña returned to Peru in August 1568.
Mendaña made a second voyage to the Solomons in 1595 with a larger crew, aiming to colonize the islands. They landed on Nendö in the Santa Cruz Islands and established a small settlement at Gracioso Bay. However, the settlement failed due to poor relations with the native peoples and epidemics of disease among the Spanish, which caused numerous deaths, including Mendaña himself in October 1595. The new commander, Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, decided to abandon the settlement and sailed north to the Spanish territory of the Philippines. Queirós later returned to the region in 1606, sighting Tikopia and Taumako, though this voyage was primarily focused on Vanuatu in search of the mythical Terra Australis.
Except for Abel Tasman's sighting of the remote Ontong Java Atoll in 1648, no European sailed to the Solomons again until 1767, when the British explorer Philip Carteret passed by the Santa Cruz Islands, Malaita, and further north, Bougainville and the Bismarck Islands. French explorers also reached the Solomons: Louis Antoine de Bougainville named Choiseul in 1768, and Jean-François de Surville explored the islands in 1769. In 1788, John Shortland, captaining a supply ship for Britain's new Australian colony at Botany Bay, sighted the Treasury and Shortland Islands. In the same year, the French explorer Jean-François de La Pérouse was shipwrecked on Vanikoro. A rescue expedition led by Bruni d'Entrecasteaux sailed to Vanikoro but found no trace of La Pérouse. His fate was not confirmed until 1826, when the English merchant Peter Dillon visited Tikopia and discovered items belonging to La Pérouse in the possession of the local people. This was later confirmed by the voyage of Jules Dumont d'Urville in 1828.

Some of the earliest regular foreign visitors to the islands were whaling vessels from Britain, the United States, and Australia, starting in the late 18th century. They came for food, wood, and water, establishing trading relationships with the Solomon Islanders and later recruiting islanders as crewmen. Relations between the islanders and visiting seamen were not always peaceful, and bloodshed sometimes occurred. The increased European contact led to the spread of diseases to which local populations had no immunity, and a shift in the balance of power between coastal groups (who gained access to European weapons and technology) and inland groups.
In the second half of the 19th century, more traders arrived seeking turtleshells, sea cucumbers, copra, and sandalwood, occasionally establishing semi-permanent trading stations. However, initial attempts at long-term settlement, such as Benjamin Boyd's colony on Guadalcanal in 1851, were unsuccessful.
Beginning in the 1840s and accelerating in the 1860s, islanders were recruited, often forcibly kidnapped, as laborers for colonies in Australia, Fiji, and Samoa in a practice known as "blackbirding". Conditions for these workers were frequently poor and exploitative, leading to resentment and, at times, violent attacks by islanders against Europeans who appeared on their shores. The blackbirding trade was documented by writers like Joe Melvin and Jack London.
Christian missionaries also began visiting the Solomons from the 1840s. An early attempt by French Catholics under Jean-Baptiste Epalle to establish a mission on Santa Isabel in 1845 was abandoned after Epalle was killed by islanders. Anglican missionaries arrived from the 1850s, followed by other denominations, gradually gaining a large number of converts.

3.3. Colonial period (1886-1978)

The colonial period in Solomon Islands was marked by the division of influence between European powers, the establishment of British rule, significant socio-economic changes, and the profound impact of World War II, ultimately leading to the path towards independence.

3.3.2. World War II

From 1942 until the end of 1943, the Solomon Islands became a major battleground in the Pacific War, witnessing fierce land, sea, and air battles between the Allied forces (primarily the United States and British Imperial forces) and the Empire of Japan.
Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Japan sought to secure its southern flank by invading Southeast Asia and New Guinea. In May 1942, as part of Operation Mo, Japanese forces occupied Tulagi and most of the western Solomon Islands, including Guadalcanal, where they began constructing an airfield. The British administration had already relocated to Auki on Malaita, and most of the European population had been evacuated to Australia.
The Allies launched a counter-invasion of Guadalcanal in August 1942, which marked a turning point in the Pacific War. This was followed by the New Georgia campaign in 1943. These campaigns effectively halted and then began to reverse the Japanese advance in the Pacific. The fighting was intense and resulted in significant casualties on all sides, with hundreds of thousands of Allied, Japanese, and civilian deaths, as well as immense destruction across the islands. The Solomon Islands Campaign cost the Allies approximately 7,100 men, 29 ships, and 615 aircraft, while the Japanese lost around 31,000 men, 38 ships, and 683 aircraft.

Coastwatchers, including Solomon Islanders, played a crucial role in providing intelligence on Japanese movements and rescuing Allied servicemen. U.S. Admiral William Halsey, commander of Allied forces during the Battle for Guadalcanal, famously stated, "The coastwatchers saved Guadalcanal and Guadalcanal saved the South Pacific." Approximately 3,200 Solomon Islanders served in the Solomon Islands Labour Corps, and around 6,000 enlisted in the British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force. Their exposure to American forces and the wider world brought significant social and political transformations. The Americans extensively developed Honiara, which became the capital in 1952, replacing Tulagi. The Solomons Pijin was also heavily influenced by interactions between Americans and the island inhabitants.

Islanders Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana became famous for finding the shipwrecked John F. Kennedy and his crew of the PT-109. They suggested writing a rescue message on a coconut and delivered it by paddling a dugout canoe. This coconut was later kept on Kennedy's desk when he became President of the United States.

The war had a profound impact on the Solomon Islanders. It disrupted traditional life, caused widespread displacement, and exposed islanders to new ideas and technologies. The shared experience of resisting Japanese occupation and working alongside Allied forces fostered a sense of common identity and political awareness among some Solomon Islanders, which would contribute to post-war political movements and the eventual drive for independence. The devastation of the war also left a lasting legacy on the landscape and the collective memory of the people.

3.3.3. Post-war and independence process

The aftermath of World War II brought significant political and social changes to the Solomon Islands, leading to the rise of indigenous movements and a gradual process towards self-government and eventual independence.
In 1943-44, Aliki Nono'ohimae, a chief from Malaita, founded the Maasina Rule movement (also known as the Native Council Movement, literally "Brotherhood Rule"). He was later joined by another chief, Hoasihau. The movement's aims were to improve the economic well-being of native Solomon Islanders, achieve greater autonomy, and act as a liaison between the islanders and the colonial administration. Maasina Rule gained particular popularity among ex-Labour Corps members, and its numbers swelled after the war, spreading to other islands. The British administration, alarmed by the movement's growth, launched "Operation De-Louse" in 1947-48 and arrested most of the Maasina leaders. In response, Malaitans organized a campaign of civil disobedience, which led to mass arrests.
In 1950, a new Resident Commissioner, Henry Gregory-Smith, arrived and released the leaders of the movement, although the civil disobedience campaign continued. In 1952, the new High Commissioner (later Governor) Robert Stanley met with leaders of Maasina Rule and agreed to the creation of an island council for Malaita, a key demand of the movement. This marked a step towards greater local participation in governance. In late 1952, Stanley formally moved the capital of the territory from Tulagi to Honiara, utilizing the infrastructure left by the Americans. During the early 1950s, the British and Australian governments discussed the possibility of transferring sovereignty of the islands to Australia. However, the Australians were reluctant to accept the financial burden of administering the territory, and the idea was shelved.

As the wave of decolonisation swept across the colonial world, and Britain was no longer willing or able to bear the financial burdens of its empire, the colonial authorities began to prepare the Solomons for self-governance. Appointed Executive and Legislative Councils were established in 1960. A degree of elected Solomon Islander representation was introduced in 1964 and extended in 1967. A new constitution was drawn up in 1970, merging the two councils into a single Governing Council, though the British Governor still retained extensive powers. Dissatisfaction with this arrangement led to the creation of a new constitution in 1974, which reduced many of the Governor's remaining powers and created the post of Chief Minister, first held by Solomon Mamaloni. This was a significant step towards self-determination.
Full self-government for the territory was achieved in 1976, a year after neighboring Papua New Guinea gained independence from Australia. During this period, discontent grew in the Western islands, with many fearing marginalization in a future state potentially dominated by Honiara or Malaita. This led to the formation of the Western Breakaway Movement, reflecting underlying regional tensions and aspirations for local autonomy.
A conference held in London in 1977 agreed that the Solomons would gain full independence the following year. Under the terms of the Solomon Islands Act 1978, the country was annexed to Her Majesty's dominions and granted independence on July 7, 1978. The first prime minister was Sir Peter Kenilorea of the Solomon Islands United Party (SIUP). Elizabeth II became the Queen of Solomon Islands, represented locally by a Governor General. The achievement of independence was a culmination of years of political aspiration and negotiation, though the new nation faced significant challenges in forging national unity and sustainable development.

3.4. Independence era (1978-present)

Since achieving independence, Solomon Islands has navigated a complex path of political development, economic challenges, ethnic tensions, and evolving foreign relations, reflecting the difficulties of nation-building in a diverse and geographically fragmented country.

4.1. Government structure

The King of Solomon Islands, currently Charles III, is the head of state. The King is represented in the country by a Governor-General, who is appointed for a five-year term on the advice of the Parliament. The Governor-General's role is largely ceremonial, acting on the advice of the government.
The head of government is the Prime Minister, who is elected by and from the members of the unicameral National Parliament. The Prime Minister heads the Cabinet, which is the executive arm of the government. Cabinet ministers are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister from among the members of Parliament. Each ministry is headed by a cabinet member, assisted by a permanent secretary, who is a career public servant responsible for the ministry's staff and operations.
The National Parliament consists of 50 members, elected for four-year terms through universal suffrage for citizens over the age of 21. Representation is based on single-member constituencies. Parliament can be dissolved by a majority vote of its members before the completion of its term, leading to early elections.

Political parties in Solomon Islands are numerous but often lack strong ideological bases or widespread grassroots support. As a result, parliamentary coalitions are frequently formed based on personal loyalties and short-term interests, leading to frequent votes of no confidence and changes in government. This political fluidity poses a significant challenge to stable governance, long-term policy planning, and democratic consolidation.
Efforts to strengthen democratic institutions and improve governance are ongoing, often with the support of international partners. However, issues such as corruption, regionalism, and the influence of logging and other commercial interests on political decision-making remain persistent challenges to democratic development and social equity. Land ownership is reserved for Solomon Islanders, and disputes over land are common and can be politically sensitive.

4.2. Judiciary

The judicial system of Solomon Islands is based on the English common law system, with elements of local customary law also recognized, particularly in civil matters and land disputes at the local level. The Constitution of Solomon Islands provides for the independence of the judiciary.
The court system is hierarchical:
1. **Magistrates' Courts:** These are the courts of first instance for most criminal and civil cases. They handle summary offenses and less serious indictable offenses, as well as civil claims up to a certain monetary limit.
2. **High Court:** The High Court has unlimited original jurisdiction in both civil and criminal matters. It also hears appeals from the Magistrates' Courts. The Chief Justice is the head of the High Court.
3. **Court of Appeal:** This is the highest court in Solomon Islands and hears appeals from the High Court on matters of law and fact. Its decisions are final. The President of the Court of Appeal heads this court. Justices of Appeal are often drawn from senior judges from other Commonwealth countries.
The Governor-General appoints the Chief Justice of the High Court on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition. Other judges (Justices of the High Court and Justices of Appeal) are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of a Judicial and Legal Services Commission.
Ensuring the rule of law and access to justice for all citizens remains a challenge, particularly in rural and remote areas. The judiciary has faced issues related to resource constraints, capacity limitations, and the need to effectively integrate customary law with the formal legal system. International assistance, including through RAMSI and other programs, has aimed to strengthen the capacity and independence of the judiciary and improve the overall administration of justice.
Justice Edwin Goldsbrough served as President of the Court of Appeal for Solomon Islands from March 2014, having previously served as a Judge of the High Court (2006-2011) and later as Chief Justice of the Turks and Caicos Islands. Sir Albert Palmer is a notable figure who has served as Chief Justice.

4.3. Foreign relations

Solomon Islands maintains diplomatic relations with numerous countries and is a member of several key international and regional organizations, including the United Nations (UN), Interpol, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), the Pacific Community (SPC), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) Group of States (through the Lomé Convention and subsequent agreements).
A significant shift in its foreign policy occurred in September 2019 when Solomon Islands terminated diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan) and established official ties with the People's Republic of China (PRC). This decision ended 36 years of relations with Taiwan and was met with mixed reactions domestically and internationally. It has led to increased engagement with China, including economic assistance and a controversial security pact signed in 2022, which allows for Chinese security forces to be deployed to Solomon Islands to quell unrest. This pact has raised concerns among traditional partners like Australia, New Zealand, and the United States about China's growing influence in the Pacific region and potential implications for regional security.
Australia has historically been a major partner and aid donor, particularly evident during the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI) from 2003 to 2017. Relations with Papua New Guinea (PNG) have been complex, particularly due to the influx of refugees from the Bougainville conflict and cross-border issues. However, a 1998 peace accord on Bougainville and a 2004 agreement on border operations have helped to normalize relations.
Solomon Islands has consistently advocated for the human rights of people in West Papua. In international forums like the UN Human Rights Council and the UN General Assembly, Solomon Islands, often alongside other Pacific nations like Vanuatu and Tuvalu, has raised concerns about alleged human rights violations in the Indonesian-administered region and called for UN investigations. This stance reflects a broader Pacific concern for self-determination and human rights in Melanesia, though it has been met with strong objections from Indonesia.
Foreign aid from various sources, including Australia, New Zealand, China, Japan, and multilateral organizations, plays a crucial role in the country's budget and development efforts. The diverse impacts of this aid and the increasing geopolitical competition in the Pacific region continue to shape Solomon Islands' foreign policy and its efforts to maintain sovereignty while addressing pressing national development needs. The nation seeks to balance its relationships to maximize benefits for its people while navigating the complexities of international diplomacy.

4.4. Military

Solomon Islands has not maintained a regular military force since its independence in 1978. During World War II, the locally recruited British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force was part of the Allied forces and participated in fighting in the Solomons.
Post-independence, defense and security have primarily been the responsibility of the Royal Solomon Islands Police Force (RSIPF). Various paramilitary elements within the RSIPF were disbanded and disarmed in 2003 following the intervention of the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI). RAMSI itself included a small military detachment, headed by an Australian commander, which assisted the police element of RAMSI in maintaining internal and external security.
The RSIPF is responsible for a range of security functions, including maintaining law and order, border protection, and maritime surveillance. The force operates two Guardian-class patrol boats (such as the former Pacific-class patrol boats RSIPV Auki and RSIPV Lata), which constitute the country's de facto navy, primarily used for maritime surveillance within its extensive Exclusive Economic Zone.
The police budget has faced strains, particularly following the civil unrest in the late 1990s and early 2000s. For instance, after Cyclone Zoe struck the islands of Tikopia and Anuta in December 2002, Australia provided financial assistance (50.00 K AUD) for fuel and supplies for the patrol boat Lata to deliver relief.
In the long term, the RSIPF is expected to fully resume all defense-related roles. The police force is headed by a Commissioner, appointed by the Governor-General and responsible to the Minister of Police, National Security & Correctional Services.
The security agreement signed with China in 2022 has introduced a new dimension to the country's security landscape, allowing Solomon Islands to request Chinese police and military personnel to assist in maintaining social order, disaster response, and other areas. This development has sparked debate both domestically and internationally regarding its implications for Solomon Islands' sovereignty and regional security dynamics.

4.5. Human rights

The status of human rights in Solomon Islands presents a mixed picture, with constitutional protections in place but significant challenges remaining in practice, particularly concerning social and economic rights, gender equality, and access to justice. The country has ratified several international human rights treaties, but implementation and enforcement face obstacles due to resource constraints, cultural factors, and weak institutional capacity. Solomon Islands does not have a national human rights institution compliant with the Paris Principles.
Key human rights issues include:

• Access to Basic Services:** Many Solomon Islanders, especially in rural and remote areas, lack adequate access to quality education, healthcare, safe drinking water, and sanitation facilities. These deficiencies disproportionately affect vulnerable groups, including women, children, and people with disabilities, and impede overall human development.
• Gender Equality and Domestic Violence:** Gender inequality is pervasive, and domestic violence and sexual violence against women and girls are alarmingly high. Reports indicate that a significant majority of women have experienced physical or sexual abuse by a partner. Cultural norms, traditional practices like bride price (which can be misinterpreted as conferring ownership), and economic disparities contribute to the vulnerability of women. While the Family Protection Act 2014 was a significant legislative step to address domestic violence, effective implementation, access to support services for survivors, and changing societal attitudes remain critical challenges.
• Rights of Minorities and Vulnerable Groups:** While the population is predominantly Melanesian, Polynesian and Micronesian minorities exist. Ensuring their full participation and protection from discrimination is important. People with disabilities face significant barriers in accessing education, employment, and public services.
• LGBT Rights:** Homosexual acts between consenting adult males are criminalized under the penal code, punishable by up to 14 years of imprisonment. This legal framework contributes to discrimination and stigma against LGBT individuals, hindering their ability to live openly and access services without fear. There is limited public discussion or advocacy for LGBT rights within the country.
• Access to Justice:** The justice system faces challenges, including delays, limited resources, and difficulties in reaching remote populations. Integrating customary law with the formal legal system in a manner that upholds human rights standards is an ongoing process.
• Corruption and Governance:** Corruption can undermine human rights by diverting resources from essential public services and weakening the rule of law. Strengthening transparency, accountability, and good governance is crucial for the protection of human rights.

Efforts by the government, civil society organizations, and international partners are underway to address these human rights issues. These include legal reforms, awareness campaigns, capacity building for state institutions, and programs aimed at improving access to services and promoting social justice. However, sustained commitment and resources are needed to achieve meaningful progress in upholding the human rights of all Solomon Islanders.

6.1. Topography and islands

Solomon Islands lies east of Papua New Guinea and consists of six major islands and over 992 smaller islands, cays, and atolls. The main island group forms part of the larger Solomon Islands archipelago, which also includes Bougainville (politically part of Papua New Guinea). The major islands of the nation of Solomon Islands include Guadalcanal (the largest and location of the capital, Honiara), Malaita, Santa Isabel, Makira (formerly San Cristobal), Choiseul, and the New Georgia Islands. Other significant island groups and islands include the Shortland Islands, the Russell Islands, the Florida Islands (Nggela Islands), Tulagi, Maramasike, Ulawa, Owaraha (Santa Ana), Sikaiana, Rennell Island, Bellona Island, and the Santa Cruz Islands. Outlying islands such as Tikopia, Anuta, and Fatutaka are also part of the country.
The islands are predominantly mountainous and of volcanic origin, with several active and dormant volcanoes. The highest peak is Mount Popomanaseu on Guadalcanal, reaching 7.6 K ft ^{(2.33 K m)} (sources vary, some state 2,440m). The terrain is rugged, often covered in dense tropical rainforest. The distance between the westernmost and easternmost islands is approximately 0.9 K mile ^{(1.50 K km)} (or 0.9 K mile ^{(1.45 K km)}). The Santa Cruz Islands, including Tikopia, are particularly isolated, situated north of Vanuatu and more than 124 mile ^{(200 km)} from the other main islands.
Soil quality varies, ranging from rich volcanic soils on some of the larger islands to relatively infertile limestone on others. The volcanic islands often feature narrow coastal plains.

6.2. Climate

Solomon Islands has a tropical oceanic climate, characterized by high humidity and warm temperatures throughout the year. The mean temperature is around 79.7 °F ^{(26.5 °C)} (or 80.6 °F ^{(27 °C)}), with minimal seasonal variation.
Rainfall is abundant, with an annual average of about 0.1 K in ^{(3.05 K mm)}, though this can vary significantly by location and altitude. The period from November to April is generally the wetter season, influenced by northwesterly winds, and is also when tropical cyclones are more likely to occur. June through August tends to be slightly cooler and drier.
The country is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including sea level rise, increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, and threats to its marine and terrestrial ecosystems. According to the WorldRiskReport 2021, Solomon Islands ranks second among countries with the highest disaster risk worldwide. In 2023, Solomon Islands, along with other vulnerable Pacific island states, launched the "Port Vila Call for a Just Transition to a Fossil Fuel Free Pacific," advocating for a phase-out of fossil fuels and a transition to renewable energy.

6.3. Ecology

Solomon Islands boasts rich and diverse terrestrial and marine ecosystems, but these are under increasing pressure from human activities and climate change.
The Solomon Islands archipelago is part of two distinct terrestrial ecoregions. Most of the islands belong to the Solomon Islands rain forests ecoregion, which also includes Bougainville and Buka. These forests are characterized by high biodiversity but have come under significant pressure from commercial logging. The Santa Cruz Islands are part of the Vanuatu rain forests ecoregion, shared with the neighboring archipelago of Vanuatu. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.19/10, ranking it 48th globally out of 172 countries. More than 230 varieties of orchids and other tropical flowers are found in Solomon Islands.
The islands contain several active and dormant volcanoes, such as Tinakula and Kavachi (an active submarine volcano).

6.3.1. Forests and biodiversity

Tropical rainforests cover a significant portion of Solomon Islands, harboring a wealth of flora and fauna, including many endemic species of birds, insects, and plants. The isolation of the islands has contributed to this unique biodiversity. However, deforestation due to unsustainable logging practices poses a major threat to these forests and their inhabitants. Mining activities also contribute to habitat destruction and environmental degradation.
Conservation efforts are underway, often involving local communities and international organizations, but face challenges due to economic pressures and limited resources. For example, on the southern side of Vangunu Island, local communities have been advocating for the protection of forests around Zaira, which provide habitat for vulnerable animal species, against logging and mining interests. Ensuring ecological sustainability and fair labor practices in resource extraction industries is a critical concern for the long-term well-being of both the environment and the people.

6.4. Natural disasters

Solomon Islands is highly susceptible to a range of natural disasters due to its geographical location in the Pacific Ring of Fire and its tropical climate. These disasters pose significant risks to human life, infrastructure, and the economy, exacerbating existing vulnerabilities.

• Earthquakes:** The islands experience frequent seismic activity. Major earthquakes can cause significant damage to buildings and infrastructure, trigger landslides, and generate tsunamis. For example, in April 2007, an M_w 8.1 earthquake and subsequent tsunami primarily affected Western Province and Choiseul Province, resulting in at least 52 deaths, destroying over 900 homes, and displacing thousands. The land upthrust from this quake extended the shoreline of Ranongga Island by up to 230 ft ^{(70 m)}. Another significant event was the February 2013 M_w 8.0 earthquake in the Santa Cruz Islands, which also generated a tsunami, causing fatalities and widespread destruction.
• Tsunamis:** Generated by local or distant earthquakes, tsunamis pose a severe threat to coastal communities, which form the majority of settlements in Solomon Islands.
• Tropical cyclones:** The country lies within the cyclone belt and is affected by cyclones, particularly between November and April. These can bring destructive winds, heavy rainfall, storm surges, and widespread flooding, causing extensive damage to crops, housing, and infrastructure, and disrupting essential services.
• Flooding and Landslides:** Heavy rainfall, often associated with cyclones or prolonged wet seasons, can lead to severe flooding, especially in low-lying coastal areas and river valleys. The mountainous terrain also makes many areas prone to landslides.
• Volcanic Eruptions:** Several active volcanoes, such as Tinakula and the submarine volcano Kavachi, pose a risk of eruption, which could lead to ashfall, pyroclastic flows, and localized tsunamis.

The national disaster response system involves government agencies, provincial authorities, non-governmental organizations, and international partners. Efforts focus on disaster preparedness, early warning systems, emergency response, and post-disaster recovery and reconstruction. However, logistical challenges due to the scattered nature of the islands and limited resources can hamper effective disaster management. Climate change adaptation measures are also critical to reducing vulnerability to climate-related disasters.

6.5. Water and sanitation

Access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation facilities remains a significant challenge in Solomon Islands, particularly in rural and remote areas, and has profound implications for public health and overall human development.
While the islands generally have sources of fresh water, these are often not easily accessible, consistently available, or safe for consumption without treatment. Piped water systems are largely confined to urban centers like Honiara, and even there, supply can be intermittent and quality variable. Rural communities often rely on rainwater harvesting, wells, springs, or surface water sources, which can be contaminated, especially during floods or droughts.
Sanitation coverage is also low. According to a UNICEF report, many communities, including poorer urban areas, lack access to adequate sanitation facilities (e.g., improved latrines or toilets). A significant percentage of schools reportedly lack access to safe water and sanitation.
The consequences of inadequate water and sanitation are severe:

• Health Issues:** Contaminated water and poor sanitation are major contributors to waterborne diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, and typhoid fever, which are leading causes of illness and mortality, especially among children. Skin diseases and eye infections are also common.
• Impact on Education:** Lack of safe water and sanitation in schools affects student health and attendance, particularly for girls.
• Economic Burden:** Illness due to poor water and sanitation leads to loss of productivity and increased healthcare costs for families and the nation.

Efforts to improve water and sanitation are underway, involving the government, NGOs, and international development partners like the World Bank and the European Union. Programs such as the Solomon Islands Second Rural Development Program (active 2014-2020) have aimed to deliver infrastructure, including water supply systems (like rain catchment and storage systems in villages such as Bolava, Western Province) and sanitation facilities, to rural areas.
Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals related to clean water and sanitation (SDG 6) requires sustained investment, community participation, capacity building for local water management, and attention to hygiene promotion. Addressing these challenges is crucial for improving the health, well-being, and resilience of the Solomon Islands population.

7.1. Economic structure and current status

Solomon Islands is classified as a Least Developed Country (LDC). In 2017, its GDP per capita was approximately 600 USD (though other sources give slightly higher figures like $2,145 PPP in 2017). A large majority of the labor force, estimated at over 75%, is engaged in subsistence agriculture and fishing, producing food primarily for their own consumption.
The formal economy is heavily reliant on a few key sectors:

• Forestry:** Timber has historically been a major export, but unsustainable logging practices have led to resource depletion and environmental concerns. Efforts are being made towards more sustainable forest management, but illegal logging and weak governance remain challenges. The distribution of benefits from logging has also been a contentious issue.
• Agriculture:** Cash crops include copra, cocoa, and palm oil.
• Fisheries:** Tuna is a significant marine resource, and fishing (both domestic and through licensing foreign fleets) contributes to export earnings.
• Mining:** Gold mining has occurred (e.g., Gold Ridge on Guadalcanal), and there are undeveloped deposits of other minerals like lead, zinc, and nickel. Mining operations have often been controversial due to environmental and social impacts.

The country imports most manufactured goods and petroleum products. Only a small percentage of land (around 3.9%) is used for agriculture, while a large proportion (around 78.1%) is covered by forests.
The Solomon Islands Government faced insolvency in 2002, prior to the RAMSI intervention. RAMSI (2003-2017) played a crucial role in stabilizing the economy, reforming public finances, and improving economic governance. However, the country continues to rely heavily on foreign aid from donors such as Australia, New Zealand, China (increasingly), Japan, and the European Union.
Challenges to equitable economic development include:

• Geographical fragmentation:** High transportation and communication costs.
• Limited infrastructure:** Inadequate roads, ports, and energy supply.
• Vulnerability to natural disasters and climate change.**
• Governance issues:** Corruption and political instability can deter investment and misdirect resources.
• Land tenure disputes:** Complex customary land ownership systems can complicate large-scale development projects.

Efforts are focused on diversifying the economy, promoting sustainable resource management, improving infrastructure, strengthening governance, and enhancing human capital to achieve more inclusive and equitable growth.

7.2. Currency

The official currency of Solomon Islands is the Solomon Islands dollar (SBD), which has the ISO 4217 code SBD. It was introduced in 1977, replacing the Australian dollar at par. The symbol for the Solomon Islands dollar is typically "SI$", although the "SI" prefix may be omitted if there is no confusion with other currencies that also use the dollar sign "$". The Solomon Islands dollar is subdivided into 100 cents.
In addition to the official currency, traditional forms of currency, notably shell money, still hold cultural and ceremonial importance in certain provinces. Shell money, which consists of small, polished shell disks drilled and strung together, is particularly manufactured in areas like the Langa Langa Lagoon in Malaita Province and on Guadalcanal. While primarily used for traditional purposes such as bride price payments and ceremonial exchanges, in some remote parts of the country, shell money may still be used for trade. It can sometimes be bought at markets like the Honiara Central Market.
In very remote areas, the barter system, exchanging goods and services directly without the use of any form of money, may also occur.

7.3. Main industries

The economy of Solomon Islands is largely based on its natural resources, with primary industries playing a central role. These sectors face challenges related to sustainability, global commodity price fluctuations, and the need for equitable benefit-sharing.

7.3.1. Agriculture

Agriculture is the mainstay of the Solomon Islands economy, engaging the vast majority of the population, primarily at a subsistence level.

• Subsistence Crops:** Key staple crops grown for local consumption include taro (45,901 tons in 2017), yams (44,940 tons in 2017), sweet potatoes, cassava, and bananas (313 tons in 2017). Rice is also grown (2,789 tons in 2017), but the country is not self-sufficient.
• Cash Crops:**
  • Coconuts/Copra:** Coconuts are widely grown, and copra (dried coconut flesh) is a traditional export. In 2017, 317,682 tons of coconuts were harvested, making the country the 18th largest producer globally. Copra accounted for 24% of exports in one assessment.
  • Palm Oil:** Large-scale oil palm plantations exist, primarily on Guadalcanal (e.g., near Tetere) and Russell Islands. In 2017, 285,721 tons of palm oil were produced, ranking Solomon Islands 24th globally. This industry provides employment but has also faced scrutiny over land use and environmental impacts.
  • Cocoa:** Cocoa beans are grown, mainly on Guadalcanal, Makira, and Malaita. In 2017, 4,940 tons were harvested (27th globally).
  • Other:** Tobacco (118 tons in 2017) and various spices (217 tons in 2017) are also cultivated.

  Challenges in the agricultural sector include the old age of many coconut and cacao trees, which hampers productivity, limited access to markets and finance for smallholders, vulnerability to pests and diseases, and the impacts of climate change. Promoting sustainable agricultural practices and improving value chains are key development goals.

7.4. Energy

Energy access and sustainability are critical development challenges for Solomon Islands. The country heavily relies on imported fossil fuels for electricity generation and transportation, which is costly and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions.

• Primary Energy Sources and Electricity Supply:**
  • Diesel-generated electricity is the primary source for the main urban grids, particularly in Honiara, managed by Solomon Power (formerly Solomon Islands Electricity Authority - SIEA). Electricity supply is largely confined to Honiara and provincial centers, with limited reach into rural areas. Many rural communities lack access to electricity or rely on small, individual diesel generators, kerosene lamps, or biomass for energy.
  • The cost of electricity is high due to the reliance on imported fuel and the logistical challenges of distribution across numerous islands.
• Renewable Energy Development:** There is significant potential for renewable energy development in Solomon Islands, which the government and international partners are increasingly focusing on to reduce fossil fuel dependency, lower energy costs, and address climate change.
  • Solar Power:** Solar energy is a promising option, given the country's abundant sunshine. Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are being deployed for rural electrification (e.g., for schools, health clinics, and households) and are also being integrated into the main grids. Schemes have been developed, sometimes with innovative financing (e.g., allowing islanders to pay for solar lanterns with crops if cash is unavailable, as explored by SOPAC/REEEP), to increase access to solar energy in remote communities.
  • Hydropower:** Several potential hydropower sites exist, and some small-scale hydro projects have been developed or are under consideration.
  • Wind Power:** Wind energy potential is also being explored in certain locations.
  • Biomass/Biofuels:** Given the agricultural base, there is potential for biomass energy and biofuels, though sustainability and food security considerations are important.
• Policies and Initiatives:** The Solomon Islands government has articulated policies and targets aimed at increasing the share of renewable energy in its energy mix and improving energy efficiency. These efforts are often supported by development partners like the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and various countries. The goal is to enhance energy security, improve accessibility (especially in rural areas), reduce the economic burden of fuel imports, and contribute to climate change mitigation.

Addressing the energy challenge is crucial for sustainable economic development, improving livelihoods, and enhancing resilience in Solomon Islands.

8.1. Population statistics

The total population of Solomon Islands at the November 2019 census was 721,455. Estimates for mid-2023 by the Solomon Islands National Statistical Office placed the population at 734,887. The UN estimated the population at 707,851 in 2021. Population growth rates have historically been high.
The population is slightly skewed towards males, with around 370,000 males compared to 356,000 females (based on some 2024 estimates). The age structure is youthful, with a large proportion of the population under the age of 15, which presents both opportunities (demographic dividend if education and employment are adequate) and challenges (pressure on social services).
The majority of the population lives in rural areas, engaged in subsistence agriculture and fishing. Honiara, the capital and largest city, is the main urban center and has experienced significant population growth due to rural-urban migration.

8.2. Ethnic groups

The ethnic composition of Solomon Islands is diverse, reflecting various waves of migration and settlement over millennia:

• Melanesian:** The vast majority of the population, around 95.3%, is ethnically Melanesian. This group itself is culturally and linguistically diverse, with distinct traditions and languages associated with different islands and regions.
• Polynesian:** Approximately 3.1% of the population is Polynesian. These communities are found primarily on Polynesian outlier islands such as Rennell and Bellona (to the south), Tikopia, Anuta, and Fatutaka (to the far east), Sikaiana (to the northeast), and Luaniua (Ontong Java Atoll) (to the north).
• Micronesian:** About 1.2% of the population is Micronesian. This group largely consists of immigrants from Kiribati (i-Kiribati) and Tuvalu, many of whom were resettled in Solomon Islands during the colonial era due to issues like overpopulation or environmental changes on their home atolls.
• Other groups:** There are small populations of Europeans (around 0.1%) and ethnic Chinese (around 0.1%), many of whom are involved in business and commerce.

Ethnic identity is strong and often tied to specific islands or regions. While generally coexisting peacefully, ethnic differences, particularly over land and resources, have at times led to tensions, most notably the conflict between Guadalcanal and Malaitan communities from 1998-2003. National unity in the face of this diversity remains an ongoing project.

8.3. Languages

Solomon Islands is one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world relative to its population size.

• Official Language:** English is the official language, used in government, education, and formal business. However, only a small percentage of the population (estimated at 1-2%) speaks English fluently as a first or primary language.
• Lingua Franca:** Solomons Pijin (often referred to as Pijin) is the de facto lingua franca of the country. It is an English-based creole language spoken by the majority of the population and serves as a common means of communication among people from different language backgrounds. Pijin is closely related to Tok Pisin of Papua New Guinea and Bislama of Vanuatu.
• Indigenous Languages:** According to Ethnologue, there are approximately 74 languages indigenous to Solomon Islands, of which 70 are living languages and 4 are extinct.
  • Most of these indigenous languages belong to the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian language family. These include the Southeast Solomonic languages spoken on many of the central islands.
  • A smaller group of languages, known as the Central Solomon languages (e.g., Bilua, Lavukaleve, Savosavo, and Touo), form an independent family within the broader category of Papuan languages (non-Austronesian). These are spoken on some of the central and western islands.
  • Polynesian languages are spoken on the Polynesian outlier islands mentioned in the ethnic groups section.
  • Immigrant populations, such as the i-Kiribati, speak Gilbertese, a Micronesian language.

  The high linguistic diversity reflects the country's complex history of settlement and limited historical interaction between isolated island communities. While Pijin facilitates inter-group communication, the preservation of indigenous languages is a concern, as some are spoken by very small communities and are at risk of endangerment. There have been instances of some provinces considering the adoption of the Korean Hangul script for local languages, though the extent of this adoption is unclear.

8.4. Religion

Religion plays a significant role in the lives of Solomon Islanders, with the vast majority of the population identifying as Christian. Freedom of religion is constitutionally protected.
The main Christian denominations include:

• Anglican Church of Melanesia:** This is the largest denomination, accounting for approximately 32-35% of the population. It has a strong historical presence stemming from early missionary work.
• Roman Catholic Church:** About 19% of the population is Catholic.
• South Seas Evangelical Church (SSEC):** This is a significant evangelical denomination, with around 17% of the population.
• United Church:** Approximately 10-11% of Solomon Islanders belong to the United Church (a union of Methodist and Presbyterian traditions).
• Seventh-day Adventist Church:** Around 10-12% of the population are Seventh-day Adventists.

Other Christian denominations present include Jehovah's Witnesses, the New Apostolic Church (which reported around 80 churches), and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
Approximately 5% of the population adheres to indigenous or aboriginal beliefs, often syncretized with Christian practices. These traditional beliefs vary across different islands and cultural groups and may involve reverence for ancestors and spirits associated with nature.
There are also small communities of other religions. Islam is practiced by a small minority, estimated at around 350 Muslims, including members of the Ahmadiyya Muslim community. The Baháʼí Faith also has a presence.
Churches often play an important role in community life, providing social services, education, and healthcare, in addition to spiritual guidance. Religious festivals and gatherings are significant cultural events.

8.5. Health

Health indicators in Solomon Islands reflect the challenges faced by a developing nation with a dispersed population and limited resources. Access to healthcare services is a major concern, particularly in rural and remote areas.

• Major Health Issues:**
  • Malaria:** Malaria remains a significant public health problem, though progress has been made in control and prevention. In 2018, there were 59,191 confirmed cases, with Plasmodium vivax (59.3%) and Plasmodium falciparum (26.7%) being the predominant species.
  • Non-communicable Diseases (NCDs):** Lifestyle-related diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, and ischaemic heart disease are increasingly prevalent and are leading causes of mortality. Stroke is also a major cause of death according to WHO data for 2021.
  • Infectious Diseases:** Besides malaria, other infectious diseases include tuberculosis, dengue fever (first reported in 1982, with a notable outbreak in 2013 causing fatalities), and Zika virus (first outbreak reported in 2015). Respiratory infections and diarrheal diseases are common, especially among children, often linked to poor water and sanitation.
  • Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs):** STIs, including chlamydia, are prevalent. One small-scale study reported a 20% chlamydia case rate among 296 women attendees at a clinic.
• Life Expectancy and Mortality:** Life expectancy at birth was around 66.7 years for women and 64.9 years for men (2007 data). More recent estimates may show slight improvements. Infant and child mortality rates, while having declined, remain higher than in developed countries.
• Access to Medical Services:** Healthcare infrastructure is limited. Honiara has the main referral hospital (National Referral Hospital), but provincial hospitals and rural health clinics often face shortages of staff, medicines, and equipment. Geographical barriers make it difficult for many people to access services.
• Public Health Efforts:** The government, with support from international partners like the World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF, and donor countries, implements programs to address these health challenges. These include malaria control programs, immunization campaigns, maternal and child health initiatives, NCD prevention and management, and efforts to improve water and sanitation.

Equitable access to healthcare, strengthening the health system, addressing the growing burden of NCDs, and improving maternal and child health are key priorities for improving the health status of the Solomon Islands population. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI) data would likely show areas where Solomon Islands is underperforming in the right to health based on its income level.

8.6. Education

Education in Solomon Islands is considered crucial for national development, but the system faces significant challenges in terms of access, quality, and equity. Education is not compulsory, and while primary school enrollment has increased, achieving universal primary education and improving progression to secondary and higher education remain goals.

• Structure of the Education System:** The system generally includes early childhood education (kindergartens, mostly privately run and not free), primary education, secondary education, and tertiary/vocational education.
• Access to Education:** While gross primary school enrollment rose significantly in the past (e.g., from 84.5% in 1990 to 96.6% in 1994), net attendance rates and completion rates, particularly at secondary level, are lower. Only about 60% of school-age children were reported to have access to primary education in some older assessments. Access is particularly challenging in rural and remote areas due to geographical barriers, lack of schools, and household poverty. Male educational attainment tends to be higher than female attainment in some metrics.
• Literacy Rates:** The adult literacy rate was approximately 84.1% in 2015 (88.9% for men, 79.23% for women).

• Higher Education:** The main institution for higher education is the University of the South Pacific (USP), which has a campus on Guadalcanal (USP Solomon Islands Campus). Other tertiary institutions include the Solomon Islands National University (SINU), formed from the amalgamation of several existing colleges. Vocational training opportunities are limited.
• Challenges:**
  • Funding:** Insufficient government funding for education. The percentage of the government budget allocated to education was 9.7% in 1998, down from 13.2% in 1990.
  • Infrastructure and Resources:** Shortage of classrooms, learning materials, and qualified teachers, especially in rural areas.
  • Quality of Education:** Concerns exist about the quality of teaching and learning outcomes.
  • Coordination:** Poor coordination of programs has been cited as a hindrance.
  • Barriers for Girls:** Girls may face additional barriers to education, including cultural norms, early marriage, and domestic responsibilities.
• Human Rights Perspective:** The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI) found that Solomon Islands was fulfilling only 70.1% of what it should for the right to education based on its income level. For primary education, it was achieving 94.9% of what should be possible, but only 45.4% for secondary education, indicating significant disparities in access and resourcing beyond the primary level. Education is viewed as a fundamental right, and efforts are ongoing by the government and development partners to expand educational facilities, increase enrollment and retention rates, and improve the quality of education across the country.

8.7. Gender inequality and domestic violence

Gender inequality is a significant and pervasive issue in Solomon Islands, with domestic violence and sexual violence against women and girls occurring at alarmingly high rates, among the highest in the world.

• Prevalence of Violence:** Studies and reports, including those by the World Health Organization (WHO), indicate that a large percentage of women in Solomon Islands experience physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner. A 2009 survey found that 64% of women aged 15-49 who had been in a relationship reported such violence.
• Causes of Gender Inequality and Violence:**
  • Societal Norms and Gender Roles:** Deeply entrenched patriarchal attitudes and traditional gender roles contribute to the problem. Violence against women is often normalized, with reports showing that a high percentage of both men and women believe violence against women can be justifiable under certain circumstances, such as infidelity or "disobedience" (e.g., not fulfilling prescribed gender roles). Masculinity is often associated with controlling women, sometimes through violence.
  • Bride Price:** The traditional practice of bride price, while having cultural significance, is sometimes misinterpreted or misused in ways that contribute to the perception of women as property and can make it harder for women to leave abusive relationships.
  • Economic Disparity:** Women often have fewer economic opportunities and less control over resources, increasing their vulnerability.
  • Limited Access to Justice and Support Services:** Survivors of violence face barriers in accessing justice, protection, and support services (e.g., shelters, counseling, medical care), particularly in rural areas.
• Legislation:** The Family Protection Act 2014 was a landmark piece of legislation aimed at criminalizing domestic violence and providing protection for survivors. Its passage was a significant step forward.
• Efforts to Address the Issue:** The government, along with civil society organizations (CSOs), faith-based organizations, and international partners, is working to address gender inequality and domestic violence. These efforts include:
  • Implementing the Family Protection Act and strengthening the justice system's response.
  • Raising awareness and conducting advocacy campaigns to change societal attitudes.
  • Providing support services for survivors.
  • Promoting women's empowerment and participation in decision-making.

  Despite these efforts, challenges remain in effectively implementing laws, ensuring access to services nationwide, and fundamentally shifting the cultural norms that perpetuate gender inequality and violence. Sustained commitment and resources are needed to protect the rights and well-being of women and girls in Solomon Islands and to achieve genuine gender equality.

9.1. Traditional culture

Traditional culture in Solomon Islands is deeply rooted in kinship, community, and a close relationship with the natural environment. Key concepts and practices include:

• 'Wantok' System:** Derived from the Pijin phrase for "one talk" (i.e., speaking the same language), the Wantok system refers to a strong sense of obligation and mutual support among people from the same language group, village, or extended family. It is a fundamental aspect of social cohesion and social security, where individuals are expected to assist their kin in times of need. While providing a vital support network, it can also sometimes conflict with modern governance principles (e.g., by creating pressures for nepotism).
• 'Kastom':** This Pijin term refers to traditional customs, laws, beliefs, and practices that govern community life. Kastom varies significantly between different islands and ethnic groups but generally encompasses land tenure systems, marriage customs, dispute resolution mechanisms, ceremonies, and spiritual beliefs. Kastom land ownership, where land is typically held communally by clans or lineages rather than by individuals, is a particularly important and often complex aspect.
• Malaitan Shell Money:** Manufactured primarily in the Langa Langa Lagoon on Malaita, shell money is a traditional form of currency used not only on Malaita but also in other parts of Solomon Islands, particularly for ceremonial purposes such as bride price payments, dispute settlements, and as a symbol of wealth and status. It consists of small, polished shell disks (often from specific types of shells like Tectus niloticus) that are drilled and strung together. The Tectus niloticus shell was also traditionally used to make items like pearl buttons and jewelry.
• Crafts and Art:** Solomon Islanders are renowned for their intricate wood carvings (e.g., figures, bowls, inlaid with mother-of-pearl shell), woven items (baskets, mats), and personal adornments. Art forms often have spiritual or symbolic significance. Examples of art include carved fish, Bukhaware trays, carved longboats, and "Gnusu Gnusu" heads.
• Social Structure:** Traditional societies are often organized around chiefs, elders, or "big men" (influential individuals who gain status through their actions and ability to organize community activities and feasts). Kinship systems can be matrilineal or patrilineal depending on the specific culture.
• Ceremonies and Rituals:** Life-cycle events (birth, initiation, marriage, death), harvests, and other significant occasions are often marked by ceremonies, feasts, dances, and music.

While Christianity is now widespread, elements of traditional spiritual beliefs, including reverence for ancestors and spirits associated with the land and sea, often coexist with Christian practices. The resilience and adaptation of traditional culture in the face of modern influences is a defining characteristic of Solomon Islands.

9.2. Literature

The literary scene in Solomon Islands, while perhaps not as widely known internationally as that of some larger Pacific nations, has produced notable writers who have explored themes relevant to Solomon Islands' history, culture, and post-colonial experience.
Major writers from Solomon Islands include:

• Rexford Orotaloa:** A novelist known for works that often delve into the complexities of traditional life and the impact of Western influences.
• John Saunana:** Another significant novelist and writer who has contributed to Solomon Islands literature. His works often reflect on social and political issues.
• Jully Makini (also known as Jully Sipolo):** A prominent poet whose work frequently addresses themes of identity, gender, social justice, and cultural change in Solomon Islands. Her poetry is recognized for its powerful voice and engagement with contemporary issues.

Other writers and oral storytellers also contribute to the literary landscape, often drawing on the rich oral traditions of the diverse indigenous cultures. The development of written literature in English and Pijin continues, with opportunities for emerging writers to share their perspectives. Challenges for the literary scene can include limited publishing opportunities and resources within the country.

9.3. Media

Media in Solomon Islands plays an important role in informing the public, facilitating debate, and reflecting cultural life, though it faces challenges related to infrastructure, resources, and reach, especially in remote areas.

• Newspapers:**
  • The Solomon Star is the main daily newspaper.
  • Solomon Times Online is a daily online news website.
  • Weekly papers have included Solomons Voice and Solomon Times (print edition).
  • Monthly papers such as Agrikalsa Nius (focused on agriculture) and Citizen's Press have also been published.
• Radio:** Radio remains the most influential mass medium, particularly due to high literacy challenges in some areas, linguistic diversity (though Pijin is a common lingua franca), and the difficulty of receiving television signals across the rugged and dispersed archipelago.
  • The Solomon Islands Broadcasting Corporation (SIBC) is the public broadcaster, operating national stations like Radio Happy Isles (AM) and Wantok FM (FM), as well as provincial stations such as Radio Happy Lagoon (in Western Province) and formerly Radio Temotu. SIBC plays a crucial role in news dissemination, public information, and cultural programming.
  • There are also commercial FM stations, such as Z FM and PAOA FM, primarily serving Honiara and surrounding areas, and community radio stations like Gold Ridge FM.
• Television:** Television coverage is not nationwide. Some free-to-air digital and analogue services are available, mainly in Honiara and a few other urban centers. Telekom Television Limited, operated by Solomon Telekom Co. Ltd., rebroadcasts a number of regional and international TV services, including ABC Australia and BBC World News. Satellite TV services like SATSOL (a digital paid TV service) are also available for those who can afford them.
• Internet and Mobile Phones:** Internet access has been growing but is still limited and relatively expensive, especially outside urban areas. Mobile phone penetration, however, is more widespread. The 2019 census reported that 225,945 people aged 12 and above owned a mobile phone, with the majority in Honiara. As of early 2022, there were approximately 229,500 internet users. Mobile phones are increasingly used for accessing social media and online information.

Media freedom is generally respected, but journalists can face challenges, including resource limitations and occasional political pressures.

9.4. Music

Music is an integral part of cultural life in Solomon Islands, encompassing diverse traditional forms and vibrant contemporary genres.

• Traditional Melanesian Music:** This varies greatly across the islands. Common features include:
  • Vocal Music:** Both group and solo singing are prevalent, often associated with ceremonies, storytelling, and daily activities. Harmonies can be complex.
  • Instruments:**
    • Slit drums:** Large wooden drums played by striking, used for communication and in ceremonial music.
    • Panpipes:** Ensembles of panpipes made from bamboo are a hallmark of Solomon Islands music, particularly in areas like Malaita and Guadalcanal. The music is often intricate and polyphonic. Different sizes of panpipes create a range of pitches.
    • Bamboo Music:** Stamping tubes, bamboo trumpets, and other bamboo instruments are widely used. A unique form of "bamboo music" (sometimes called "bamboo bands") where bamboo tubes of varying lengths are struck with paddles or flip-flops to create percussive melodies, gained popularity in the 20th century.
  • Other traditional instruments include conch shells, various types of hand drums, and rattles.
• "Walkabout long Chinatown":** In the 1950s, Edwin Nanau Sitori composed the song "Walkabout long Chinatown." This song, with its distinctive island rhythm, has become widely popular and is sometimes referred to by the government as the unofficial "national song" of Solomon Islands.
• Contemporary Popular Music:** Modern Solomon Islander popular music incorporates various international genres, often blended with local musical elements.
  • Island Music/Local Reggae:** Reggae is extremely popular and has been adapted into a local style, often referred to as "island reggae." String bands are also common.
  • Rock and other genres:** Rock music and other international pop genres also have a following.
• Local artists and bands perform in Pijin, local languages, and English, addressing contemporary themes as well as traditional stories.

Music is a dynamic and evolving aspect of Solomon Islands culture, connecting past traditions with modern expressions.

9.5. Sports

Sports play an important social and recreational role in Solomon Islands, with several sports enjoying widespread popularity.

• Football (Soccer):** Football is the most popular sport in the country. The Solomon Islands national football team competes in the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC). While they have not qualified for the FIFA World Cup, they have achieved notable successes in regional competitions, including finishing as runners-up in the 2004 OFC Nations Cup, where they famously beat New Zealand in one stage of the tournament. The national league is the Telekom S-League. As of 2024, the men's team was ranked 147th and the women's team 86th by FIFA.
• Futsal:** Solomon Islands has a very strong national futsal team, known as the "Kurukuru." They have dominated the OFC Futsal Championship, winning it multiple times and thereby qualifying for several FIFA Futsal World Cup tournaments. The Kurukuru once held the world record for the fastest goal scored in an official futsal match, set by captain Elliot Ragomo (3 seconds into a game against New Caledonia in 2009).
• Beach Soccer:** The Solomon Islands national beach soccer team, known as the "Bilikiki Boys," has also been highly successful regionally, winning multiple OFC Beach Soccer Championships and representing Oceania at the FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup. They have achieved a higher world ranking than any other team from Oceania in this sport (ranked 14th in the world as of 2010).
• Rugby Union:** Rugby union is also popular. The Solomon Islands national rugby union team has played internationals since 1969 and has participated in Oceania qualifying tournaments for the Rugby World Cup.
• Other Sports:** Other sports played include netball, volleyball, basketball, and cricket. Athletics is also pursued, with Solomon Islands participating in regional and international competitions like the Pacific Games and the Commonwealth Games.

Solomon Islands hosted the 2023 Pacific Games in Honiara, which involved significant investment in new sporting facilities and infrastructure, largely with Chinese assistance. Participation in sports is seen as promoting health, national unity, and international representation.

9.6. Public holidays

Public holidays in Solomon Islands include a mix of national, religious (Christian), and provincial holidays. The main national public holidays are:

• January 1:** New Year's Day
• Good Friday**: (movable feast, Christian)
• Easter Monday**: (movable feast, Christian)
• Whit Monday (Pentecost Monday)**: (movable feast, Christian)
• Queen's/King's Official Birthday**: Usually celebrated on the second Monday of June (or a date proclaimed, traditionally linked to the British monarch's official birthday). With King Charles III, the date might be formalized differently or follow past practice.
• July 7:** Independence Day - Commemorates independence from the United Kingdom in 1978. This is a major national celebration.
• December 25:** Christmas Day (Christian)
• December 26:** Boxing Day (traditionally National Day of Thanksgiving in Solomon Islands)

In addition to these, each province has its own Provincial Day, which is a public holiday within that specific province. There may also be other gazetted public holidays from time to time. These holidays are occasions for rest, community gatherings, religious observances, and national or cultural celebrations.

10.1. Air transport

• Honiara International Airport (HIR):** Located near Honiara on Guadalcanal, this is the country's main international gateway. It handles flights to and from regional hubs like Brisbane (Australia), Nadi (Fiji), Port Vila (Vanuatu), and Port Moresby (Papua New Guinea).
• Airlines:**
  • Solomon Airlines: The national airline operates international services and an extensive network of domestic flights connecting Honiara to provincial capitals and many smaller islands. In 2019, Solomon Airlines introduced a weekly direct flight between Brisbane and Munda (Western Province) to promote tourism.
  • Other international airlines, such as Virgin Australia and Fiji Airways, also serve Honiara.
• Domestic Airports:** There are over 20 domestic airports and airstrips scattered throughout the islands. Many of these have short, unpaved (grass or coral) runways, suitable only for small aircraft. Domestic air travel is crucial for inter-island connectivity but can be expensive and sometimes unreliable due to weather or operational issues.

10.2. Road transport

• Road Network:** The road network is limited and largely concentrated around Honiara and some provincial centers. Most islands have very few roads, and many rural communities are accessible only by sea or on foot. The total road length is relatively small, and many roads are unsealed and in poor condition, particularly affected by heavy rain and lack of maintenance. The most important roads connect Honiara to Lambi (36 mile ^{(58 km)}) in western Guadalcanal and to Aola (47 mile ^{(75 km)}) in eastern Guadalcanal.
• Public Transport:** Public transport is primarily in the form of privately-owned buses and taxis, mainly in Honiara and a few larger towns. Bus services often do not operate on fixed timetables. In Honiara, there isn't a central bus terminus; buses often congregate near the Central Market.
• Railways:** There are no railways in Solomon Islands.

The condition of roads significantly impacts access to markets, schools, health facilities, and administrative services, especially for rural populations.

10.3. Maritime transport

• Inter-Island Ferries and Shipping:** Given the archipelagic nature of the country, maritime transport is essential for inter-island travel and the movement of goods. A variety of vessels, from motorized canoes to larger passenger and cargo ferries, operate between the islands. Regular ferry services connect Honiara to major provincial centers like Auki (Malaita), Gizo (Western Province), and Kirakira (Makira-Ulawa). For example, a high-speed catamaran provides daily service from Honiara to Auki via Tulagi. However, services to more remote islands can be infrequent and less reliable.
• Ports:** The main international port is in Honiara, handling most of the country's cargo. Noro in Western Province is another significant port, particularly for the tuna industry. Many smaller jetties and wharves exist throughout the islands, but their condition varies.

Improving and maintaining transport infrastructure is a key priority for the Solomon Islands government to support economic growth, service delivery, and national cohesion.