New Zealand

3.1. Polynesian settlement and Māori culture

New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses to be settled by humans. The first settlers were Polynesians who arrived in ocean-going waka_canoes^Maori in several waves between approximately 1280 and 1350 CE. Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation, and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations support this timeframe. These settlers originated from East Polynesia, concluding a long series of voyages across the Pacific. According to many Māori oral traditions, the mythical explorer Kupe was the first to discover the islands. Over centuries, these Polynesian settlers developed a distinct culture and society, becoming known as the Māori.

Māori society was tribal, organised into iwi (tribes) and hapū (sub-tribes or clans), which were the main political and social units. Leadership was provided by rangatira (chiefs) and tohunga (priests or skilled experts), whose positions often depended on lineage, skill, and community approval. Māori developed a rich oral culture, including intricate mythologies, genealogies (whakapapa_genealogies^Maori), and art forms such as carving (whakairo_carving^Maori), weaving (raranga_weaving^Maori), and tattooing (tā moko_tattooing^Maori). Their spiritual life was deeply connected to the natural world, with concepts like tapu_{sacred/forbidden}^Maori and mana_{spiritual power/authority}^Maori playing crucial roles. They adapted their Polynesian agricultural practices to New Zealand's temperate climate, cultivating crops like kūmara_{sweet potato}^Maori, taro, and yams, and relied on hunting (notably the now-extinct moa), fishing, and gathering native plants. Some Māori later migrated to the Chatham Islands, where they developed the distinct Moriori culture.

3.2. European arrival and early interactions

The first European to sight New Zealand was Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642. During a tense encounter in what is now Golden Bay, four of Tasman's crew were killed, and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot. Tasman named the land Staten Landt. Europeans did not return until 1769, when British explorer Captain James Cook arrived on the Endeavour. Cook and his crew, including the Tahitian navigator Tupaia who could communicate with Māori, extensively mapped the coastline and made detailed observations of the land and its people.

Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by increasing numbers of European and North American whalers, sealers, and traders. These early interactions were complex, involving both cooperation and conflict. Māori engaged in trade, exchanging resources like timber, flax (harakeke_flax^Maori), and provisions for European goods such as metal tools, cloth, and, significantly, muskets. The introduction of potatoes and muskets had a profound impact on Māori society. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, supporting larger populations and enabling longer military campaigns. Muskets, acquired by some tribes earlier than others, led to a period of intense intertribal warfare known as the Musket Wars (roughly 1801-1840). These conflicts resulted in significant loss of life, estimated at 30,000-40,000 Māori, and major shifts in tribal territories and power dynamics.

Christian missionaries, primarily from Britain, began to arrive in the early 19th century, starting with Samuel Marsden of the Church Missionary Society in 1814. They established mission stations, introduced literacy in Māori, and gradually converted a large portion of the Māori population to Christianity. However, the arrival of Europeans also brought devastating diseases to which Māori had no immunity, such as measles, influenza, and tuberculosis, leading to a significant decline in the Māori population throughout the 19th century.

3.3. Treaty of Waitangi and colonisation

By the 1830s, increasing European settlement, lawlessness, and concerns about potential French annexation prompted the British government to consider formal intervention in New Zealand. In 1832, James Busby was appointed as the British Resident, a consular-type role with limited authority. In 1835, following a rumour of a French attempt to claim sovereignty, Busby helped a confederation of northern Māori chiefs, known as the United Tribes of New Zealand, to declare the Independence of New Zealand, seeking British protection.

The British government, influenced by humanitarian concerns and the lobbying of the New Zealand Company (which was planning large-scale colonisation), dispatched Captain William Hobson to negotiate a treaty with Māori chiefs. The Treaty of Waitangi (Te Tiriti o Waitangi_{The Treaty of Waitangi}^Maori) was first signed on 6 February 1840, at Waitangi in the Bay of Islands, by Hobson on behalf of the British Crown and numerous Māori chiefs. Copies of the treaty were then taken around the country for further signatures.

The Treaty exists in English and Māori versions, and significant differences in wording and interpretation between the two have been a source of contention ever since. In the English version, Māori chiefs ceded "sovereignty" to the British Crown. In the Māori version, chiefs granted kāwanatanga_governorship^Maori to the Crown, while retaining tino rangatiratanga_{absolute sovereignty}^Maori over their lands, villages, and taonga_treasures^Maori. The treaty also guaranteed Māori the rights and privileges of British subjects and affirmed Crown pre-emption over land sales.

Despite the differing interpretations, the Treaty paved the way for British colonisation. Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty over New Zealand on 21 May 1840. New Zealand initially became a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales and then a separate Crown Colony in 1841. Organised settlement, largely driven by the New Zealand Company and other associations, brought thousands of British immigrants to New Zealand, leading to increased pressure for land and resources, which often conflicted with Māori interests and understandings of the Treaty.

3.3.1. New Zealand Wars and land confiscations

Disputes over land ownership and sovereignty, exacerbated by cultural misunderstandings and violations of the Treaty of Waitangi, led to a series of armed conflicts between Māori and colonial forces (including British imperial troops and local militia) from the 1840s to the 1870s. These conflicts are collectively known as the New Zealand Wars (or the Land Wars; Māori: Nga Pakanga o Aotearoa_{The Wars of Aotearoa}^Maori).

Major conflicts included the Northern War (1845-46) in the Bay of Islands, the Taranaki Wars (starting in the early 1860s), and the Waikato War (1863-64). Māori tribes, though often outnumbered and outgunned, demonstrated sophisticated military tactics, including the use of fortified pā_{fortified villages}^Maori. Figures like Hōne Heke, Te Kooti, and Tītokowaru became prominent leaders of Māori resistance. The colonial government, determined to assert its authority and acquire land for settlement, responded with military force.

A significant and devastating consequence of the wars was the large-scale confiscation (raupatu_confiscation^Maori) of Māori land by the colonial government, particularly in the Waikato, Taranaki, and Bay of Plenty regions. Millions of acres were taken, often from tribes deemed to be "in rebellion," though sometimes from neutral or even pro-government tribes. This land was then made available for European settlement. The confiscations, along with ongoing land purchases (often through dubious means), severely undermined Māori economic and social structures, leading to widespread poverty, displacement, and deep-seated grievances that continue to be addressed in contemporary New Zealand through the Treaty settlement process. The wars and confiscations had a profound and lasting negative impact on Māori autonomy, culture, and well-being.

3.4. Dominion and path to independence

New Zealand gained a representative government with the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, which established a General Assembly (Parliament) and provincial councils. The first Parliament met in 1854. By 1856, the colony achieved responsible government, meaning ministers became accountable to Parliament rather than the Governor, for most domestic matters except "native policy," which remained under Crown control until the mid-1860s. In 1865, the capital was moved from Auckland to the more centrally located Wellington.

New Zealand chose not to join the Federation of Australia in 1901, preferring to forge its own national identity. In 1907, New Zealand was granted Dominion status within the British Empire, signifying its effective self-government. New Zealanders participated significantly in World War I on the side of Britain and the Allies. The Gallipoli Campaign in 1915, despite its military failure, became a foundational moment in New Zealand's national consciousness and the ANZAC (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps) tradition. The war exacted a heavy toll, with a high per capita casualty rate.

The path to full legal independence was gradual. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 recognised the Dominions as autonomous communities within the British Empire. This was formalised by the Statute of Westminster 1931, which, once adopted by a Dominion's parliament, would remove most of the British Parliament's authority to legislate for that Dominion. New Zealand was initially reluctant to adopt the Statute, valuing its close ties to Britain. However, it eventually passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947, marking full statutory independence. The monarch remained the head of state, represented by the Governor-General. Final legislative links with Britain were severed with the Constitution Act 1986, and the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London was abolished in 2003, replaced by the Supreme Court of New Zealand.

3.5. 20th century

The 20th century saw New Zealand transform socially, economically, and politically. The early part of the century was marked by the Liberal Government's social reforms (1891-1912), which included old-age pensions and industrial arbitration. World War I (1914-1918) had a profound impact, fostering a sense of national identity but also causing significant loss of life.

The Great Depression of the 1930s hit New Zealand hard, leading to widespread unemployment and hardship. This period saw the election of the first Labour Government in 1935, led by Michael Joseph Savage. This government introduced a comprehensive welfare state, including social security benefits, state housing, and a free public health system, shaping New Zealand's social fabric for decades.

New Zealand again made a significant contribution to the Allied effort in World War II (1939-1945), with forces serving in Europe, North Africa, and the Pacific. Post-war, New Zealand experienced a period of prosperity, driven by strong agricultural exports to Britain. This era also saw significant Māori urbanization, as many Māori moved from rural areas to cities in search of work and opportunities. This migration, however, often led to new challenges, including inadequate housing, employment discrimination, and the erosion of traditional support systems.

From the 1960s, Māori assertiveness grew, leading to a Māori protest movement that challenged Eurocentrism, advocated for the recognition of Māori culture and language, and demanded that the Crown honour its obligations under the Treaty of Waitangi. Key events included the 1975 Māori land march (Te Roopu o te Matakite_{The group of the clear-sighted}^Maori) and occupations of land such as Bastion Point. In 1975, the Waitangi Tribunal was established to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and in 1985 its jurisdiction was extended to cover historical grievances dating back to 1840.

The latter part of the 20th century brought significant economic changes. Britain's entry into the European Economic Community in 1973 reduced New Zealand's access to its traditional primary export market. This, combined with oil shocks, led to economic difficulties. From 1984, the Fourth Labour Government implemented radical free-market reforms known as Rogernomics (after Finance Minister Roger Douglas), which transformed the economy from a protected, regulated system to one of the most liberalised in the OECD. These reforms included floating the dollar, removing subsidies, privatising state assets, and reducing trade barriers. While credited by some with modernising the economy, these reforms also led to increased social inequality and unemployment in the short term, disproportionately affecting Māori and other vulnerable groups.

3.6. 21st century

Contemporary New Zealand continues to grapple with the legacies of its past while navigating new global and domestic challenges. Economic policy has generally remained market-oriented, with a focus on international trade, particularly with Australia and Asia. The dairy industry has become a major export earner, alongside tourism, wine, and horticulture. However, issues of economic inequality, housing affordability, and child poverty remain significant social concerns, prompting ongoing debate about the role of government and the fairness of the economic system.

Crown-Māori relations have seen continued development, with the Treaty settlement process addressing historical injustices through apologies, financial redress, and the return of culturally significant lands. Efforts to revitalise the Māori language (te reo Māori_{the Māori language}^Maori) and integrate Māori culture (te ao Māori_{the Māori world}^Maori) into national life have gained momentum, reflected in education, media, and public discourse. However, disparities in health, education, and justice outcomes for Māori persist, highlighting ongoing systemic challenges.

Socially, New Zealand has become increasingly diverse due to immigration, particularly from Asia and the Pacific Islands, leading to a more multicultural society. Issues of biculturalism and multiculturalism continue to be debated. The country has a strong record on human rights and LGBTQ+ rights, having legalised same-sex marriage in 2013.

In international affairs, New Zealand maintains an independent foreign policy, characterised by its anti-nuclear stance, commitment to multilateralism, and active role in the Pacific region. It has contributed to international peacekeeping efforts and engages in global discussions on climate change, trade, and human rights. Key events in the 21st century include the 2011 Christchurch earthquake, which caused widespread devastation and loss of life, and the 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings, a terrorist attack that prompted national mourning and new gun control legislation. The COVID-19 pandemic also had a significant impact, leading to border closures and economic disruption but also showcasing a strong public health response. New Zealand continues to evolve, balancing its unique heritage with the demands of a changing world, with ongoing emphasis from a center-left perspective on social equity, environmental sustainability, and democratic values.

4.1. Physical geography

New Zealand is an island country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, near the centre of the water hemisphere. Its physical geography is diverse, encompassing rugged mountain ranges, expansive plains, volcanic plateaus, and an extensive coastline.

4.1.1. Islands and terrain

New Zealand consists of two main islands, the North Island (Te Ika-a-Māui_{The fish of Māui}^Maori) and the South Island (Te Waipounamu_{The waters of greenstone}^Maori), separated by the Cook Strait, which is 14 mile ^{(22 km)} wide at its narrowest point. There are also over 700 smaller islands, including Stewart Island (across Foveaux Strait), the Chatham Islands, Great Barrier Island (in the Hauraki Gulf), D'Urville Island (in the Marlborough Sounds), and Waiheke Island. The country is long and narrow, stretching over 1.0 K mile ^{(1.60 K km)} along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 249 mile ^{(400 km)}. It has a total land area of approximately 103 K mile^{2 (268.00 K km2)} and a coastline of about 9.3 K mile ^{(15.00 K km)}.

The South Island is the larger of the two main islands and is dominated by the Southern Alps, a mountain range that runs almost its entire length. This range includes Aoraki / Mount Cook, New Zealand's highest peak at 12 K ft ^{(3.72 K m)}, and 17 other peaks exceeding 9.8 K ft ^{(3.00 K m)}. The southwestern corner of the South Island features Fiordland, an area of steep mountains, deep fiords, and extensive glaciation. The eastern side of the Southern Alps includes the Canterbury Plains, the country's largest area of flat land.

The North Island is less mountainous than the South but is characterized by significant volcanic activity. The North Island Volcanic Plateau in the central North Island features active and dormant volcanoes, including Mount Ruapehu (9.2 K ft ^{(2.80 K m)}), the North Island's highest point. This region also contains Lake Taupō, New Zealand's largest lake, which is a caldera formed by a massive supervolcanic eruption. The North Island also has rolling hill country, fertile plains, and a deeply indented coastline with many harbours.

4.2. Climate

New Zealand has a predominantly temperate maritime climate (Köppen: Cfb), characterized by mild temperatures, high rainfall in many areas, and abundant sunshine. The climate is strongly influenced by the surrounding oceans and prevailing westerly winds. Mean annual temperatures range from about 50 °F ^{(10 °C)} in the south to 60.8 °F ^{(16 °C)} in the north. Extreme temperatures are rare, though historical highs have reached 108.32 °F ^{(42.4 °C)} in Rangiora, Canterbury, and lows have fallen to -14.079999999999998 °F ^{(-25.6 °C)} in Ranfurly, Otago.

Regional climatic variations are significant. The West Coast of the South Island is the wettest part of the country, receiving very high annual rainfall due to the orographic effect of the Southern Alps on the prevailing westerlies. In contrast, areas to the east of the mountains, such as Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin, are much drier and experience a semi-arid or continental climate with greater temperature extremes. Northland, in the far north of the North Island, has a near-subtropical climate.

Most of New Zealand receives ample sunshine, with major cities like Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch averaging over 2,000 hours per year. The sunniest areas are in the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island, such as Nelson and Marlborough, which can receive over 2,400 hours. Snowfall is common in mountain areas and in the southern and eastern parts of the South Island during winter (June to October).

4.3. Biodiversity

New Zealand's biodiversity is renowned for its high level of endemism, a result of its long geographic isolation (around 80 million years) after separating from the supercontinent Gondwana. This isolation allowed unique flora and fauna to evolve. Before human arrival, New Zealand's ecosystems were dominated by birds, with very few native land mammals (only three species of bats, one now extinct, and a unique, mouse-sized mammal discovered from fossils). This absence of mammalian predators led to the evolution of many flightless bird species, such as the kiwi, kākāpō, takahē, and the extinct moa.

The arrival of Polynesians around 1280-1350 CE, and later Europeans, brought about significant changes. Humans introduced mammalian predators like rats (kiore_{Polynesian rat}^Maori), stoats, ferrets, and possums, which devastated native bird populations. Hunting and habitat destruction also led to the extinction of many species, including the giant moa and its predator, the Haast's eagle.

4.3.1. Flora and fauna

New Zealand's native flora is diverse and unique. About 82% of its indigenous vascular plants are endemic. Forests are primarily of two types: broadleaf-podocarp forests, characterized by trees like kauri, rimu, and totara, and beech forests dominated by southern beech species in cooler, higher-altitude areas. Other notable native plants include the flowering pōhutukawa (often called the New Zealand Christmas tree), tree ferns (ponga_{tree ferns}^Maori), and various species of flax (harakeke_flax^Maori).

The native fauna is equally distinctive. Iconic birds include the kiwi (a national symbol), the critically endangered kākāpō (the world's only flightless parrot), the kea (an alpine parrot known for its intelligence), the tūī, and the korimako/bellbird. Reptiles include the ancient tuatara (often called a "living fossil"), skinks, and geckos. Native frogs of the ancient Leiopelmatidae family exist, and there is a rich diversity of invertebrates, including the giant wētā. Marine life is abundant, with nearly half the world's cetacean species (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) found in New Zealand waters, along with numerous fur seals and penguins (more penguin species are found here than in any other country).

4.3.2. Conservation efforts

New Zealand has a strong history of conservation efforts, driven by public awareness and government initiatives. The Department of Conservation (DOC) is the primary government agency responsible for protecting natural and historic heritage. Key strategies include the establishment of national parks (13 in total), forest parks, and marine reserves.

Pioneering methods have been developed for pest control (targeting introduced predators like stoats, rats, and possums) and the restoration of threatened species. Island sanctuaries, free of introduced predators, have been crucial for the recovery of endangered birds like the kākāpō and takahe. Wildlife translocation, captive breeding programs (like for the kiwi), and ecological restoration projects are actively pursued. The "Predator Free 2050" initiative aims to eradicate key introduced predators to protect native wildlife. Despite successes, many species remain threatened, and ongoing efforts are critical to address habitat loss, invasive species, and the impacts of climate change. The social and economic implications of conservation, particularly for rural communities and iwi (Māori tribes) with connections to conserved lands, are also important considerations.

4.4. Environmental issues

New Zealand faces several significant environmental issues, largely stemming from human activity since settlement. Deforestation has been extensive; before human arrival, about 80% of the land was forested, but this was reduced to around 23% by the late 20th century due to clearing for agriculture and logging. While some reforestation has occurred, primarily with exotic plantation forests, the loss of native forest habitat remains a concern.

Water pollution, particularly in lowland rivers and lakes, is a major issue, largely driven by agricultural intensification, especially dairy farming. Runoff containing nitrates, phosphates, and sediment from farmland impacts water quality and aquatic ecosystems. Urban stormwater and wastewater discharges also contribute to pollution.

Climate change presents significant challenges, including rising sea levels, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and impacts on agriculture and biodiversity. New Zealand has committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but agriculture, a major source of methane and nitrous oxide, poses a particular challenge for mitigation efforts.

Other environmental concerns include soil erosion, the impact of invasive species on native ecosystems, and pressures from urban development and tourism. Government policies, such as the Resource Management Act 1991, aim to promote sustainable management of natural resources, but balancing economic development with environmental protection remains a complex task. Public awareness and engagement in environmental issues are generally high, with numerous community groups and non-governmental organizations actively involved in conservation and advocacy. The social impacts of environmental policies, such as restrictions on land use or water abstraction, are often debated, highlighting the need for equitable solutions that consider diverse community interests.

5.1. System of government

New Zealand's system of government is characterized by the separation of powers among the executive, legislature, and judiciary, although the executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature. It does not have a single codified constitution; instead, its constitutional framework is derived from a mix of statutes (like the Constitution Act 1986 and the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990), Treaty of Waitangi principles, court decisions, and constitutional conventions.

5.1.1. Monarchy and Governor-General

The Head of State is the King of New Zealand, currently Charles III. The King's functions are largely ceremonial and are exercised in New Zealand by the Governor-General, who is appointed by the King on the advice of the Prime Minister. The current Governor-General is Dame Cindy Kiro. The Governor-General acts on the advice of ministers, except in rare circumstances involving reserve powers, such as dissolving Parliament or appointing a Prime Minister after an election. The powers of the monarch and Governor-General are constrained by constitutional convention and law.

5.1.2. Parliament and legislature

Legislative power is vested in the New Zealand Parliament, which is unicameral and consists of the King (represented by the Governor-General) and the House of Representatives. Parliament has parliamentary sovereignty, meaning it has the ultimate authority to make and unmake laws. The House of Representatives typically has 120 Members of Parliament (MPs), though this number can vary slightly due to overhang seats under the MMP system. MPs are elected for a three-year term. Parliament's functions include making laws, scrutinising the government, and representing the people.

5.1.3. Prime Minister and Cabinet

Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, who are collectively known as the Government. The Prime Minister is the head of government and is typically the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that commands a majority in the House of Representatives. The Prime Minister advises the Governor-General on the appointment of ministers. The current Prime Minister is Christopher Luxon.

The Cabinet is the central decision-making body of government. It consists of the Prime Minister and senior ministers. Cabinet operates on the principle of collective responsibility, meaning all ministers must publicly support Cabinet decisions or resign. Ministers are responsible for specific government departments and policy areas.

5.2. Elections and political parties

New Zealand holds general elections at least every three years. Since 1996, elections have been conducted using the mixed-member proportional (MMP) electoral system. Under MMP, voters cast two votes: one for a local electorate MP and one for a political party. Electorate MPs are elected through a first-past-the-post system in single-member constituencies. There are currently 72 electorates, including seven Māori electorates reserved for voters of Māori descent who choose to be on the Māori electoral roll. The remaining seats (typically 48, to make a total of 120) are filled from party lists to ensure that the overall composition of Parliament reflects each party's share of the party vote, provided the party meets a threshold (either winning an electorate seat or gaining 5% of the party vote).

The MMP system has led to multi-party governments and increased representation for smaller parties. Major political parties include the centre-right National Party and the centre-left Labour Party. Other significant parties represented in Parliament have included the Green Party, ACT Party, NZ First, and Te Pāti Māori (Māori Party).

5.3. Judiciary and legal system

The judiciary is independent of the executive and legislature. The court system is hierarchical, with the Supreme Court as the final court of appeal. Below it are the Court of Appeal, the High Court (which has general jurisdiction and deals with serious criminal cases and major civil disputes), and District Courts (which handle the majority of criminal and civil cases). There are also specialist courts, such as the Employment Court, the Environment Court, and the Māori Land Court.

Judges are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Attorney-General. Judicial independence is a cornerstone of the legal system, ensuring that judges can make decisions without political interference. New Zealand law is derived from common law, statute law enacted by Parliament, and principles of the Treaty of Waitangi.

5.4. Human rights and social equity

New Zealand has a strong commitment to human rights, enshrined in legislation such as the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 and the Human Rights Act 1993. The Human Rights Commission is an independent body responsible for promoting and protecting human rights. The country has made significant progress in areas such as gender equality and LGBTQ+ rights, including the legalisation of same-sex marriage in 2013.

Promoting social equity is a key focus, but challenges remain. Income and wealth inequality have been persistent concerns, and poverty, particularly child poverty, affects vulnerable groups. Addressing these issues is a priority for successive governments, with various policies aimed at improving social welfare, housing affordability, and access to education and healthcare.

6.1. Local government

Local government in New Zealand operates under a two-tier system established by reforms in 1989. There are 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities. The provinces that existed in early colonial New Zealand were abolished in 1876 in favour of a more centralised system, though regional identity often persists in cultural and sporting contexts.

Regional councils are primarily responsible for environmental and resource management within their region, including water quality, air quality, pest control, flood protection, and regional transport planning. They implement the provisions of the Resource Management Act 1991.

Territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. They are responsible for a wide range of local services and infrastructure, including local roads, water supply, sewerage and stormwater systems, waste management, parks and recreation facilities, libraries, building consents, and local land use planning.

Five territorial authorities (Auckland Council, Nelson City Council, Gisborne District Council, Tasman District Council, and Marlborough District Council) are unitary authorities, meaning they perform the functions of both a regional council and a territorial authority. The Chatham Islands Council also functions largely as a unitary authority. Local government bodies are democratically elected, typically every three years, but voter turnout in local elections has historically been lower than in general elections, a concern for democratic participation.

6.2. Realm of New Zealand and external territories

The Realm of New Zealand is the entire area over which the King of New Zealand is sovereign. It comprises New Zealand itself, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency (New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica), and the self-governing states of the Cook Islands and Niue.

The Cook Islands and Niue are in a state of free association with New Zealand. This means they are fully self-governing in their internal affairs, but their citizens are New Zealand citizens. New Zealand retains responsibility, in consultation with their governments, for their external affairs and defence if requested. The New Zealand Parliament cannot legislate for these countries without their consent.

Tokelau is a non-self-governing territory administered by New Zealand. While it has moved towards greater self-government, with referendums on self-government in free association held in 2006 and 2007 (both narrowly failing to reach the required two-thirds majority), it remains a dependent territory. Its people are New Zealand citizens.

The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, established in 1923. This claim, like other Antarctic claims, is subject to the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty System, which effectively suspends sovereignty claims and promotes scientific cooperation. New Zealand operates Scott Base, a research facility in the Ross Dependency.

7.1. Overview and policy

New Zealand's foreign policy objectives are shaped by its geographical isolation, its status as a small, developed nation heavily reliant on international trade, and its bicultural heritage. Key priorities include maintaining international peace and security, promoting sustainable development, advancing free and fair trade, protecting human rights, and addressing global challenges like climate change. Historically, New Zealand's foreign policy was closely aligned with the United Kingdom. Following World War II, it developed closer ties with the United States and Australia, notably through the ANZUS treaty. However, its anti-nuclear policy, adopted in the 1980s, led to a suspension of US security obligations under ANZUS and marked a significant assertion of an independent foreign policy. New Zealand remains committed to disarmament and arms control. It strongly supports the United Nations and other multilateral institutions as crucial forums for addressing global issues. The country is also known for its contributions to international development assistance, particularly in the Pacific region.

7.2. Key bilateral relationships

New Zealand maintains important relationships with a range of countries across the globe.

7.2.1. Australia

The relationship with Australia is New Zealand's closest and most comprehensive. Often referred to as the Trans-Tasman relationship, it is underpinned by strong historical, cultural, economic, and political ties. The Closer Economic Relations (CER) agreement has created a largely seamless single market, and the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement allows citizens of each country to live and work freely in the other. The two countries cooperate closely on defence, security, and foreign policy matters, though they maintain distinct national interests. A significant number of New Zealanders live in Australia, and vice-versa, contributing to deep people-to-people links.

7.3. International organisations

New Zealand is a strong advocate for multilateralism and an active member of numerous international organisations. It was a founding member of the United Nations and continues to play a constructive role in its various agencies and initiatives, including peacekeeping operations. New Zealand is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). It also participates in regional forums such as the Pacific Islands Forum and the East Asia Summit. New Zealand's engagement in these organisations reflects its commitment to international cooperation, global governance, and addressing shared challenges.

7.4. Non-nuclear policy

New Zealand's anti-nuclear policy is a cornerstone of its national identity and foreign policy. Adopted in the mid-1980s and formalised in the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987, the policy prohibits nuclear weapons and nuclear-powered vessels from New Zealand territory, including its waters. This stance arose from strong public opposition to nuclear weapons testing in the Pacific and concerns about nuclear proliferation.

The policy led to a significant diplomatic rift with the United States, resulting in the US suspending its security obligations to New Zealand under the ANZUS treaty. Despite this, the non-nuclear policy has widespread domestic support and is seen as a fundamental expression of New Zealand's values and its commitment to peace and disarmament. It has shaped New Zealand's independent voice in international affairs and its advocacy for nuclear disarmament on the global stage.

8.1. New Zealand Defence Force

The New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF; Te Ope Kātua o Aotearoa_{The New Zealand Defence Force}^Maori) is a modern, professional military force. Its primary roles include protecting New Zealand's sovereignty and national interests, contributing to regional security, and participating in international peacekeeping and humanitarian assistance operations. Given New Zealand's geographical isolation and limited direct threats, its defence needs are often described as modest, but its military has a history of global engagement.

The New Zealand Army (Ngāti Tūmatauenga_{Tribe of the God of War}^Maori) is a light infantry force capable of a range of operations, from disaster relief to combat.
The Royal New Zealand Navy (Te Taua Moana o Aotearoa_{The Sea Warriors of New Zealand}^Maori) operates frigates, offshore and inshore patrol vessels, and support ships, focusing on maritime security, resource protection in New Zealand's extensive Exclusive Economic Zone, and regional presence.
The Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF; Te Tauaarangi o Aotearoa_{The New Zealand Warriors of the Sky}^Maori) provides air patrol, transport, and search and rescue capabilities, operating maritime patrol aircraft, transport aircraft, and helicopters. It no longer maintains a combat air wing.

The NZDF is characterized by its professionalism, adaptability, and integration of Māori culture, including the use of the haka and Māori design elements. It often works closely with Australian forces and other international partners.

8.2. Historical engagements and peacekeeping

New Zealand has a long history of military engagement, often alongside allies. It made significant contributions to both World War I and World War II. Key World War I campaigns included Gallipoli, which became a defining moment for New Zealand's national identity, and the Western Front. In World War II, New Zealand forces served with distinction in North Africa (e.g., El Alamein), Italy (e.g., Cassino), Greece, Crete, and the Pacific. The Māori Battalion earned a formidable reputation during World War II.

Post-World War II, New Zealand participated in the Korean War, the Malayan Emergency, the Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, and the Vietnam War. More recently, it has contributed to operations in the Gulf War, Afghanistan, and Iraq.

New Zealand has a strong record of contributing to international peacekeeping and peace support operations. It has deployed personnel to numerous UN and multinational missions in regions such as the Balkans (Bosnia and Herzegovina), East Timor, the Solomon Islands, Bougainville, Cyprus, Somalia, the Sinai, and various missions in Africa and the Middle East. These contributions reflect New Zealand's commitment to international peace and security and its role as a responsible global citizen.

9.1. Overview and economic history

New Zealand is classified as an advanced market economy. It ranks highly on international measures of human development and economic freedom. Its gross domestic product (GDP) per capita is comparable to that of many Western European nations. The national currency is the New Zealand dollar (NZD), often informally called the "Kiwi dollar."

Historically, New Zealand's economy was built on the export of agricultural products, primarily wool, meat, and dairy, largely to the United Kingdom. This reliance on a narrow range of commodities and markets made the economy vulnerable. The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 was a pivotal event, opening up large-scale agricultural exports. For much of the mid-20th century, New Zealand enjoyed high living standards. However, Britain's entry into the European Economic Community in 1973, coupled with the oil shocks of the 1970s, led to a severe economic downturn and a period of re-evaluation.

9.2. Major sectors

The New Zealand economy is composed of primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors, with the service sector being the largest contributor to GDP and employment.

9.2.1. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

Agriculture remains a cornerstone of the New Zealand economy and a major export earner. Key agricultural industries include:

• Dairy farming**: New Zealand is one of the world's largest exporters of dairy products, with Fonterra being a dominant global player.
• Sheep and beef farming**: Historically significant, meat and wool continue to be important exports.
• Horticulture**: New Zealand is a major producer and exporter of kiwifruit (with Zespri as a leading brand), apples, and wine (particularly Sauvignon Blanc from Marlborough).
• Forestry**: Plantation forests, primarily of exotic radiata pine, support a significant timber and wood products industry.
• Fishing and aquaculture**: New Zealand has a substantial fishing industry, with its extensive Exclusive Economic Zone yielding various fish species and shellfish. Aquaculture, including salmon and mussels, is also important.

The primary sector faces challenges related to environmental sustainability, climate change impacts, and international market volatility. There is a growing focus on sustainable farming practices and adding value to primary products.

9.2.3. Tourism

Tourism is a major contributor to the New Zealand economy, a significant source of foreign exchange earnings, and a large employer. The country's diverse natural landscapes, including mountains, fiords, beaches, forests, and geothermal areas, are major attractions. Adventure tourism (e.g., bungy jumping, white-water rafting, skiing) is particularly well-known. Cultural tourism, focusing on Māori culture and heritage, is also growing. Major international visitor markets include Australia, China, the United States, and the United Kingdom. The industry has faced challenges, such as the impact of global events like the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting the need for resilience and sustainable tourism practices.

9.3. Trade

New Zealand has a small domestic market and is heavily reliant on international trade. Exports account for a significant portion of its GDP. The country has a long history of advocating for free trade and has numerous free trade agreements in place.
Main export commodities include dairy products, meat, wood and wood products, fruit (especially kiwifruit and apples), wine, and fish. Key import categories include machinery and equipment, vehicles, petroleum products, electronics, and textiles.

New Zealand's main trading partners are:

• China (largest overall trading partner)
• Australia (historically the closest economic partner)
• United States
• European Union
• Japan
• Other Asian countries (e.g., South Korea, Singapore)

The country actively participates in international trade organisations like the World Trade Organization (WTO) and regional economic forums such as Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). Diversifying export markets and products, and moving up the value chain, are ongoing economic priorities.

9.4. Infrastructure

New Zealand's infrastructure is essential for its economic activity and quality of life, encompassing energy, transport, and communications networks.

9.4.2. Transport

New Zealand's transport network connects its geographically dispersed population and facilitates trade.

• Roads**: The road network is extensive, with over 58 K mile ^{(94.00 K km)} of roads. Private car ownership is high, and road transport is the dominant mode for passengers and freight. State highways are managed by Waka Kotahi NZ Transport Agency.
• Rail**: The rail network, operated by state-owned KiwiRail, primarily serves freight transport, though there are some long-distance passenger services and urban commuter rail in Auckland and Wellington.
• Air**: Air travel is crucial for international connectivity and domestic travel between major centres. Auckland Airport is the main international gateway. Air New Zealand is the national airline.
• Sea**: Ports handle the vast majority of New Zealand's international trade. Inter-island ferries (between the North and South Islands) are vital for passengers and freight.

Challenges include maintaining and upgrading aging infrastructure, reducing transport emissions, and improving public transport options in urban areas.

9.5. Science and technology

New Zealand has a growing science and technology sector, with a focus on areas that leverage its natural advantages and address national challenges. Early indigenous contributions included Māori tohunga_{skilled experts}^Maori accumulating knowledge of agricultural practices and herbal remedies. European scientific exploration began with voyages like those of James Cook and Charles Darwin.

Crown Research Institutes (CRIs) are government-owned companies that undertake scientific research in areas such as agriculture, environmental science, and industrial technology. Universities also play a significant role in research and development (R&D). Government policy aims to foster innovation, increase R&D investment (which has historically been lower than in many other OECD countries), and build a "knowledge economy."

Key areas of research and innovation include:

• Agricultural technology (AgriTech)
• Biotechnology and life sciences
• Food science and technology
• Environmental science and conservation technology
• Information and communications technology (ICT), including software development and digital media
• Renewable energy technology
• Aerospace, with companies like Rocket Lab gaining international recognition for small satellite launches.

The New Zealand Space Agency was established in 2016. Challenges include scaling up innovative businesses and retaining skilled talent.

9.6. Economic inequality and poverty

Despite being a developed nation with a generally high standard of living, New Zealand faces persistent issues of economic inequality and poverty. These issues have been exacerbated at times by economic reforms and global economic trends.

• Income and Wealth Disparity**: There is a significant gap between high-income earners and those on lower incomes. Wealth is also unevenly distributed, with a concentration at the top.
• Poverty**: Poverty, particularly child poverty, is a major social concern. Certain groups are disproportionately affected, including Māori, Pasifika peoples, sole-parent families, and people with disabilities.
• Housing Affordability**: A major driver of inequality and hardship is the high cost of housing, especially in major cities like Auckland. This affects renters and aspiring homeowners, contributing to housing insecurity and homelessness for some.

Successive governments have implemented various measures to address these issues, including changes to the tax and benefit system (e.g., Working for Families tax credits), increases to the minimum wage, and initiatives to increase the supply of affordable housing. However, the scale of the problem means that economic inequality and poverty remain key challenges for social justice and the well-being of vulnerable groups. A center-left perspective typically advocates for stronger government intervention, progressive taxation, robust social safety nets, and targeted support for disadvantaged communities to reduce these disparities.

10.1. Population

As of June 2024, New Zealand's estimated resident population is approximately 5.39 million. The population has grown steadily, driven by both natural increase (births minus deaths) and net migration. The 2023 census enumerated a resident population of 4,993,923.

The population is not evenly distributed. The North Island is home to roughly three-quarters of the population, with the Auckland region alone accounting for over a third of the total. This reflects a long-term "drift to the north." New Zealand is a highly urbanised country, with about 87% of the population living in urban areas.

Key demographic indicators include:

• Population Growth Rate**: Has varied, influenced by migration levels.
• Population Density**: Relatively low overall, but higher in urban centres.
• Age Structure**: The population is aging, though at a slower rate than some other developed countries. The median age was 37.4 years at the 2018 census.
• Life Expectancy**: High, at around 80.0 years for males and 83.5 years for females (2017-2019).
• Fertility Rate**: The total fertility rate was 1.6 children per woman in 2020, which is below replacement level but relatively high for a developed country.

10.2. Ethnicity and immigration

New Zealand is an ethnically diverse nation. The 2023 census reported the following major ethnic groupings (people can identify with more than one ethnicity):

• European: 67.8%
• Māori: 17.8%
• Asian: 17.3%
• Pacific peoples (Pasifika): 8.9%
• Middle Eastern/Latin American/African (MELAA): 1.5%
• Other (including "New Zealander"): 1.2%

The ethnic makeup of New Zealand has changed significantly over time. In 1961, Europeans constituted 92% of the population, and Māori 7%. The growth in Asian and Pasifika populations, particularly since the late 20th century due to changes in immigration policy, has contributed to increasing multiculturalism. Immigration continues to be a significant factor in New Zealand's demographic and social landscape. While the United Kingdom was historically the main source of immigrants, recent decades have seen more arrivals from Asia (notably China and India), the Pacific Islands, and South Africa.

10.3. Languages

New Zealand has three official languages: English, Māori (te reo Māori_{the Māori language}^Maori), and New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL). English is the most commonly spoken language, used by over 95% of the population. New Zealand English is a distinct dialect with unique pronunciations and vocabulary, similar in some respects to Australian English.

The Māori language is the ancestral language of the indigenous Māori people. After a period of decline due to colonisation and policies that discouraged its use, te reo Māori_{the Māori language}^Maori has undergone a significant revitalisation effort since the late 20th century. It was made an official language in 1987. Initiatives to promote its use include Māori-medium education (kōhanga reo_{language nests}^Maori, and kura kaupapa Māori_{Māori immersion schools}^Maori), broadcasting (e.g., Māori Television), and increased visibility in public life. According to the 2018 census, about 4% of the population (and over 20% of Māori) can hold a conversation in Māori.

New Zealand Sign Language became an official language in 2006. It is the main language of New Zealand's Deaf community and is unique to the country.

Besides the official languages, many other languages are spoken by immigrant communities, reflecting New Zealand's multicultural makeup. The most common of these, according to the 2018 census, include Samoan, Northern Chinese (including Mandarin), Hindi, and French.

10.4. Religion

New Zealand is a secular state with no official religion, and freedom of religion is guaranteed. The religious landscape is diverse. According to the 2018 census, the largest religious affiliation is Christianity (37.0%), though the proportion of Christians has been declining. The main Christian denominations include Anglican, Roman Catholic, and Presbyterian.

A significant and growing proportion of the population (48.5% in 2018) reported having no religion. This makes New Zealand one of the most secular countries in the world.

Other religions present in New Zealand include Hinduism (2.6%), Islam (1.3%), Buddhism (1.1%), and Sikhism (0.9%), largely reflecting patterns of immigration. Traditional Māori spiritual beliefs also continue to be an important part of Māori culture, sometimes practiced alongside Christianity or other faiths. The Rātana and Ringatū faiths are indigenous Christian-Māori movements. The Auckland Region exhibits the greatest religious diversity.

11.1. Education

Education is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, though most start school at age 5. The system comprises early childhood education, primary and secondary schooling, and tertiary education. State (public) schools are free for New Zealand citizens and permanent residents up to the age of 19. The curriculum aims to be inclusive and culturally responsive, acknowledging the Treaty of Waitangi.

New Zealand has a high adult literacy rate (99%). Tertiary education includes universities (eight public universities), Te Pūkenga (New Zealand Institute of Skills and Technology, formed by merging polytechnics and institutes of technology), wānanga (Māori tertiary institutions), and private training establishments. While the education system generally performs well in international comparisons (e.g., PISA), disparities in achievement persist, particularly for Māori and Pasifika students, and students from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Addressing these inequities is an ongoing focus.

11.2. Health

New Zealand has a publicly funded healthcare system that aims to provide universal access to medical services. Public health indicators are generally good, with high life expectancy.

11.3. Social issues

New Zealand faces a range of contemporary social issues that impact the well-being of its citizens and require ongoing attention and policy responses. A center-left perspective often emphasizes the need for collective responsibility and government intervention to address these challenges and support vulnerable groups.

12.1. Overview

The cultural landscape of New Zealand is unique, shaped by its indigenous Māori heritage and the subsequent waves of migration. This has resulted in a society that is still evolving its national identity, balancing tradition with modernity and bicultural commitments with multicultural realities.

12.1.1. Māori culture (Te Ao Māori)

Māori culture, or Te Ao Māori_{the Māori world}^Maori, is a foundational element of New Zealand's identity. Core values include whanaungatanga_{kinship, relationships}^Maori, manaakitanga_{hospitality, care}^Maori, and kaitiakitanga_{guardianship of the environment}^Maori. Traditional arts are highly developed and deeply symbolic:

• Carving (Whakairo_Carving^Maori)**: Intricate carvings in wood, bone, and pounamu (greenstone) adorn meeting houses (wharenui_{meeting houses}^Maori), canoes (waka_canoes^Maori), and personal ornaments.
• Weaving (Raranga_Weaving^Maori)**: Flax and other fibres are woven into clothing (such as cloaks - kākahu_cloaks^Maori), baskets (kete_baskets^Maori), and mats.
• Tā moko**: Traditional Māori tattooing, which conveys ancestry, status, and identity.
• Kapa haka**: Traditional Māori performing arts, encompassing song (waiata_song^Maori), dance (including the haka), and poi. It is a vibrant expression of Māori identity and storytelling.

The marae_{meeting grounds}^Maori is the focal point of Māori community life, serving as a venue for gatherings, ceremonies, and cultural events. The revitalisation of Māori language (te reo Māori_{the Māori language}^Maori) and culture is a significant ongoing process in contemporary New Zealand.

12.2. Arts

New Zealand's arts scene is vibrant and diverse, reflecting its unique cultural blend.

12.2.1. Visual arts

Visual arts in New Zealand encompass traditional Māori forms like carving and weaving, as well as contemporary practices influenced by European and international art movements. Early European painters often focused on landscapes and portraits of Māori. From the mid-20th century, artists like Colin McCahon and Rita Angus developed distinctively New Zealand styles. Contemporary artists, both Māori and Pākehā, explore a wide range of themes and media, often addressing issues of identity, culture, and history. Photography, sculpture, ceramics, and craft arts also have a strong presence.

12.3. Literature

New Zealand literature encompasses works by Māori and Pākehā writers in English and Māori. Early Māori literature consisted of rich oral traditions of myths, legends, and poetry, much of which was later recorded in writing. European settlers brought their literary traditions, and a distinct New Zealand literary voice began to emerge in the 20th century.
Notable writers include Katherine Mansfield, a modernist short story writer; Frank Sargeson, known for his depiction of working-class New Zealand life; Janet Frame, whose novels and autobiographies explored themes of identity and alienation; Keri Hulme, whose novel The Bone People (which incorporates Māori themes and language) won the Booker Prize; Witi Ihimaera and Patricia Grace, prominent Māori writers; and Eleanor Catton, whose novel The Luminaries also won the Booker Prize. Poetry also has a strong tradition in New Zealand. Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature.

12.4. Music

New Zealand music is diverse, influenced by Māori traditions, European classical and folk music, and contemporary global genres like rock, pop, hip hop, and electronic music.
Traditional Māori music (waiata_songs^Maori) features chants, songs, and the use of traditional instruments (taonga pūoro_{musical treasures/instruments}^Maori). Early European settlers brought brass bands, choral music, and folk songs.
From the mid-20th century, New Zealand developed a distinctive popular music scene. Many artists have achieved international success, including Split Enz, Crowded House, Dave Dobbyn, Bic Runga, Lorde, and Flight of the Conchords. There is a strong independent music scene, and genres like reggae and hip hop have a significant following, often incorporating Māori and Pacific influences. The New Zealand Music Awards celebrate local musical talent.

12.5. Film and broadcasting

The New Zealand film industry has gained international recognition, particularly since the late 20th century. Directors like Jane Campion (The Piano) and Peter Jackson (The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit trilogies) have achieved global acclaim. Other notable films include Once Were Warriors, Whale Rider, and Boy. The country's stunning landscapes have made it a popular location for international film productions. The New Zealand Film Commission supports local filmmaking.

Television broadcasting began in 1960. Public broadcasters include Television New Zealand (TVNZ) and Radio New Zealand (RNZ). Māori Television broadcasts in Māori and English, promoting Māori language and culture. Commercial television and radio stations also operate. NZ On Air funds local content for broadcasting.

12.6. Cuisine

New Zealand cuisine is a blend of indigenous Māori ingredients and cooking methods with European (primarily British) culinary traditions, as well as influences from Asia and the Pacific.
Key ingredients include lamb, beef, seafood (such as salmon, snapper, mussels, and Bluff oysters), and dairy products. Fruits like kiwifruit (a major export), apples, and berries are widely grown.
Traditional Māori foods include kūmara_{sweet potato}^Maori, taro, and various native plants and seafood. The hāngī_{earth oven}^Maori is a traditional Māori method of cooking food in an earth oven, still used for special occasions.
Contemporary New Zealand cuisine emphasizes fresh, local ingredients and has developed a reputation for innovation. The country also has a thriving wine industry, particularly known for its Sauvignon Blanc. Cafè culture is prominent in urban areas. Iconic New Zealand foods include pavlova (a meringue dessert, also claimed by Australia), L&P (Lemon & Paeroa, a soft drink), and various meat pies.

12.7. National symbols and Kiwiana

Official national symbols include:

• The New Zealand Flag, featuring the Union Jack and four red stars representing the Southern Cross constellation.
• The New Zealand Coat of Arms.
• The national anthems: "God Defend New Zealand" and "God Save the King".

Unofficial symbols and cultural icons include:

• The kiwi bird, a flightless, nocturnal bird endemic to New Zealand, which has become a national emblem and the colloquial term for New Zealanders.
• The silver fern (ponga_{silver fern}^Maori), frequently used as a symbol by sports teams and in national branding.
• The pōhutukawa tree, often referred to as the New Zealand Christmas tree for its vibrant red flowers that bloom in summer.

"Kiwiana" refers to a range of quirky and nostalgic items and icons that are considered uniquely New Zealand, such as Buzzy Bee toys, jandals (flip-flops), pineapple lumps (a type of confectionery), and the phrase "sweet as."

12.8. Public holidays

Major public holidays in New Zealand include:

• New Year's Day (1 January) and the Day after New Year's Day (2 January)
• Waitangi Day (6 February), commemorating the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi.
• Good Friday and Easter Monday (dates vary)
• Anzac Day (25 April), a day of remembrance for New Zealanders and Australians who served and died in wars, conflicts, and peacekeeping operations.
• King's Birthday (first Monday in June)
• Matariki (date varies, typically late June or early July), the Māori New Year, officially recognized as a public holiday since 2022.
• Labour Day (fourth Monday in October)
• Christmas Day (25 December)
• Boxing Day (26 December)

Additionally, each region observes a Provincial Anniversary Day as a public holiday.

13.1. Overview and popular sports

Many of New Zealand's most popular sports have British origins.

• Rugby union**: Widely considered the national sport. The men's national team, the All Blacks, is one of the most successful and iconic teams in world sport. Rugby is played and followed passionately at all levels.
• Cricket**: A popular summer sport, with the national team, the Black Caps (men) and White Ferns (women), competing internationally.
• Netball**: The leading women's sport in New Zealand, with high participation rates and a successful national team, the Silver Ferns.
• Football (Soccer)**: Growing in popularity, particularly among young people and at the international level with the All Whites (men) and Football Ferns (women).
• Other popular sports**: Include golf, tennis, basketball, rugby league, hockey, sailing, cycling, skiing and snowboarding, and various water sports. Adventure sports like bungy jumping (popularised in New Zealand) also attract many participants and tourists.

Participation in sport and recreation is generally high across the population.

13.2. International representation

New Zealand has a strong record of success in international sporting competitions, particularly for a country of its size.

• Olympic Games**: New Zealand has competed at the Summer Olympics since 1908 (initially as part of a combined Australasian team with Australia) and has won medals in sports such as rowing, sailing, athletics, canoeing, cycling, and equestrian. It has also participated in the Winter Olympics.
• Commonwealth Games**: New Zealand is a leading nation at the Commonwealth Games, consistently performing well across a range of sports.
• Rugby World Cup**: The All Blacks have won the men's Rugby World Cup three times (1987, 2011, 2015). The women's national team, the Black Ferns, are also highly successful, having won multiple World Cups.
• Cricket World Cup**: The Black Caps reached the final of the men's Cricket World Cup in 2015 and 2019. The White Ferns won the women's Cricket World Cup in 2000.
• America's Cup**: New Zealand has a strong tradition in sailing and has won the prestigious America's Cup multiple times with Team New Zealand.

13.3. Haka in sport

The haka, a traditional Māori ceremonial challenge or posture dance, has become famous internationally through its performance by New Zealand national sports teams, most notably the All Blacks. The haka, typically Ka Mate or more recently Kapa o Pango, is performed before matches as a display of cultural identity, strength, and unity. Its use in sport is a powerful expression of New Zealand's bicultural heritage, though it also occasionally sparks debate regarding its appropriateness and cultural significance in a commercialised sporting context. The haka's performance is a source of national pride and a distinctive feature of New Zealand's sporting identity on the world stage.