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Stephen Walt

Stephen Walt is an American political scientist and Harvard professor known for his realist international relations theories, including "balance of threat," and critical analyses of U.S. foreign policy.

1. Overview

Stephen Martin Walt, born on July 2, 1955, is an American political scientist and the Robert and Renee Belfer Professor of international relations at the Harvard Kennedy School. A prominent figure within the realist school of international relations, Walt has significantly contributed to the theory of neorealism and is the originator of the "balance of threat" theory. His extensive body of work includes influential books such as Origins of Alliances, Revolution and War, Taming American Power, and the highly debated The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy, co-authored with John Mearsheimer. Walt is widely recognized for his critical analyses of U.S. foreign policy, advocating for a more restrained approach, often termed "offshore balancing." His scholarship consistently examines the broader impacts of international events and policies on global stability, human rights, and the interests of various international actors, reflecting a perspective that prioritizes balanced international relations.

Stephen M. Walt
Stephen M. Walt

2. Early Life and Education

Stephen Walt's early life and academic pursuits laid the foundation for his distinguished career in international relations, marked by a shift in his academic focus from natural sciences to political science.

2.1. Childhood and Upbringing

Walt was born on July 2, 1955, in Los Alamos, New Mexico, a town known for its national laboratory. His father was a physicist who worked at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, while his mother was a teacher. When Walt was approximately eight months old, his family relocated to the Bay Area, where he was raised in Los Altos Hills.

2.2. Education

Walt began his undergraduate studies at Stanford University. Initially, he pursued a major in chemistry with the intention of becoming a biochemist. However, he later changed his academic direction, first shifting to history and subsequently specializing in international relations, ultimately earning his Bachelor of Arts degree. Following his undergraduate studies, Walt commenced graduate work at the University of California, Berkeley. He completed his Master of Arts degree in political science in 1978 and subsequently earned his Doctor of Philosophy degree in political science in 1983.

3. Career

Stephen Walt's career has spanned several prestigious academic institutions, where he has held various professorial and administrative roles, alongside engaging in significant professional activities beyond the classroom.

3.1. Academic Career and Positions

After completing his PhD in 1983, Walt began his academic career as an assistant professor at Princeton University's Woodrow Wilson School from 1984 to 1989. He then moved to the University of Chicago, where he served as an associate professor from 1989 to 1995, and later as a full professor from 1995 to 1999. During his tenure at the University of Chicago, he also held administrative positions, serving as the master of the Social Science Collegiate Division and deputy dean of social sciences from 1996 to 1999. In January 2000, he was a visiting professor of strategic studies at the Institute for Defense and Security Studies (now the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies) at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. Since 1999, Walt has been the Robert and Renee Belfer Professor of International Affairs at the Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University. He also served as the academic dean of the Harvard Kennedy School from 2002 to 2006.

3.2. Other Professional Activities

Beyond his teaching and administrative duties, Stephen Walt has been involved in various other professional activities. In May 2005, he was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He served on the Board of Editors for the academic journal World Politics from 1985 to 1989 and was a guest scholar at The Brookings Institution in 1988. From 1986 to 1987, he was a resident associate at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Walt was also a research fellow at Harvard University's Center for Science and International Affairs from 1981 to 1984 and served on the staff of the Center for Naval Analyses from 1978 to 1982. He was a member of the board of directors for the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists from 1992 to 2001.

Walt has been a frequent speaker at various academic and public forums. In 2010, he spoke at the Saltzman Institute of War and Peace Studies at Columbia University, delivering a lecture titled "Realism and American Grand Strategy: The Case for Offshore Balancing." In 2012, he participated in a panel discussion at the one-state solution conference held at the Kennedy School, alongside Ali Abunimah and Eve Spangler. He gave a lecture at Clark University in April 2013 and delivered a talk at the College of William & Mary in October 2013, titled "Why US Foreign Policy Keeps Failing." In the same year, he delivered the F. H. Hinsley Lecture at Cambridge University and a speech to the Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies, also on the topic of why U.S. foreign policy continues to fail.

4. Academic Contributions and Theories

Stephen Walt's academic contributions are foundational to the field of international relations, particularly within the realist tradition. His work has refined existing theories and introduced new concepts to explain state behavior, alliance formation, and the dynamics of conflict.

4.1. Realism and Neorealism

Stephen Walt is a prominent scholar within the realist and neorealist schools of international relations. Realism posits that states are the primary actors in an anarchic international system, driven by self-interest and the pursuit of power and security. Neorealism, a refinement of classical realism, emphasizes the structural constraints of the international system, particularly the distribution of power, as the primary determinant of state behavior. Walt's work builds upon and contributes to these frameworks by providing nuanced analyses of how states perceive threats and form alliances in response.

4.2. Balance of Threat Theory

Walt developed the "balance of threat" theory as a significant modification to the traditional "balance of power" concept, which was refined by neorealist Kenneth Waltz. While balance of power focuses on the distribution of military capabilities, Walt's theory argues that states form alliances not merely against powerful states, but against states perceived as threatening. He defined threat in terms of four key factors:

  • Aggregate power: The overall military, economic, and demographic strength of a state.
  • Geographic proximity: The physical closeness of a potential adversary.
  • Offensive power: The perceived ability of a state to project military force beyond its borders.
  • Aggressive intentions: The perceived willingness of a state to use its power to harm others.

His PhD dissertation, which later became his 1987 book The Origins of Alliances, was instrumental in establishing the importance of the balance of threat over the balance of power in explaining alliance formation.

4.3. Alliance Formation Theory

In his 1987 book, The Origins of Alliances, Walt examines the fundamental processes by which alliances are made. He proposes a significant conceptual shift in understanding alliance systems, arguing that states primarily form alliances to balance against perceived threats rather than simply against concentrations of power. This theoretical approach outlines the various factors that influence states' decisions to align with or against others, emphasizing the subjective perception of threat as a key driver of alliance behavior.

4.4. Revolution and War Theory

Walt's 1996 book, Revolution and War, offers a theoretical analysis of the relationship between revolution and war. In this work, he exposes what he identifies as flaws in existing theories on this subject. To support his arguments, Walt conducts detailed studies of the French, Russian, and Iranian Revolutions, and provides more concise examinations of the American, Mexican, Turkish, and Chinese Revolutions, drawing historical case studies to illustrate his theoretical conclusions.

4.5. Renaissance of Security Studies

Stephen Walt has also contributed to the discourse on the evolution and direction of the field of security studies. In his 1991 article, "The Renaissance of Security Studies," he discusses the revitalization of the academic discipline after a period of perceived decline during the 1970s and 1980s. He examines the theoretical underpinnings that have guided the field's resurgence and its ongoing development, highlighting the renewed scholarly interest in issues of international security.

5. Major Works and Publications

Stephen Walt's scholarly contributions are primarily disseminated through his influential books and numerous academic papers, which have significantly shaped the discourse in international relations and foreign policy analysis.

5.1. Books

Walt has authored and co-authored several key books that are widely cited in the study of international relations.

5.1.1. Single-Authored Books

  • The Origins of Alliances (Cornell University Press, 1987): This foundational work examines the dynamics of alliance formation, arguing that states align based on perceived threats rather than merely the distribution of power. It proposes a fundamental change in existing conceptions of alliance systems.
  • Revolution and War (Cornell University Press, 1996): In this book, Walt analyzes the complex relationship between revolution and war, critiquing existing theories through detailed historical case studies, including the French, Russian, and Iranian Revolutions, and briefer views of the American, Mexican, Turkish, and Chinese Revolutions.
  • Taming American Power: The Global Response to U.S. Primacy (W. W. Norton & Co., 2005): This book offers a comprehensive critique of U.S. foreign policy strategy from the perspective of its adversaries. It argues that the U.S. needs to make its dominant position more acceptable to other nations. Anatol Lieven described it as "a brilliant contribution to the American foreign policy debate."
  • The Hell of Good Intentions: America's Foreign Policy Elite and the Decline of U.S. Primacy (2018): This book further explores Walt's critical assessment of U.S. foreign policy, focusing on the shortcomings of the foreign policy establishment and the decline of American global influence.

5.1.2. Co-Authored Books

  • The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy (with John Mearsheimer, Farrar Straus & Giroux, 2007): This highly controversial and influential book originated from a 2006 working paper. It argues that the "Israel Lobby," defined as a "loose coalition of individuals and organizations who actively work to steer US foreign policy in a pro-Israel direction," exerts an "unmatched power" that often leads U.S. foreign policy to align with Israeli interests, sometimes to the detriment of broader U.S. national interests. The authors asserted that "What the Israel lobby wants, it too often gets."

5.2. Key Papers and Articles

Walt has published numerous influential academic papers and articles in prominent journals and magazines, demonstrating his ongoing engagement with contemporary foreign policy issues:

  • "Alliance Formation and the Balance of World Power" (International Security, 1985)
  • "Testing Theories of Alliance Formation: The Case of Southwest Asia" (International Organization, 1988)
  • "The Case for Finite Containment: Analyzing U.S. Grand Strategy" (International Security, 1989)
  • "The Renaissance of Security Studies" (International Studies Quarterly, 1991)
  • "Revolution and War" (World Politics, 1992)
  • "Why Alliances Endure or Collapse" (Survival, 1997)
  • "International Relations: One World, Many Theories" (Foreign Policy, 1998)
  • "Rigor or Rigor Mortis?: Rational Choice and Security Studies" (International Security, 1999)
  • "Beyond bin Laden: Reshaping U.S. Foreign Policy" (International Security, 2001)
  • "The Imbalance of Power" (Harvard Magazine, 2004)
  • "The Relationship between Theory and Policy in International Relations" (Annual Review of Political Science, 2005)
  • "Taming American Power" (Foreign Affairs, 2005)
  • "The Israel Lobby" (London Review of Books, 2006, with John Mearsheimer)
  • "On Dual Loyalty" (Foreign Policy, 2010)
  • "On the murders at Itamar" (Foreign Policy, 2011)
  • "A false friend in the White House" (Foreign Policy, 2011)
  • "The End of the American Era" (The National Interest, 2011)
  • "Skepticism over Iranian Terrorist Plot" (PRI, 2011)
  • "The Interview: Stephen M. Walt" (The Diplomat, 2012)
  • "Snowden deserves an immediate presidential pardon" (Financial Times, 2013)
  • "Why does US foreign policy keep failing?" (Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies, 2013)
  • "Weapons Assad Uses Shouldn't Affect U.S. Policy" (The New York Times, 2013)
  • "The 2013 Stories that Never Were" (Foreign Policy, 2013)
  • "Why Arming Kiev Is a Really, Really Bad Idea" (Foreign Policy, 2015)
  • "What Should We Do if the Islamic State Wins? Live with it." (Foreign Policy, 2015)

6. Foreign Policy and International Relations Analysis

Stephen Walt is a prominent voice in the debate on U.S. foreign policy, offering critical perspectives on American power, grand strategy, and specific regional dynamics. His analyses often consider the broader implications for international stability, human rights, and the interests of various global actors.

6.1. Critique of American Power and Foreign Policy

Walt is a strong critic of military interventionism and U.S. global hegemony. He has characterized the "rules-based world order" as a framework largely written by the U.S., which the U.S. then feels "free to violate whenever it's inconvenient." In his 2005 article "Taming American Power," Walt argued that the U.S. should make its dominant position more acceptable to others by "using military force sparingly, by fostering greater cooperation with key allies, and, most important of all, by rebuilding its crumbling international image." He proposed that the U.S. "resume its traditional role as an 'offshore balancer'," intervening "only when absolutely necessary" and keeping "its military presence as small as possible."

In a late 2011 article for The National Interest, titled "The End of the American Era," Walt contended that the U.S. was losing its position of world dominance. In a 2013 speech to the Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies, he observed an "overwhelming bias among US foreign policy institutions toward an activist foreign policy" and a "propensity to exaggerate threats," noting that the chances of being struck by lightning have been far greater since 2001 than death by terrorist attack. He also characterized the U.S. as lacking "diplomatic skill and finesse" and advised Europeans "to think of themselves and not rely on the US for guidance or advice on solving their security issues." Ultimately, he argued that "the United States is simply not skilled enough to run the world."

In 2013, Walt questioned why Americans are so willing to pay taxes to support a "world-girdling national security establishment," yet are "so reluctant to pay taxes to have better schools, health care, roads, bridges, subways, parks, museums, libraries, and all the other trappings of a wealthy and successful society." He found this particularly puzzling given that "the United States is the most secure power in history and will remain remarkably secure unless it keeps repeating the errors of the past decade or so." Walt views opponents of military intervention not as "isolationist" but as advocating a "coherent case for a more detached and selective approach to U.S. grand strategy."

6.2. Analysis of Specific Countries and Regions

Walt has provided extensive analyses of the foreign policy, security dynamics, and political landscapes of various countries and regions, often challenging conventional wisdom.

6.2.1. Europe

In 1998, Walt wrote that "deep structural forces" were "beginning to pull Europe and America apart." However, he argued that NATO must be sustained due to four major areas where close cooperation is mutually beneficial to European and American interests:

  • Defeating international terrorism: Walt emphasized the need for cooperation between Europe and the United States in managing terrorist networks and stopping the flow of money to terror cells.
  • Limiting the spread of weapons of mass destruction: He argued that anti-proliferation efforts are most successful when Europe and the U.S. work in concert to bring loose nuclear material into responsible custody, citing Libya's willingness to abandon its nascent fission program after multilateral pressure as evidence.
  • Managing the world economy: Walt believed that lowering barriers to trade and investment, particularly between the U.S. and the EU, would accelerate economic growth, despite notable differences in agricultural policy.
  • Dealing with failed states: He noted that failed states, such as Afghanistan, Bosnia, and Somalia, are breeding grounds for anti-Western movements. Managing these situations requires a multinational response, as the U.S. alone lacks sufficient resources to modernize and rebuild them. In this area, European allies are especially desirable due to their greater experience with peacekeeping and "nation-building."

6.2.2. Eastern Europe and Russia

In 2015, a year after Russia's annexation of Crimea, Walt argued that extending invitations for NATO membership to countries in the former Soviet bloc is a "dangerous and unnecessary goal." He contended that Ukraine ought to be a "neutral buffer state in perpetuity." He further argued that, although the Barack Obama administration had refrained from arming Ukraine, doing so would be "a recipe for a longer and more destructive conflict." The Obama administration avoided arming Ukraine for the duration of its term, consistent with Walt's strategic advice, but the Donald Trump administration angered Russia by approving a plan to provide anti-tank missiles to Ukraine in 2017.

6.2.3. Middle East

Walt has consistently advocated for the U.S. to adopt an "offshore balancer" role in the Middle East. He suggests that the U.S. should be ready to intervene only if the balance of power is upset, while otherwise maintaining a minimal military presence. He believes the U.S. should have normal relationships with states like Israel and Saudi Arabia, rather than the "counterproductive 'special relationships'" currently in place. In a June 2015 article titled "What Should We Do if the Islamic State Wins? Live with it.", Walt explained his view that the Islamic State was unlikely to grow into a long-lasting world power. He also argues that the U.S. often "blows minor threats out of all proportion," citing Iran's defense budget of about 10.00 B USD as an example, yet the U.S. manages to convince itself that Iran is a "Very Serious Threat" to U.S. vital interests. He concludes that whatever happens in the Middle East, "the United States can almost certainly adjust and adapt and be just fine."

6.2.4. China

Walt posits that offshore balancing is the most desirable strategy for the U.S. to manage its relationship with China. In 2011, he argued that China would seek to gain regional hegemony and a broad sphere of influence in Asia, comparable in size to the U.S. position in the Western Hemisphere. If this occurs, he predicts that China would be secure enough on the mainland to give increased attention to shaping events in distant areas. Given China's resource-poor nature, he believes it will likely aim to safeguard vital sea lanes in regions such as the Persian Gulf. However, in a December 2012 interview, Walt cautioned that "the United States does not help its own cause by exaggerating Chinese power. We should not base our policy today on what China might become twenty or thirty years down the road."

6.3. Major Events and Controversies

Stephen Walt's work has frequently intersected with significant international events and controversies, where he has often taken a critical and independent stance.

6.3.1. Critique of the Iraq War

Stephen Walt was a prominent critic of the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq. From a realist perspective, he, along with John Mearsheimer, argued that the war was "unnecessary" and ultimately detrimental to U.S. national interests. His analyses characterized the invasion as a significant strategic misstep, questioning its rationale and long-term consequences for regional stability and U.S. foreign policy.

6.3.2. The Israel Lobby Controversy

The publication of the working paper "The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy" in March 2006, followed by the book of the same name in 2007, co-authored by Walt and John Mearsheimer, generated significant public and academic debate worldwide. The authors argued that the "unmatched power of the Israel Lobby" negatively influenced U.S. foreign policy. The work contended that the lobby, defined as a "loose coalition of individuals and organizations who actively work to steer US foreign policy in a pro-Israel direction," often succeeded in aligning U.S. policy with Israeli interests, sometimes to the detriment of broader U.S. national interests.

The controversy surrounding the work was intense. Critics like Christopher Hitchens argued that Walt and Mearsheimer "seriously mischaracterize the origins of the problem." Conversely, former U.S. ambassador Edward Peck asserted that the "tsunami" of responses condemning the report itself served to prove the lobby's existence. Peck concluded that "Opinions differ on the long-term costs and benefits for both nations, but the lobby's views of Israel's interests have become the basis of US Middle East policies."

6.3.3. The Edward Snowden Case

In July 2013, Stephen Walt publicly advocated for an immediate presidential pardon for Edward Snowden. Walt argued that Snowden's motives were "laudable," stemming from his belief that fellow citizens deserved to know that their government was conducting a "secret surveillance programme enormous in scope, poorly supervised and possibly unconstitutional." Walt contended that Snowden was right in his assessment. He suggested that history "will probably be kinder to Mr Snowden than to his pursuers," and that Snowden's name "may one day be linked to the other brave men and women-Daniel Ellsberg, Martin Luther King Jr., Mark Felt, Karen Silkwood and so on-whose acts of principled defiance are now widely admired."

7. Personal Life

Stephen Walt is married to Rebecca E. Stone. Rebecca Stone ran for the Massachusetts House of Representatives in the 2018 election. Stephen and Rebecca Walt have two children.

8. Assessment and Impact

Stephen Walt's academic work has had a profound impact on the field of international relations, though it has also been the subject of significant criticism and controversy, particularly concerning his analyses of U.S. foreign policy.

8.1. Academic Influence

Walt's theoretical contributions, especially his "balance of threat" theory, have significantly influenced the academic fields of international relations and security studies. His books, such as The Origins of Alliances and Revolution and War, are considered foundational texts within realist and neorealist scholarship, providing sophisticated theoretical frameworks for understanding alliance formation and the dynamics of conflict. His analyses of U.S. grand strategy and foreign policy have also profoundly shaped academic discourse, challenging conventional wisdom and encouraging critical examination of American global engagement. His standing within the scholarly community is notable for his consistent and rigorous application of realist principles to contemporary international issues.

8.2. Criticism and Controversies

Stephen Walt's scholarship and public commentary have frequently drawn criticism and sparked controversies. The most notable controversy surrounds his co-authored book, The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy, which generated intense debate and varied reactions, with some critics questioning its methodology and conclusions, while supporters defended its call for a more open discussion of lobby influence. His early assessment of Libya following a government-funded visit also drew strong condemnation, with critics accusing him of producing a "puff piece" and questioning his objectivity, especially given his prior criticisms of other lobbies. These instances highlight Walt's willingness to challenge established narratives, which, while contributing to robust academic and public discourse, has also made him a frequent target of criticism from those who disagree with his analyses or perceived biases.