Singapore

3.1. Ancient Singapore and Early Kingdoms

In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama. While the historicity of the accounts in the Malay Annals is debated by academics, it is known from various documents that Singapore in the 14th century, then known as Temasek, was a trading port under the influence of both the Majapahit Empire and the Siamese kingdoms. It was part of the Indosphere, characterized by resilience, political integrity, and administrative stability. Historical sources also indicate that around the end of the 14th century, its ruler Parameswara was attacked by either the Majapahit or the Siamese, forcing him to move to Malacca where he founded the Sultanate of Malacca. Archaeological evidence suggests that the main settlement on Fort Canning Hill was abandoned around this time, although a small trading settlement continued in Singapore for some time afterwards. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, and the island faded into obscurity for the next two centuries. By then, Singapore was nominally part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period after the 1641 Dutch conquest of Malacca.

3.2. British Colonisation

The British governor Stamford Raffles arrived in Singapore on 28 January 1819 and recognized the island as a strategic choice for a new port. The island was then nominally ruled by Tengku Abdul Rahman, the Sultan of Johor, who was controlled by the Dutch and the Bugis. However, the Sultanate was weakened by factional division: Abdul Rahman, the Temenggong of Johor to Tengku Abdul Rahman, and his officials, were loyal to the Sultan's elder brother Tengku Long, who was living in exile in Penyengat Island, Riau Islands. With the Temenggong's help, Raffles smuggled Tengku Long back into Singapore. Raffles offered to recognize Tengku Long as the rightful Sultan of Johor, under the title of Sultan Hussein, and provide him with a yearly payment of $5,000 and another $3,000 to the Temenggong; in return, Sultan Hussein would grant the British the right to establish a trading post in Singapore. The Treaty of Singapore was signed on 6 February 1819.

In 1824, a further treaty with the Sultan led to the entire island becoming part of the British Empire. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, then under the jurisdiction of British India. Singapore became the regional capital in 1836. Before Raffles' arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a few Chinese. By 1860, the population had swelled to over 80,000, with more than half being Chinese. Many early immigrants came to work on pepper and gambier plantations. The colonial administration often favored certain ethnic groups, leading to social stratification and economic disparities that would have long-lasting impacts. In 1867, the Straits Settlements were separated from British India, coming under the direct control of Britain. Later, in the 1890s, when the rubber industry became established in Malaya and Singapore, the island became a global centre for rubber sorting and export.

Singapore was not greatly affected by World War I (1914-1918). The only significant event was the 1915 Singapore Mutiny by Muslim sepoys from British India, garrisoned in Singapore. Rumored to be sent to fight the Ottoman Empire, they rebelled, killing officers and civilians before being suppressed.

After World War I, the British built the large Singapore Naval Base as part of the defensive Singapore strategy. Announced in 1921, construction was slow until the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Costing $60 million and completed in 1938, it was the largest dry dock globally and had fuel tanks to support the entire British navy for six months. The base was defended by 15 in naval guns at Fort Siloso, Fort Canning, and Labrador, and an RAF airfield at Tengah Air Base. Winston Churchill called it the "Gibraltar of the East". However, the British Home Fleet was in Europe, and a second fleet for Asia was unaffordable. The plan was for the Home Fleet to sail to Singapore in an emergency. Consequently, after World War II began in 1939, the fleet was occupied defending Britain, leaving Singapore vulnerable.

3.3. World War II and Japanese Occupation

During the Pacific War, the Japanese invasion of Malaya culminated in the Battle of Singapore. The British force of 60,000 troops surrendered on 15 February 1942. Prime Minister Winston Churchill called the defeat "the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history". British and Empire losses were heavy, with nearly 85,000 personnel captured. About 5,000 were killed or wounded, mostly Australians. Japanese casualties were 1,714 killed and 3,378 wounded. The occupation became a major turning point. Japanese newspapers declared the victory decisive.

The Japanese occupation was a period of immense hardship and brutality for the local population. The Sook Ching massacre, targeting ethnic Chinese, resulted in the deaths of an estimated 5,000 to 25,000 people, a horrific human rights abuse that left deep scars on the community. Resources were scarce, and the population suffered from food shortages and harsh military rule. This period also fueled anti-colonial sentiments and aspirations for self-determination. British forces had planned to liberate Singapore in 1945/1946 (Operation Mailfist), but the war ended before these operations.

3.4. Post-War Period and Path to Self-Governance

After the Japanese surrender to the Allies on 15 August 1945, Singapore fell into a brief state of violence and disorder; looting and revenge-killings were widespread. British, Australian, and Indian troops led by Lord Louis Mountbatten returned to Singapore to receive the formal surrender of Japanese forces from General Seishirō Itagaki on 12 September 1945. Tomoyuki Yamashita was tried by a US military commission for war crimes (though not specifically for crimes in Malaya or Singapore), convicted, and hanged in the Philippines on 23 February 1946.

Much of Singapore's infrastructure was destroyed during the war. Food shortages led to malnutrition, disease, and rampant crime. Strikes in 1947 caused massive stoppages. However, by late 1947, the economy began to recover, aided by international demand for tin and rubber. Britain's failure to defend Singapore changed its image among Singaporeans. The British Military Administration ended on 1 April 1946, and Singapore became a separate Crown Colony. In July 1947, separate Executive and Legislative Councils were established, and elections for six Legislative Council members were scheduled for the following year.

During the 1950s, Chinese communists, with strong ties to trade unions and Chinese schools, waged a guerrilla war against the government, leading to the Malayan Emergency. The 1954 National Service riots, Hock Lee bus riots, and Chinese middle schools riots in Singapore were linked to these events. David Marshall, pro-independence leader of the Labour Front, won Singapore's first general election in 1955. He led a delegation to London, but Britain rejected his demand for complete self-rule. He resigned and was replaced by Lim Yew Hock in 1956. After further negotiations, Britain granted Singapore full internal self-government for all matters except defence and foreign affairs on 3 June 1959. Days before, in the 30 May 1959 election, the People's Action Party (PAP) won a landslide victory. Governor Sir William Allmond Codrington Goode served as the first Yang di-Pertuan Negara (Head of State). The rise of nationalist movements during this period was marked by a growing desire for social justice and an end to colonial exploitation.

3.5. Merger with Malaysia

PAP leaders believed Singapore's future lay with Malaya due to strong ties. It was thought that reunification would benefit the economy by creating a common market and alleviating unemployment. However, a sizeable left-wing faction of the PAP, fearing a loss of influence, opposed the merger and formed the Barisan Sosialis after being expelled from the PAP. The ruling party of Malaya, United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), was staunchly anti-communist and suspected UMNO would support the PAP's non-communist factions. UMNO, initially sceptical due to distrust of the PAP and concern that Singapore's large ethnic Chinese population would alter Malaya's racial balance, became supportive due to a joint fear of a communist takeover.

On 27 May 1961, Malaya's Prime Minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman, proposed a new Federation called Malaysia, uniting current and former British possessions: the Federation of Malaya, Singapore, Brunei, North Borneo, and Sarawak. UMNO leaders believed the additional Malay population in Bornean territories would balance Singapore's Chinese population. The British government believed the merger would prevent Singapore from becoming a communist haven. To obtain a mandate, the PAP held a referendum on the merger, which included choices for different merger terms but no option to avoid merger. On 16 September 1963, Singapore joined Malaya, North Borneo, and Sarawak to form Malaysia under the Malaysia Agreement, gaining a relatively high level of autonomy.

Indonesia opposed Malaysia's formation due to its own claims over Borneo and launched Konfrontasi ("Confrontation"). On 10 March 1965, a bomb planted by Indonesian saboteurs at MacDonald House killed three people and injured 33. It was the deadliest of at least 42 bomb incidents. Two Indonesian Marine Corps members, Osman bin Haji Mohamed Ali and Harun bin Said, were convicted and executed. The explosion caused 250.00 K USD in damages.

Even after the merger, the Singaporean and Malaysian central governments disagreed on many political and economic issues. Despite an agreement for a common market, Singapore faced trade restrictions. In retaliation, Singapore didn't extend full loans to Sabah and Sarawak for economic development. Talks broke down, leading to communal strife and the 1964 race riots. These tensions were fueled by differing visions for the nation, particularly concerning racial policies and economic development, with Singapore advocating for a "Malaysian Malaysia" based on meritocracy, contrasting with policies perceived as favoring specific ethnic groups. On 7 August 1965, Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman, seeing no alternative to avoid further bloodshed (and with secret negotiations by PAP leaders), advised the Parliament of Malaysia to expel Singapore. On 9 August 1965, the Malaysian Parliament voted 126 to 0 to expel Singapore, making it an independent country.

3.6. Republic of Singapore (1965-present)

After expulsion from Malaysia, Singapore became the independent Republic of Singapore on 9 August 1965, with Lee Kuan Yew and Yusof bin Ishak as the first prime minister and president, respectively. In 1967, the country co-founded the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Race riots broke out again in 1969. Lee Kuan Yew's emphasis on rapid economic growth, support for business entrepreneurship, and limitations on internal democracy shaped Singapore's policies for the next half-century. While achieving remarkable economic success, this period also saw restrictions on political dissent and media freedom, which critics argued hindered fuller democratic development and impacted human rights.

Economic growth continued throughout the 1980s, with unemployment falling to 3% and real GDP growth averaging about 8% until 1999. Singapore shifted towards high-tech industries like wafer fabrication to remain competitive. Singapore Changi Airport opened in 1981, and Singapore Airlines was formed. The Port of Singapore became one of the world's busiest, and service and tourism industries grew immensely.

The PAP has remained in power since independence. Some activists and opposition politicians view the government's strict regulation of political and media activities as an infringement on political rights. In response, Singapore saw political changes like non-constituency members of parliament (1984), group representation constituencies (GRCs) in 1988 (intended for minority representation but also criticized for fortifying PAP dominance), and nominated members of parliament (1990). The constitution was amended in 1991 for an elected president with veto power over past reserves and certain public appointments.

In 1990, Goh Chok Tong succeeded Lee as prime minister. His tenure saw the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the 2003 SARS outbreak. In 2004, Lee Hsien Loong, Lee Kuan Yew's eldest son, became prime minister. His tenure included the 2007-2008 financial crisis, resolving a land ownership dispute with Malaysia, introducing two integrated resorts (IRs) at Marina Bay Sands and Resorts World Sentosa, and the COVID-19 pandemic. The PAP saw its worst electoral results in 2011 (60% of votes) amidst debates on foreign workers and cost of living. On 23 March 2015, Lee Kuan Yew died, followed by a week of public mourning. The PAP regained dominance in the September 2015 election (69.9% of votes), though still lower than its 2001 (75.3%) and 1968 (86.7%) tallies. The 2020 election saw the PAP drop to 61% of the vote, while the Workers' Party took 10 of 93 seats, the highest for an opposition party. The human rights record, including issues like freedom of speech, assembly, and the use of defamation lawsuits against critics, continued to be a point of international and domestic discussion.

On 15 May 2024, Lawrence Wong became Singapore's fourth Prime Minister, the first born after independence. His leadership is anticipated to navigate ongoing economic challenges, social equity concerns, and the evolving political landscape.

4.1. Nature and Biodiversity

Singapore's urbanization has led to the loss of 95% of its historical forests. Over half of the naturally occurring fauna and flora in Singapore is now present in nature reserves like the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and the Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve, which comprise only 0.25% of Singapore's land area. To combat this decline, the government introduced the "garden city" vision in 1967, aiming to improve quality of life. Since then, nearly 10% of Singapore's land has been set aside for parks and nature reserves. The government has implemented plans to preserve the country's remaining wildlife. Well-known gardens include the Singapore Botanic Gardens, a 165-year-old tropical garden and Singapore's first UNESCO World Heritage Site. These conservation efforts represent a commitment to balancing urban development with environmental sustainability, although challenges remain in protecting fragile ecosystems from developmental pressures.

4.2. Climate

Singapore has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: Af) with no distinctive seasons, uniform temperature and pressure, high humidity, and abundant rainfall. Temperatures usually range from 73.4 °F ^{(23 °C)} to 89.6 °F ^{(32 °C)}. While temperature does not vary greatly, there is a wetter monsoon season from November to February.

From July to October, haze caused by bush fires in neighboring Indonesia, usually from Sumatra, is common. Singapore follows the GMT+8 time zone. The sun rises around 7:15 am and sets around 7:20 pm in February, while in July, it sets around 7:15 pm. The earliest sunrise and sunset are in late October/early November (6:46 am and 6:50 pm respectively).

Singapore recognizes that climate change and sea level rise will have major implications for its low-lying coastline. It estimates needing to spend $100 billion over the next century to address this. In its 2020 budget, an initial $5 billion was set aside for a Coastline and Flood Protection Fund. Singapore is the first country in Southeast Asia to levy a carbon tax on its largest carbon-emitting corporations (more than 25,000 tons of CO2 per year), at $5 per ton. To reduce dependence on fossil fuels, Singapore has increased deployment of solar panels on rooftops and vertical surfaces, and initiatives like one of the world's largest floating solar farms at Tengeh Reservoir. These measures reflect a growing awareness of the need for sustainable development and climate resilience, impacting both environmental policy and social equity.

4.3. Water Resources and Management

Singapore considers water a national security issue and emphasizes conservation. Water access is universal and of high quality, though the country is projected to face significant water stress by 2040. To address this, the Public Utilities Board has implemented the "four national taps" strategy: imported water from Malaysia, urban rainwater catchments, reclaimed water (NEWater), and seawater desalination. Singapore's approach also emphasizes proper legislation, enforcement, water pricing, public education, and research and development. Singapore aims for water self-sufficiency by 2061 when its long-term water supply agreement with Malaysia expires. Official forecasts predict water demand to double from 1.4 billion litres to 2.8 billion litres per day between 2010 and 2060, primarily from non-domestic use. By 2060, reclaimed water is expected to meet 50% of demand, desalination 30%, and internal catchments 20%.

Singapore is expanding its recycling system and intends to spend 10.00 B SGD (7.40 B USD) on water treatment infrastructure upgrades. The Ulu Pandan wastewater treatment plant, operational since 2017 and jointly developed by PUB and Black & Veatch + AECOM Joint Venture, tests advanced used-water treatment processes and won the Water/Wastewater Project of the Year Award at the 2018 Global Water Awards. This focus on water security has social implications, ensuring equitable access for all citizens while managing the costs associated with advanced water technologies.

5.1. Governmental Structure

Singapore is a parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system. The Constitution of Singapore is the supreme law, establishing the structure and responsibility of governance. The President is the head of state. The governance of Singapore is separated into three branches:

• Executive: Consists of the cabinet, led by the prime minister, and the Attorney General's Chambers led by the Attorney-General. The cabinet is collectively responsible for government policies and state administration. It is typically composed of members of Parliament. The prime minister is appointed by the President, and ministers and the attorney-general are appointed by the president on the prime minister's advice. The prime minister is the effective head of the executive branch.
• Legislature: The unicameral Singapore Parliament, together with the president, comprises the legislature. Members of Parliament (MP) consist of elected, non-constituency, and nominated members. Most MPs are elected at a general election. The Parliament is collectively responsible for enacting laws. The president holds limited discretionary powers of oversight over the government, and the president's veto powers are subject to parliamentary overruling.
• Judiciary: The judiciary independently administers justice and is headed by the Chief Justice. Judges and judicial commissioners are appointed by the president on the prime minister's advice. The Supreme Court and State Courts adjudicate civil disputes, criminal prosecutions, and perform judicial review to decide on the constitutionality of laws. Any law found unconstitutional can be struck down by the Supreme Court.

The president is directly elected by popular vote for a renewable six-year term. Requirements for this position, enacted by the PAP government, are extremely stringent. Candidates must be at least 45, no longer a member of a political party, have held public office for at least 3 years in specific leadership roles, or have 3 years' experience as chief executive of a profitable private sector company with at least 500.00 M SGD in shareholders' equity, be a resident for at least 10 years, have no criminal record, and satisfy the Presidential Elections Committee (PEC) of their integrity.
Since 2017, presidential elections can be "reserved" for a racial community if no one from that ethnic group has been elected president in the five most recent terms. Only members of that community may qualify. In the 2017 presidential election, these requirements and a reserved election for the Malay community led to the PEC approving only one candidate, Halimah Yacob, who won uncontested and became Singapore's first female president. This system has drawn criticism regarding its impact on democratic competition and representation.

5.2. Elections and Political Landscape

Members of Parliament (MPs) are elected at least every five years. The 14th Parliament has 103 members: 93 directly elected from 31 constituencies, nine nonpartisan nominated members appointed by the president, and three non-constituency members from opposition parties not elected but appointed to increase opposition representation. In Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs), political parties assemble teams of candidates, with at least one MP in a GRC required to be from an ethnic minority. All elections use first-past-the-post voting. MPs host weekly "Meet-the-People Sessions" to help constituents.

The People's Action Party (PAP) has dominated Singaporean politics, winning large parliamentary majorities in every election since 1959. The PAP describes itself as pragmatic, with a syncretic ideology combining free-market principles, civil nationalism, and welfarism. Despite restrictions on civil liberties, Singapore under the PAP has seen consistent economic growth and political stability. The most represented opposition party is the centre-left Workers' Party, holding 8 seats.

The PAP's long-standing hegemony has led academics to describe Singapore as an illiberal democracy or a soft-authoritarian state with minimal feasible political competition. The democratic process has been characterized as "minimal" compared to the state's focus on economic development and social order. Some scholars argue Singapore adapted the "benevolent" yet "highly authoritarian" colonial governance system rather than forging a full democracy, with an ideology of "Asian values" evolving, emphasizing communal loyalty and social order, sometimes at the expense of Western-defined human rights. The limited historical experience with democracy among both public and elites contributed to a political culture dominated by status-focused hierarchies committed to economic development. This legacy has led to descriptions of Singapore as a "classic illustration of soft authoritarianism" and "profoundly illiberal."

5.3. Law and Judiciary

The judicial system is based on English common law, a legacy of British rule, with substantial local differences. Criminal law is based on the Indian Penal Code, adopted during colonial times and still forming the basis of the criminal code, with amendments. Trial by jury was abolished in 1970. Singapore is known for its strict laws; both corporal punishment (by caning) and capital punishment (by hanging) are retained and commonly used, particularly for crimes like drug trafficking. The government asserts these measures are effective deterrents and crucial for maintaining social order, though they face international criticism from human rights organizations.

5.4. Human Rights

Article 14(1) of the Constitution of Singapore guarantees freedom of speech and association, though subsequent subsections regulate them. The government has restricted freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and some civil and political rights. In 2023, Singapore was ranked 129th out of 180 nations by Reporters Without Borders on the global Press Freedom Index. Freedom House ranks Singapore as "partly free," and the Economist Intelligence Unit ranks it as a "flawed democracy." Public gatherings of five or more people require police permits, and protests are generally restricted to the Speakers' Corner.

The Corruption Perceptions Index consistently ranks Singapore as one of the least corrupt countries. Singapore's model of a strong, soft-authoritarian government with an emphasis on meritocracy is often cited as a factor in its stability and growth. The World Justice Project's 2021 Rule of Law Index ranked Singapore 17th overall, high on order, security, absence of corruption, and regulatory enforcement, but lower on open government, constraints on government powers, and fundamental rights.

Regarding LGBT rights, sexual relations between men were illegal under Section 377A of the Penal Code from 1938 until its repeal on 3 January 2023. This law, a relic of British colonial rule, was largely unenforced in later decades. Pressure for its repeal grew with increasing societal acceptance of homosexuality. Sexual relations between women have always been legal. Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced the repeal in 2022, stating it would not affect the legal definition of marriage as between a man and a woman, a compromise between conservative and progressive elements. Pink Dot SG, an LGBT advocacy event, has drawn thousands annually since 2009. Surveys indicate growing public acceptance of gay rights. In 2021, protests for improved trans rights in education occurred. The decriminalization of same-sex relations marks a significant step for human rights, though the path to full equality, including marriage equality, remains a subject of ongoing social and political debate.

Sex trafficking, often involving women from neighboring countries, is a serious concern. Pimps traffic women for brothels, rented apartments, and hostels. In 2019, amendments to the Women's Charter introduced more severe punishments for traffickers, including up to seven years imprisonment and a 100.00 K SGD fine. These measures aim to protect vulnerable individuals and combat exploitation, aligning with broader efforts to uphold human dignity.

Capital punishment remains a contentious issue, particularly for drug trafficking, drawing criticism from organizations like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. The government maintains it is a necessary deterrent. Amnesty International has raised concerns about legal provisions potentially conflicting with the presumption of innocence. The government disputes these claims, asserting its sovereign right to determine its judicial system. The ongoing use of capital punishment, especially for non-violent offenses, continues to be a focal point for human rights advocacy.

6.1. Relations with Key Nations and ASEAN

As one of the five founding members of ASEAN, Singapore strongly supports the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and the ASEAN Investment Area (AIA). It hosts the APEC Secretariat and is a founding member of The Forum of Small States (FOSS), an informal UN grouping. Singapore also holds membership in the Asia-Europe Meeting, the Forum for East Asia-Latin American Cooperation, the Indian Ocean Rim Association, the East Asia Summit, the Non-Aligned Movement, the United Nations, and the Commonwealth. Though not a formal member of the G20, Singapore has frequently participated in G20 processes since 2010 and hosts the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC) Secretariat.

Bilateral relations with ASEAN members are generally strong, though disagreements have occurred, particularly with neighboring Malaysia and Indonesia. Disputes have arisen over fresh water delivery to Singapore, access by the Singapore Armed Forces to Malaysian airspace, and border issues including land reclamation. The Pedra Branca dispute with Malaysia was resolved by the International Court of Justice. Piracy in the Strait of Malacca is a shared concern. Singapore has close economic ties with Brunei, sharing a pegged currency value through a Currency Interchangeability Agreement.

The first diplomatic contact with China was in the 1970s, with full relations established in the 1990s. China has been Singapore's largest trading partner since 2013. Singapore and the United States share a long-standing close relationship, particularly in defence, economy, health, and education. Singapore has increased cooperation with ASEAN members and China to strengthen regional security and fight terrorism, participating in ASEAN's first joint maritime exercise with China in 2018. It has also supported the US-led coalition against terrorism, with bilateral cooperation in counter-terrorism, counter-proliferation, and joint military exercises.

Due to its diplomatic relations with both the United States and North Korea, Singapore hosted the historic 2018 summit between US President Donald Trump and North Korean leader Kim Jong-un. It also hosted the Ma-Xi meeting in 2015, the first meeting between political leaders from both sides of the Taiwan Strait since 1950. Singapore's foreign policy often emphasizes pragmatism and maintaining positive relations with major global powers, which is crucial for its economic prosperity and national security as a small state in a complex region.

7.1. Defence Policy and Military Cooperation

Singapore's defence policy is centered on the concept of "Total Defence," which involves civil, economic, social, psychological, and military defence pillars, emphasizing that every citizen has a role in protecting the nation. This doctrine underscores a holistic approach to national security, aiming to build resilience against a wide spectrum of threats.
Singapore is a member of the Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA), a military alliance with Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. The FPDA provides a framework for defence cooperation and joint exercises, enhancing regional security. Singapore actively participates in international military cooperation, including overseas training, joint military exercises with various countries, and contributions to international peacekeeping and security operations. This engagement not only strengthens its own defence capabilities but also contributes to regional stability and fosters diplomatic ties. The emphasis on a strong military and alliances reflects Singapore's pragmatic approach to ensuring its sovereignty and security in a complex geopolitical environment.

8.1. Economic Structure and Growth

Singapore has a highly developed market economy, historically based on extended entrepôt trade. Along with Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan, Singapore is one of the Four Asian Tigers, and has surpassed its peers in GDP per capita. Between 1965 and 1995, growth rates averaged around 6% per annum, transforming living standards.
The economy is regarded as free, innovative, dynamic, and business-friendly. For several years, Singapore has been one of the few countries with a AAA credit rating from all major rating agencies, and the only Asian country to achieve this. Singapore attracts significant foreign investment due to its location, skilled workforce, low tax rates, advanced infrastructure, and zero-tolerance against corruption. It was the world's 4th most competitive economy in 2023, according to the International Institute for Management Development's World Competitiveness Ranking, with one of the highest GDP (PPP) per capita. Roughly 44% of the Singaporean workforce is made up of non-Singaporeans. Despite market freedom, government operations have a significant stake in the economy, contributing 22% of GDP. The city is a popular location for conferences and events.
However, this rapid growth has also led to concerns about income inequality. While the overall standard of living is high, disparities exist, and the government has implemented various schemes to support lower-income groups and promote more equitable growth. The reliance on foreign labor also presents social and economic challenges, including wage pressures for local low-skilled workers and issues of social integration.

8.2. Key Industries

Singapore's economy is diversified. Its main exports are refined petroleum, integrated circuits, and computers, which constituted 27% of the country's GDP in 2010. Other significant sectors include electronics, chemicals, mechanical engineering, and biomedical sciences. Singapore was ranked 4th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. In 2019, there were more than 60 semiconductor companies in Singapore, constituting 11% of the global market share and contributing around 7% to Singapore's GDP.
Singapore's largest companies are in telecommunications, banking, transportation, and manufacturing, many starting as state-run statutory corporations and later listed on the Singapore Exchange. These include Singapore Telecommunications (Singtel), Singapore Technologies Engineering, Keppel Corporation, Oversea-Chinese Banking Corporation (OCBC), Development Bank of Singapore (DBS), and United Overseas Bank (UOB). In 2011, OCBC, DBS, and UOB were ranked by Bloomberg Businessweek as the world's 1st, 5th, and 6th strongest banks, respectively. Singapore is home to the headquarters of 3 Fortune Global 500 companies.
The nation's best-known global companies include Singapore Airlines, Changi Airport, and the Port of Singapore, all highly awarded in their fields.

8.3. Trade and Investment

Singapore's role as an entrepôt remains significant. It is the world's 3rd-largest foreign exchange centre, 6th-largest financial centre, 2nd-largest casino gambling market, 3rd-largest oil-refining and trading centre, largest oil-rig producer and hub for ship repair services, and largest logistics hub.
Singapore has signed over ten free-trade agreements with other countries and regions. It is the second-largest foreign investor in India and is the 14th largest exporter and 15th largest importer globally. The government actively promotes foreign direct investment (FDI) through agencies like the Economic Development Board (EDB), offering incentives and a stable regulatory environment. This openness to global trade and investment has been a cornerstone of its economic success, though it also exposes the economy to global economic fluctuations.

8.4. Tourism

Tourism is a major industry, attracting 13.6 million international tourists in 2023. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, tourism contributed directly to about 3% of Singapore's GDP on average over ten years. In 2016, the sector generated approximately 8.6% of Singapore's employment.
In 2015, Lonely Planet and The New York Times listed Singapore as their top and 6th-best world destinations. Well-known landmarks include the Merlion, The Esplanade, Marina Bay Sands, Gardens by the Bay, Jewel Changi Airport, CHIJMES, National Gallery Singapore, the Singapore Flyer, the Orchard Road shopping belt, the resort island of Sentosa, and the Singapore Botanic Gardens (Singapore's first UNESCO World Heritage Site).
The Singapore Tourism Board (STB) promotes the tourism industry. In August 2017, STB and the Economic Development Board (EDB) unveiled a unified brand, Singapore - Passion Made Possible. The Orchard Road district is a major shopping and tourism hub. Other attractions include the Singapore Zoo, River Wonders, Bird Paradise, and Night Safari. Singapore also promotes itself as a medical tourism hub, with about 200,000 foreigners seeking medical care there annually, aiming to serve one million foreign patients annually and generate 3.00 B USD in revenue. The development of large-scale integrated resorts, including casinos, has boosted tourism revenue but also sparked social debates about gambling addiction and its impact on vulnerable populations.

8.5. Finance and Currency

The currency of Singapore is the Singapore dollar (SGD or S$), issued by the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS). It has been interchangeable with the Brunei dollar at par value since 1967. MAS manages monetary policy by allowing the Singapore dollar exchange rate to rise or fall within an undisclosed trading band, differing from most central banks that use interest rates. Singapore has the world's eleventh largest foreign reserves and one of the highest net international investment position per capita.
Singapore's status as a major international financial hub is built on its political stability, sound regulatory framework, skilled workforce, and strategic location. It is a key center for banking, wealth management, foreign exchange trading, and capital markets.

8.6. Taxation and Public Finance

Singapore has been identified as a tax haven for the wealthy due to its low tax rates on personal income and tax exemptions on foreign-based income and capital gains. Australian millionaire retailer Brett Blundy and Facebook co-founder Eduardo Saverin are examples of wealthy individuals who have settled in Singapore. In 2009, Singapore was removed from the OECD "liste grise" of tax havens and ranked fourth on the Tax Justice Network's 2015 Financial Secrecy Index. In August 2016, The Straits Times reported Indonesia's plans to create tax havens on two islands near Singapore. In October 2016, MAS admonished and fined UBS and DBS and withdrew Falcon Private Bank's license for their alleged role in the Malaysian Sovereign Fund scandal.
The government provides numerous assistance programmes to the needy through the Ministry of Social and Family Development, so acute poverty is rare. Programmes include financial assistance, free medical care at government hospitals, and paying for children's tuition. Other benefits include compensation for gym fees, up to 166.00 K SGD as a baby bonus, heavily subsidised healthcare, financial aid for the disabled, reduced-cost laptops for poor students, and rebates for public transport and utility bills.
The Central Provident Fund (CPF) is a comprehensive social security savings plan to which both employers and employees contribute. It provides for retirement, healthcare, and housing needs. While the low-tax regime attracts investment, it also fuels debates about social equity and the adequacy of public funding for social services.

9.1. Transport

Singapore is a major international transport hub in Asia, serving some of the busiest sea and air trade routes. Its integrated public transport system is designed for efficiency and accessibility, though the cost of private vehicle ownership is deliberately high to manage congestion and pollution.

9.1.1. Land Transport

Singapore's public transport network includes trains (MRT and LRT systems), buses, and taxis. There are currently six MRT lines (North-South MRT line, East-West MRT line, North East MRT line, Circle MRT line, Downtown MRT line, and Thomson-East Coast MRT line), and three LRT lines serving Bukit Panjang/Choa Chu Kang (Bukit Panjang LRT line), Sengkang (Sengkang LRT line), and Punggol (Punggol LRT line), covering around 150 mile ^{(241 km)} in total. Over 300 bus routes are in operation. Taxis are popular due to relatively affordable fares compared to many other developed countries, while cars in Singapore are the most expensive to own worldwide.

Singapore has a road system covering 2.1 K mile ^{(3.36 K km)}, including 100 mile ^{(161 km)} of expressways. The Singapore Area Licensing Scheme (1975) was the world's first congestion pricing scheme, complemented by stringent car ownership quotas and mass transit improvements. Upgraded in 1998 to Electronic Road Pricing (ERP), it introduced electronic toll collection, detection, and video surveillance. A satellite-based system was due by 2020 but delayed until 2026 due to semiconductor shortages. Private car numbers are restricted via a quota system. Buyers pay Additional Registration Fees (ARF) of 100%-220% of the vehicle's Open Market Value (OMV) and bid for a Certificate of Entitlement (COE), allowing road use for 10 years. Car prices are significantly higher than in other English-speaking countries. Vehicles keep to the left. The Johor-Singapore Causeway is the world's busiest international land border crossing, with approximately 350,000 daily travellers. The Land Transport Authority (LTA) manages all land transport. Efforts to make public transport more inclusive for the elderly and disabled are ongoing, reflecting a commitment to equitable access.

9.1.2. Air Transport

Changi Airport is a major aviation centre for Southeast Asia and a stopover on Qantas' Kangaroo Route between Sydney and London. There are two civilian airports: Changi Airport and Seletar Airport. Changi Airport hosts over 100 airlines connecting Singapore to 300 cities in about 70 countries. It has been rated one of the best international airports by travel magazines and was named the world's best airport by Skytrax in 2006. In 2023, it had three of the world's ten busiest international air routes: Kuala Lumpur-Singapore (busiest), Jakarta-Singapore (7th), and Bangkok Suvarnabhumi-Singapore (9th).

Singapore Airlines, the flag carrier, is regarded as a 5-star airline by Skytrax and has been in the world's top 10 for multiple years, winning World's Best Airline in 2023 (12 times in total). Changi Airport was rated the world's best airport from 2013 to 2020, reclaimed this title in 2023, before being superseded again in 2024. The airport's continuous expansion and innovation aim to maintain its status as a leading global air hub.

9.1.3. Maritime Transport

The Port of Singapore, managed by PSA International and Jurong Port, was the world's second-busiest port in 2019 by shipping tonnage handled (2.85 billion GT) and containerised traffic (37.2 million TEUs). It is also the world's second-busiest by cargo tonnage (626 million tons handled), behind Shanghai. Additionally, it is the world's busiest for transshipment traffic and the world's biggest ship refuelling centre. The port's efficiency and connectivity are vital to Singapore's economy and its role in global supply chains.

9.2. Education

Education for primary, secondary, and tertiary levels is mostly state-supported. All institutions, public and private, must be registered with the Ministry of Education (MOE). English is the language of instruction in all public schools, and all subjects are taught and examined in English except for the "mother tongue" language paper (Malay, Mandarin, or Tamil). While "mother tongue" generally refers to the first language internationally, in Singapore's education system, it refers to the second language, as English is the first. Students struggling with their "Mother Tongue" can take a simpler syllabus or drop the subject.
Education comprises primary, secondary, and pre-university stages, with primary education being compulsory. Students begin with six years of primary school (four-year foundation, two-year orientation). The curriculum focuses on English, mother tongue, mathematics, and science. Secondary school lasts four to five years, divided into Express, Normal (Academic), and Normal (Technical) streams based on ability. Pre-university education is at Junior Colleges (2 years) or Millennia Institute (3 years). Alternatives include 5 polytechnics and 3 ITE colleges. Singapore has six public universities, including the National University of Singapore and Nanyang Technological University, ranked among the top 20 globally.
National examinations are standardized: Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) after primary school, O-Level or N-Level after secondary, and A-Level after pre-university. Some schools have curriculum autonomy (autonomous schools).
Singapore is an education hub, with over 80,000 international students in 2006. 5,000 Malaysian students commute daily. In 2009, 20% of university students were international (the maximum cap), mainly from ASEAN, China, and India.
Singaporean students excel in global education benchmarks. In 2015, primary and secondary students ranked first in OECD's global school performance. In 2016, students topped both PISA and TIMSS. In the 2016 EF English Proficiency Index, Singapore placed 6th, the only Asian country in the top ten. The education system's emphasis on meritocracy and bilingualism has contributed to a highly skilled workforce, but also faces criticism regarding high-pressure academic environments and its impact on students' well-being and creativity.

9.3. Healthcare

Singapore has a generally efficient healthcare system with relatively low expenditures for a developed country. The WHO ranked Singapore's system 6th overall globally. Singapore has had the lowest infant mortality rates for the past two decades. In 2019, Singaporeans had the longest life expectancy (84.8 years). Women average 87.6 years (75.8 in good health); men's averages are lower. Singapore is ranked 1st on the Global Food Security Index.
As of December 2011 and January 2013, 8,800 foreigners and 5,400 Singaporeans were diagnosed with HIV, respectively, with fewer than 10 annual HIV deaths per 100,000 people. Adult obesity is below 10%. Immunisation levels are high. In 2013, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Singapore as having the best quality of life in Asia and sixth globally.
The government's "3M" healthcare framework includes: Medifund (safety net for the needy); Medisave (compulsory national medical savings account, covering about 85% of the population); and Medishield (government-funded health insurance). Public hospitals have considerable autonomy and notionally compete for patients but remain government-owned. A subsidy scheme exists for low-income individuals. In 2008, 32% of healthcare was government-funded, accounting for approximately 3.5% of GDP. This system aims for universal coverage and affordability, but rising healthcare costs and an aging population present ongoing challenges for equitable access and long-term sustainability.

9.4. Science and Technology

Singapore has actively pursued policies to develop itself as a hub for science and technology, recognizing its importance for economic competitiveness and improving quality of life. Key research areas include biomedical sciences, advanced manufacturing (such as semiconductors), and information and communications technology. The government has invested heavily in research and development (R&D) through agencies like the Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), establishing research institutes and fostering collaborations between academia and industry.
The 'Smart Nation' initiative, launched in 2014, aims to leverage technology to enhance urban living, create economic opportunities, and build a more inclusive society. This involves deploying digital infrastructure, promoting data analytics, and encouraging innovation in areas like smart mobility, digital healthcare, and e-government services. These initiatives reflect a strong governmental push towards a knowledge-based economy, but also raise questions about digital literacy, data privacy, and ensuring equitable access to technological advancements for all segments of the population.
Virtual Singapore is a 3D digital replica of the city, used by the government, the Singapore Land Authority, and companies for urban planning and disaster management.

10.1. Ethnicity and Population Composition

As of mid-2023, Singapore's estimated population was 5,917,600. Of these, 3,610,700 (61.6%) were citizens, and the remaining 2,306,900 (38.4%) were permanent residents (522,300) or international students, foreign workers, or dependents (1,644,500). The overall population increased by 5% from the prior year, largely due to foreign workers. This proportion is largely unchanged from the 2010 census.

The 2020 census reported that about 74.3% of residents were of Chinese descent, 13.5% of Malay descent, 9.0% of Indian descent, and 3.2% of other descent (such as Eurasian). This proportion was virtually identical to the 2010 census. Prior to 2010, individuals could only register as a member of one race (defaulting to the father's). Since 2010, people may register using a multi-racial classification (one primary, one secondary race). This official multiracialism is a cornerstone of national identity, but challenges remain in ensuring genuine social integration and addressing subtle forms of discrimination or marginalization faced by minority groups.

Like other developed Asian countries, Singapore experienced a rapid decline in its total fertility rate (TFR) starting in the 1980s. Since 2010, its TFR has largely plateaued at 1.1 children per woman, among the lowest globally and below the 2.1 needed for population replacement. Consequently, the median age of Singaporean residents is among the highest globally, at 42.8 in 2022 (up from 39.6 ten years earlier). Since 2001, the government has introduced programs to increase fertility (paid maternity leave, childcare subsidies, tax relief, cash gifts, grants for flexible work arrangements), but live births continued to decline, hitting a record low in 2022. Singapore's immigration policy aims to alleviate this decline and maintain its working-age population. The aging population presents significant social and economic challenges, including increased healthcare costs and the need for eldercare services.

91% of resident households own their homes, with an average household size of 3.43 persons. Due to land scarcity, 78.7% of resident households live in subsidized, high-rise public housing apartments developed by the Housing and Development Board (HDB). Also, 75.9% of resident households live in properties equal to or larger than a four-room HDB flat or in private housing. The HDB system has been lauded for providing affordable housing and promoting ethnic integration through quotas, but the rising cost of resale flats and accessibility for lower-income families and single individuals remain points of discussion. Live-in foreign domestic workers are common, with about 224,500 as of December 2013.

10.2. Languages

Singapore has four official languages: English, Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil. English is the lingua franca and the main language in business, government, law, and education. The Constitution and all government legislation are in English; interpreters are required if other languages are used in courts. Statutory corporations conduct business in English, and official documents in other official languages are typically translated into English.
Malay was designated the national language for symbolic and historical reasons, particularly to maintain good relations with Malay-speaking neighbors. It is used in the national anthem, Majulah Singapura, citations of Singaporean orders, and military commands. Singaporean Malay is officially written in the Latin-based Rumi script, though some also learn the Arabic-based Jawi script, which is considered an ethnic script for identity cards.
Singaporeans are mostly bilingual, with English as their common language and their mother tongue (Malay, Mandarin, or Tamil) taught in schools to preserve ethnic identity and values. According to the 2020 census, English was most spoken at home (48.3%), followed by Mandarin (29.9%), Malay (9.2%), other Chinese varieties (8.7%, mainly Hokkien, Teochew, and Cantonese), and Tamil (2.5%), with other languages accounting for 1.4%. Singapore uses simplified Chinese characters.
Singaporean English is largely based on British English. Forms range from Standard Singapore English to Singlish, a colloquial form discouraged by the government as a substandard English creole. However, Singlish is recognized as a distinctive cultural marker. Recently, the government has tolerated diglossia of both Singlish and Standard English for fluent speakers, while reinforcing Standard English among Singlish-only speakers. Language policies aim to foster both national unity through English and cultural heritage through mother tongues, but debates continue about the preservation of dialects and the impact of English dominance on minority languages.

10.3. Religion

Most major religious denominations are present in Singapore, with the Inter-Religious Organisation, Singapore (IRO) recognizing 10 major religions. A 2014 Pew Research Center analysis found Singapore to be the world's most religiously diverse nation, with no single religion claiming a majority.
Buddhism is the most widely practised religion (31.1% of residents in the 2020 census). Christianity was second (18.9%), followed by Islam (15.6%), Taoism and Chinese Traditional Beliefs (8.8%), and Hinduism (5.0%). One-fifth of the population (20.0%) had no religious affiliation. Other religions constituted 0.6%. The proportion of Christians, Muslims, and the nonreligious slightly increased between 2010 and 2020, while Buddhists and Taoists slightly decreased; Hinduism and other faiths remained stable.
Singapore hosts monasteries and Dharma centres from all three major Buddhist traditions: Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Most Buddhists are Chinese and adhere to the Mahayana tradition, due to missionary activity from China. Thailand's Theravada Buddhism has grown in popularity. Soka Gakkai International, a Japanese Buddhist organisation, is practised by many, mostly of Chinese descent. Tibetan Buddhism has also made slow inroads. The government actively promotes inter-religious harmony through various policies and dialogues, viewing it as crucial for social stability. However, restrictions on certain religious groups and proselytization exist, reflecting a balance between religious freedom and maintaining public order.

11.1. Arts and Literature

During the 1990s, the National Arts Council was created to spearhead the development of performing arts, visual, and literary art forms. The National Gallery Singapore is the flagship museum with about 8,000 works from Singaporean and Southeast Asian artists. The Singapore Art Museum focuses on contemporary Southeast Asian art. The Red Dot Design Museum celebrates exceptional art and design of everyday objects. The lotus-shaped ArtScience Museum hosts touring exhibitions combining art with sciences. Other major museums include the Asian Civilisations Museum, the Peranakan Museum, and The Arts House. The Esplanade is Singapore's largest performing arts centre, hosting 5,900 free art and culture events in 2016 alone. Government support for the arts has grown, aiming to foster a vibrant cultural scene, though discussions persist about artistic freedom and the extent of state influence.

Literature of Singapore, or "SingLit", comprises works in the four official languages. Singapore is seen as having four sub-literatures. Many works have been translated and showcased in publications like the literary journal Singa and multilingual anthologies like Rhythms: A Singaporean Millennial Anthology Of Poetry (2000). Writers like Tan Swie Hian and Kuo Pao Kun have contributed in multiple languages. The development of a national literature reflects the complexities of a multicultural society grappling with identity, history, and social change.

Singapore has a diverse music culture, from pop and rock to folk and classical. Western classical music is significant, with the Singapore Symphony Orchestra (SSO) instituted in 1979. Other orchestras include the Singapore National Youth Orchestra and the community-based Braddell Heights Symphony Orchestra. Various communities have distinct ethnic musical traditions. The urban music scene makes Singapore a centre for international performances. Notable pop singers include Stefanie Sun, JJ Lin, Liang Wern Fook, Taufik Batisah, and Dick Lee, famous for National Day theme songs like Home.

11.2. Cuisine

Singapore's diverse cuisine is a key attraction, known for convenience, variety, quality, and price. Local food items often relate to Chinese, Malay, or Indian ethnicity, with hybridization creating unique dishes like Peranakan cuisine. Hawker centres exemplify cultural diffusion, with Malay stalls selling Tamil food. Hainanese chicken rice is considered Singapore's national dish.
The food scene ranges from hawker centres (open-air), food courts (air-conditioned), coffee shops, cafes, fast food, to high-end restaurants. Cloud kitchens and food delivery are rising, with 70% of residents ordering from apps monthly. Many international celebrity chef restaurants are in integrated resorts. Religious dietary strictures (Muslims avoid pork, Hindus avoid beef) exist, and there's a significant vegetarian group. The Singapore Food Festival in July celebrates local cuisine.
Before the 1980s, street food was mainly sold by immigrants. Hawker centres with communal seating are now central. These centres have dozens to hundreds of stalls, each specializing in specific dishes. The variety and reach of centralized hawker centres serving heritage street food are unique to Singapore. In 2018, 114 hawker centres were maintained by the National Environment Agency, which grades stalls for hygiene. The largest, in Chinatown Complex, has over 200 stalls and hosts the world's cheapest Michelin-starred meal: soya-sauce chicken rice/noodles for 2 SGD (1.5 USD). Two street food stalls were the first globally to receive a Michelin star. Hawker culture was inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2020, highlighting its social and cultural significance.

11.3. Sports and Recreation

Private sports and recreation clubs began in 19th-century colonial Singapore, including the Cricket Club, Singapore Recreation Club, Singapore Swimming Club, and Hollandse Club. Weightlifter Tan Howe Liang was Singapore's first Olympic medalist (silver, 1960 Rome Games). Singapore hosted the inaugural 2010 Summer Youth Olympics.
Indoor and water sports are popular. At the 2016 Rio Olympics, Joseph Schooling won Singapore's first Olympic gold in the 100m butterfly. Singapore sailors are successful internationally, with their Optimist team considered among the world's best. Singapore has dominated SEA Games swim meets. Its men's water polo team won the SEA Games gold for the 27th time in 2017. At the 2024 Paris Olympics, Max Maeder won Singapore's first Olympic sailing medal (bronze, Men's Formula Kite) on National Day, becoming the youngest Olympic medalist at 17.
Singapore's women's table tennis team were silver medalists at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and world champions in 2010. In 2021, Loh Kean Yew became badminton world champion in men's singles.
Singapore's football league, the Singapore Premier League (formerly S.League, launched 1996), comprises eight clubs, including one foreign team. The Singapore Slingers were inaugural members of the ASEAN Basketball League (2009). Kranji Racecourse, run by the Singapore Turf Club, hosts horse races, including the Singapore Airlines International Cup.
Singapore has hosted a round of the Formula One World Championship, the Singapore Grand Prix at Marina Bay Street Circuit, since 2008. It was the inaugural F1 night race and the first F1 street race in Asia, considered a signature event. ONE Championship, a major Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) promotion, was founded in Singapore. Participation in sports is encouraged for health and national pride, with government support for facilities and athlete development.

11.4. Media

Companies linked to the government control much of Singapore's domestic media. MediaCorp operates most free-to-air television channels and radio stations. There are six free-to-air TV channels. StarHub TV and Singtel TV offer IPTV. SPH Media Trust, with close government links, controls most of the newspaper industry.
Singapore's media industry has been criticized for being overly regulated and lacking freedom by groups like Freedom House. Self-censorship among journalists is reportedly common. In 2023, Singapore ranked 129th on the Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders. The Media Development Authority regulates media, claiming to balance choice with protection against offensive material. Private ownership of TV satellite dishes is banned. The limited press freedom and state influence on media are often cited as concerns affecting democratic discourse and the free flow of information.
Internet in Singapore is provided by state-owned Singtel, partially state-owned Starhub and M1 Limited, and other ISPs offering speeds up to 2 Gbit/s (as of 2015). Equinix and the Singapore Internet Exchange are major Internet exchange points. In the mid-1980s to 1990s, Singaporeans used the local videotext service Singapore Teleview. The term Intelligent Island arose in the 1990s referring to its early internet adoption.
In 2016, there were an estimated 4.7 million internet users (82.5% of the population). The government does not engage in widespread internet censoring but blocks about one hundred websites (mostly pornographic) as a "symbolic statement." Singapore has the world's highest smartphone penetration rates (85-89% in 2014). The overall mobile phone penetration is 148 subscribers per 100 people.

11.5. Public Holidays and Festivals

Singapore's public holidays reflect its multicultural society, with festivals from Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Western traditions officially recognized. These include:

• New Year's Day (1 January)
• Chinese New Year (two days, variable dates based on the lunar calendar)
• Good Friday (variable date, Christian)
• Labour Day (1 May)
• Vesak Day (variable date, Buddhist)
• Hari Raya Puasa (Eid al-Fitr, variable date, Muslim)
• National Day (9 August)
• Hari Raya Haji (Eid al-Adha, variable date, Muslim)
• Deepavali (Diwali, variable date, Hindu)
• Christmas Day (25 December, Christian)

These holidays are an important part of Singapore's social fabric, allowing different communities to celebrate their traditions and fostering inter-ethnic understanding.

11.6. Architecture and World Heritage

Singapore's architecture is a blend of historical colonial buildings, traditional shophouses, and modern skyscrapers, reflecting its evolution from a trading post to a global metropolis. Urban planning has been a key feature, with a focus on efficient land use, green spaces, and integrated infrastructure. Iconic modern structures include Marina Bay Sands, the Esplanade - Theatres on the Bay, and the Gardens by the Bay.
Historical districts like Chinatown, Little India, and Kampong Glam preserve traditional architectural styles and streetscapes, offering glimpses into the cultural heritage of Singapore's diverse communities. Conservation efforts aim to protect these areas while allowing for sensitive development.
In 2015, the Singapore Botanic Gardens was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Singapore's first. It is recognized for its historical significance as a center for botanical research, particularly in rubber cultivation, and its role in the "greening" of Singapore. This recognition highlights the country's commitment to preserving its natural and cultural heritage amidst rapid urbanization.