Bosnia and Herzegovina

3.1. Early history

The region of Bosnia and Herzegovina has been inhabited by humans since at least the Upper Paleolithic period. One of the oldest known cave paintings was discovered in Badanj Cave. During the Neolithic age, permanent human settlements were established, belonging to notable cultures such as the Butmir (c. 6230 BCE-c. 4900 BCE), Kakanj, and Vučedol cultures, primarily along the Bosna river. The Bronze Age saw the rise of the Illyrians, an ethnic group with a distinct culture and art form, who began to organize themselves across a wide area that includes modern-day Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Kosovo, Montenegro, and Albania.

From the 8th century BCE, Illyrian tribes evolved into kingdoms. The earliest recorded Illyrian kingdom was that of the Enchele in the 8th century BCE. The Autariatae under Pleurias (337 BCE) were also considered a kingdom. The Kingdom of the Ardiaei, originally a tribe from the Neretva valley region, began around 230 BCE and ended in 167 BCE. Notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties include those of Bardylis of the Dardani and Agron of the Ardiaei, who created the last and best-known Illyrian kingdom, extending his rule over various tribes.

During the 7th century BCE, iron began to replace bronze, though jewelry and art objects continued to be made from bronze. Illyrian tribes, influenced by the Hallstatt culture to the north, formed distinct regional centers. Parts of Central Bosnia were inhabited by the Daesitiates tribe, commonly associated with the Central Bosnian cultural group, while the Iron Age Glasinac-Mati culture is linked with the Autariatae tribe. The cult of the dead played a significant role, evident in their elaborate burials and ceremonies. Northern regions practiced cremation and burial in shallow graves, while in the south, the dead were interred in large stone or earth tumuli (known locally as gromile), some in Herzegovina reaching monumental sizes (over 164 ft ^{(50 m)} wide and 164 ft ^{(50 m)} high). The Japodian tribes were known for their affinity for decoration, including heavy necklaces of glass paste and large bronze fibulae, spiral bracelets, diadems, and bronze foil helmets.

The first Celtic invasion was recorded in the 4th century BCE. They introduced the potter's wheel, new types of fibulae, and different bronze and iron belts. Their influence in Bosnia and Herzegovina was relatively minor as they mainly passed through on their way to Greece. Celtic migrations displaced many Illyrian tribes, though some Celtic and Illyrian tribes intermingled. While concrete historical evidence from this period is scarce, it appears the region was populated by various peoples speaking distinct languages. In the Neretva Delta, the Illyrian Daors tribe showed significant Hellenistic influences. Their capital, Daorson, near Stolac, was surrounded by 5-meter-high megalithic stonewalls in the 4th century BCE, and they produced unique bronze coins and sculptures.

Conflict between the Illyrians and Romans began in 229 BCE, but Rome only completed its annexation of the region in 9 AD. The Roman campaign against Illyricum, known as the Bellum Batonianum (Bellum Batonianum_{Batonian War}^Latin; 6-9 AD), was one of Rome's most challenging battles since the Punic Wars, as described by the Roman historian Suetonius. The revolt, spanning four years, arose from an attempt to recruit Illyrians and ended with their subjugation. During the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from across the Roman Empire settled among the Illyrians, and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region.

Following the split of the Roman Empire between 337 and 395 AD, the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia became part of the Western Roman Empire. The Ostrogoths conquered the region in 455 AD. It subsequently changed hands between the Alans and the Huns. By the 6th century, Emperor Justinian I had reconquered the area for the Byzantine Empire.

3.2. Middle Ages

During the High Middle Ages, the region of Bosnia became a contested area between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following shifts in power between these two entities in the early 12th century, Bosnia found itself largely outside the direct control of either, leading to the emergence of the Banate of Bosnia, ruled by local bans. The first Bosnian ban known by name was Ban Borić. He was followed by Ban Kulin (reigned 1180-1204), whose rule is often considered a period of stability and prosperity. Ban Kulin's era also marked the beginning of a significant controversy involving the Bosnian Church, an indigenous Christian church considered heretical by both the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. In response to Hungarian attempts to use this religious issue as a pretext to assert sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders in 1203 at Bilino Polje, where they formally renounced heresy and embraced Catholicism. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions towards Bosnia persisted long after Kulin's death, only waning after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254. During this medieval period, the inhabitants of Bosnia were often referred to as Dobri Bošnjani ("Good Bosnians"). While names like "Serb" and "Croat" appeared in peripheral areas, they were not commonly used for the population within Bosnia proper.

Bosnian history from the mid-13th century until the early 14th century was characterized by a power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić noble families. This conflict largely ended in 1322 when Stephen II Kotromanić became Ban. By the time of his death in 1353, Stephen II had successfully expanded Bosnian territory to the north and west, and also annexed Zahumlje (Hum) and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew, Tvrtko I Kotromanić. After a prolonged struggle with internal nobility and inter-family strife, Tvrtko I consolidated full control over the country by 1367.

In 1377, Bosnia was elevated to a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko I as the first Bosnian King. The coronation took place in Mile, near Visoko, in the Bosnian heartland. Under King Tvrtko I, the Kingdom of Bosnia reached its zenith, expanding its territory further and playing a significant role in regional politics. However, following Tvrtko I's death in 1391, Bosnia entered a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had begun its conquest of Europe and posed an increasing threat to the Balkan Peninsula throughout the first half of the 15th century. After decades of political and social instability, internal divisions among the nobility, and increasing Ottoman pressure, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463 after its conquest by the Ottoman Empire. Herzegovina, under the rule of the Kosača family, fell to the Ottomans a few decades later, by 1482.

Medieval Bosnian society was feudal, with a distinct nobility. The Bosnian Church, with its unique practices, remained a significant religious institution alongside Catholicism and, to a lesser extent, Orthodoxy in peripheral regions. There was a general awareness among some medieval Bosnian nobles of a shared state with Serbia and common ethnic roots, but this awareness diminished over time due to differing political and social developments, though it was maintained longer in Herzegovina and parts of Bosnia that had been part of the Serbian state.

3.3. Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia in 1463, followed by Herzegovina in 1482, marked a new era in the country's history, introducing profound changes in its political, social, and cultural landscape. The Ottomans incorporated Bosnia as an integral province, initially as the Sanjak of Bosnia, which was later elevated to the Bosnia Eyalet (Pashalik). This administrative unit largely preserved Bosnia's historical name and territorial integrity, a unique case among the conquered Balkan states.

3.3.1. Integration and Administration

Under Ottoman rule, a new landholding system, known as the timar system, was introduced, and administrative units were reorganized. Society became more complex, with differentiation based on class and religious affiliation. Cities like Sarajevo and Mostar were established or significantly developed, becoming regional centers of trade, urban culture, and Islamic learning. Ottoman governors and local benefactors financed the construction of numerous architectural works, including mosques like the Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque in Sarajevo, bridges such as the Stari Most in Mostar, madrasas (Islamic schools), and public baths. Sarajevo, for instance, received its first library, a school of Sufi philosophy, and a clock tower (Sahat Kula).

A significant portion of the local Slavic-speaking population gradually converted to Islam. This process was complex and occurred over centuries, influenced by factors such as the absence of strong, unified Christian church organizations prior to the conquest (the indigenous Bosnian Church eventually disappeared, its members likely converting to Islam or other Christian denominations), the social and economic advantages offered to Muslims within the Ottoman system, and continuous rivalry between the Orthodox and Catholic churches. The Ottomans often referred to Christians generally as kristianlar, while distinguishing between Orthodox and Catholics when necessary, or using terms like gebir or kafir (unbeliever) for non-Muslims. The Bosnian Franciscans, representing the Catholic population, were protected by official imperial decrees (ahdname), although in practice, their status often depended on the arbitrary rule of local elites.

The Ottoman period also saw demographic shifts. While many Catholics fled to neighboring Catholic lands, particularly in the early Ottoman period, an Orthodox Christian population grew in Bosnia, partly due to Ottoman policies that sometimes favored the Serbian Orthodox Church over the Catholic Church, and the migration of Orthodox Vlachs and Serbs from Serbia and other regions into Bosnia. By the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Muslims are considered to have become the largest ethno-religious group. The Albanian Catholic priest Pjetër Mazreku reported in 1624 that Bosnia and Herzegovina had approximately 450,000 Muslims, 150,000 Catholics, and 75,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians.

Several Bosnian Muslims played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and political history. These included admirals like Matrakçı Nasuh; generals such as Isa-Beg Ishaković, Gazi Husrev-beg, Telli Hasan Pasha, and Sarı Süleyman Pasha; administrators like Ferhad Pasha Sokolović and Osman Gradaščević; and Grand Viziers such as the influential Sokollu Mehmed Pasha and Damat Ibrahim Pasha. Bosnian scholars, Sufi mystics, and poets also contributed to Ottoman culture, writing in Turkish, Arabic, and Persian.

3.4. Austria-Hungary

Following the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Austria-Hungary obtained the mandate to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina, although it officially remained under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire. The Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, Gyula Andrássy, also secured the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, an Ottoman administrative unit that separated Serbia from Montenegro. Austro-Hungarian troops began their occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in August 1878, facing some armed resistance but establishing control relatively quickly.

Although Austro-Hungarian officials managed to reach an agreement with many Bosnians, tensions persisted, and a mass emigration of some Bosnians, particularly Muslims, occurred. However, a state of relative stability was soon achieved, allowing Austro-Hungarian authorities to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms. Their aim was to transform Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model" colony, modernizing its infrastructure, economy, and administration. This period saw significant industrialization, the development of railways, the expansion of cities like Sarajevo, and the introduction of new legal and educational systems. The Habsburg rule also attempted to foster a distinct Bosnian or Bosniak identity to counter the growing South Slav nationalism, particularly Serb and Croat claims to the region.

3.4.2. World War I

On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb student and member of the revolutionary movement Young Bosnia (Mlada Bosna), assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, in Sarajevo. This event, known as the Sarajevo assassination, provided the spark that ignited World War I. Austria-Hungary, with German backing, issued an ultimatum to Serbia, leading to a cascade of alliances being activated and plunging Europe into war.

During World War I, many Bosnians, particularly from the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Infantry (Bošnjak) regiments of the Austro-Hungarian Army, served on various fronts. These regiments were known for their loyalty and fighting prowess. The Bosnian Muslim population, per capita, suffered significant losses serving in the Austro-Hungarian military. The war also exacerbated inter-ethnic tensions within Bosnia and Herzegovina. Austro-Hungarian authorities established an auxiliary militia known as the Schutzkorps, predominantly recruited from the Bosnian Muslim population. The Schutzkorps were tasked with hunting down rebel Serbs (Chetniks and Komitadji) and became known for their persecution of Serbs, particularly in Serb-populated areas of eastern Bosnia, partly in retaliation for Serbian Chetnik attacks against the Muslim population in 1914. Austro-Hungarian authorities arrested around 5,500 citizens of Serb ethnicity in Bosnia and Herzegovina; between 700 and 2,200 died in prison, and 460 were executed. Approximately 5,200 Serb families were forcibly expelled from the region. Despite these internal conflicts and the wider war, Bosnia and Herzegovina as a whole managed to escape the direct devastation of major battles on its soil, unlike Serbia or Galicia. The war ended with the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918.

3.5. Kingdom of Yugoslavia

Following the end of World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes on December 1, 1918. This new South Slav state was soon renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929. Political life in Bosnia and Herzegovina during this period was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest related to land reform and property redistribution, and the formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions.

The dominant ideological conflict within the Yugoslav state was between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralism. This conflict was approached differently by Bosnia and Herzegovina's major ethnic groups-Bosniaks (then commonly referred to as Muslims), Serbs, and Croats-and was largely dependent on the overall political atmosphere. The land reforms enacted by the new kingdom had a significant impact on Bosnian Muslims, who, according to the 1910 Austro-Hungarian census, owned a substantial portion of the land (91.1% of property, with Orthodox Serbs owning 6.0% and Croat Catholics 2.6%). Following the reforms, Bosnian Muslims were dispossessed of a total of 1,175,305 hectares of agricultural and forest land, leading to considerable economic hardship and social displacement for many. This process often benefited Serb settlers and fueled resentment.

Although the initial administrative division of the country into 33 oblasts (provinces) in 1922 largely erased traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians, such as Mehmed Spaho of the Yugoslav Muslim Organization (JMO), ensured that the six oblasts carved out from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded roughly to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times. This maintained a semblance of the country's traditional boundaries as a whole.

3.6. World War II

Following the Axis invasion and occupation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941, all of Bosnia and Herzegovina was incorporated into the Nazi puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), led by the fascist Ustaše movement under Ante Pavelić. The NDH regime immediately embarked on a brutal campaign of extermination against Serbs, Jews, and Roma, as well as dissident Croats and, later, Josip Broz Tito's Partisans. Numerous death camps were established, where systematic massacres occurred. The Ustaše regime systematically and brutally massacred Serbs in villages, particularly in the countryside. The scale of this violence was immense; approximately every sixth Serb living in Bosnia and Herzegovina became a victim of massacre, and an estimated 209,000 Serbs (16.9% of Bosnia's Serb population) were killed on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war. This horrific experience left a profound and lasting trauma in the collective memory of Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The Ustaše regime recognized both Catholicism and Islam as national religions but viewed the Eastern Orthodox Church, a symbol of Serb identity, as its greatest foe. Although Croats formed the largest ethnic group within the Ustaše, the Vice President of the NDH and leader of the Yugoslav Muslim Organization, Džafer Kulenović, was a Muslim, and Muslims constituted nearly 12% of the Ustaše military and civil service. A percentage of Muslims also served in Nazi Waffen-SS Handschar Division, which was involved in massacres of Serbs in northwest and eastern Bosnia, notably in Vlasenica. In response to the Ustaše persecutions, a group of 108 prominent Sarajevan Muslims signed the Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims on October 12, 1941, condemning the persecution of Serbs, distinguishing between Muslims who participated in such acts and the Muslim population as a whole, highlighting persecutions of Muslims by Serbs as well, and requesting security for all citizens.

3.7. Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

Following World War II, Bosnia and Herzegovina became one ofthe six constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) from 1945 until 1992. Due to its central geographic position within the federation and its rich natural resources, post-war Bosnia was strategically selected as a base for the development of the military defense industry. This led to a large concentration of arms factories and military personnel in Bosnia, a factor that would become significant during the war that followed the break-up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s.

3.8. Bosnian War

The Bosnian War (1992-1995) was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina following its declaration of independence from Yugoslavia. It involved complex and shifting alliances between the country's main ethnic groups: Bosniaks (Muslims), Serbs, and Croats, fueled by political, ethnic, and religious nationalisms. The war was characterized by widespread ethnic cleansing, war crimes, including the Srebrenica genocide, the protracted Siege of Sarajevo, and immense human suffering. International intervention eventually led to the Dayton Agreement, which ended the war but established a highly complex and decentralized political structure for the country. This section will specifically address the humanitarian issues, the impact on civilians, and the roles of different ethnic groups and political factions, reflecting a perspective that emphasizes human rights and the devastating social consequences of the conflict.

3.8.1. Path to Independence and Outbreak of War

On November 18, 1990, the first multi-party parliamentary elections were held in Bosnia and Herzegovina. These elections saw communist power replaced by a coalition of three ethnically based parties: the Bosniak Party of Democratic Action (SDA) led by Alija Izetbegović, the Serb Democratic Party (SDS) led by Radovan Karadžić, and the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ BiH) led by Stjepan Kljuić. Following Slovenia's and Croatia's declarations of independence from Yugoslavia in June 1991, a significant political split developed among the residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The issue was whether to remain within a rump Yugoslavia (overwhelmingly favored by Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored by Bosniaks and Croats).

The Serb members of parliament, mainly from the SDS, abandoned the central parliament in Sarajevo and formed the Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina on October 24, 1991. This effectively ended the three-ethnic coalition. This assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (later Republika Srpska) on January 9, 1992, in parts of Bosnian territory. Similarly, on November 18, 1991, the HDZ BiH proclaimed the existence of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia as a separate political, cultural, economic, and territorial whole, with the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) as its military branch. The Bosnian government declared Herzeg-Bosnia illegal.

A declaration of sovereignty by Bosnia and Herzegovina on October 15, 1991, was followed by a referendum for independence held on February 29 and March 1, 1992. The referendum was largely boycotted by Bosnian Serbs at the instigation of the SDS. The turnout was 63.4%, with 99.7% of voters choosing independence. Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence on March 3, 1992, and received international recognition on April 6, 1992, from the European Community and the United States. The country was admitted as a member state of the United Nations on May 22, 1992.

Even before international recognition, tensions escalated. Bosnian Serb militias, supported by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and paramilitary forces from Serbia, began to mobilize and seize territory. The newly independent Bosnian government forces were poorly equipped and unprepared for the war that swiftly followed the declaration of independence. Widespread hostilities broke out across the country.

3.9. Recent history

The post-Dayton period in Bosnia and Herzegovina, from 1995 to the present, has been characterized by the immense challenges of state-building under a complex constitutional framework, socio-economic recovery from a devastating war, and persistent ethnic tensions. The Dayton Agreement established a political structure dividing the country into two main entities, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska, plus the Brčko District, with power-sharing mechanisms designed to ensure representation for Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats. However, this system has often led to political gridlock and hindered effective governance and reform.

The Office of the High Representative (OHR), created to oversee the civilian implementation of the Dayton Agreement, has played a significant, and at times controversial, role, possessing "Bonn Powers" to impose laws and dismiss officials. While crucial in the early post-war years for maintaining stability and pushing through essential reforms, the OHR's extensive powers have also raised questions about the country's full sovereignty and democratic maturity.

Socio-economic recovery has been slow, hampered by war damage, high unemployment, corruption, and a complex administrative environment. Privatization processes have often been problematic, leading to job losses and public discontent. In February 2014, widespread social unrest and protests, dubbed the "Bosnian Spring," erupted, starting in Tuzla and spreading to other cities. These protests were driven by frustration over high unemployment, government corruption, and political inertia, marking the largest outbreak of public anger since the war.

Persistent ethnic tensions and nationalist rhetoric continue to challenge national reconciliation and political reform. Efforts towards further constitutional reform to create a more functional state have largely stalled due to disagreements among ethnic political leaders. Corruption remains a significant problem, undermining public trust and economic development.

Despite these challenges, Bosnia and Herzegovina has made some progress. The country has maintained peace, and its armed forces were unified in 2005. It has pursued aspirations towards European Union and NATO membership. Bosnia and Herzegovina initiated the Stabilisation and Association Process with the EU in 2007 and formally applied for EU membership in 2016. It was granted EU candidate status in December 2022, a significant milestone. The country has also been part of NATO's Membership Action Plan (MAP) since 2010, though progress towards full NATO membership has been complicated by internal political divisions, particularly from Republika Srpska.

Human rights and reconciliation efforts remain ongoing concerns. Prosecuting war crimes through domestic courts and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has been a crucial part of addressing the legacy of the war, but many victims still await justice and full acknowledgment of their suffering. Issues such as segregated education systems ("Two schools under one roof") highlight the ongoing challenges in building a truly integrated and inclusive society. Reports from international bodies, such as a late 2021 report by Christian Schmidt of the OHR, have warned of intensified political and ethnic tensions that could potentially threaten the country's stability and territorial integrity. The path towards full democratic consolidation, sustainable economic prosperity, and lasting reconciliation remains complex.

4.1. Topography and Climate

The country's terrain is predominantly mountainous, dominated by the central Dinaric Alps. These mountains generally run in a southeast-northwest direction and tend to increase in elevation towards the south. The highest point in Bosnia and Herzegovina is Maglić, at 7.8 K ft ^{(2.39 K m)}, located on the border with Montenegro. Other major mountains include Volujak, Zelengora, Lelija, Lebršnik, Orjen, Kozara, Grmeč, Čvrsnica, Prenj, Vran, Vranica, Velež, Vlašić, Cincar, Romanija, Jahorina, Bjelašnica, Treskavica, and Trebević. The geological composition of the Dinaric chain in Bosnia primarily consists of limestone (including Mesozoic limestone), with deposits of iron, coal, zinc, manganese, bauxite, lead, and salt found in some areas, particularly in central and northern Bosnia.

The northwestern part of Bosnia is moderately hilly, while the northeastern parts, particularly along the Sava River in the Posavina region, are predominantly flat and form part of the fertile Pannonian Basin, extending into neighboring Croatia and Serbia. This area is heavily farmed. Herzegovina, the smaller, southern region, is mostly mountainous with dominant karst topography, characterized by underground rivers, sinkholes, and caves.

The climate varies across the country. Bosnia generally has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold, snowy winters. Herzegovina experiences a Mediterranean climate, with milder, wetter winters and hot, dry summers. The short Adriatic coastline around Neum also shares this Mediterranean climate.

4.2. Biodiversity

Bosnia and Herzegovina possesses a rich biodiversity, owing to its varied topography, climate, and geographical position. Phytogeographically, the country belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region and the Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina can be subdivided into four main ecoregions: Balkan mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, and Illyrian deciduous forests.

The country has a significant forest cover, with nearly 50% of its land area being forested. Most forest areas are concentrated in the central, eastern, and western parts of Bosnia. In 2020, forest cover was estimated at 2,187,910 hectares (ha), a slight decrease from 2,210,000 ha in 1990. As of 2015, approximately 74% of the forest area was under public ownership, and 26% was privately owned. Bosnia and Herzegovina had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.99/10, ranking it 89th globally out of 172 countries.

The diverse habitats support a wide range of endemic flora and fauna. The country has established several national parks and protected areas to conserve its natural heritage. Notable national parks include:

• Sutjeska National Park, the oldest national park, home to Maglić (the country's highest peak) and the Perućica primeval forest, one of the last remaining old-growth forests in Europe.
• Kozara National Park, known for its dense forests and memorial complex dedicated to World War II battles.
• Una National Park, protecting the upper course of the Una River and its tributaries, renowned for its waterfalls (like Štrbački buk), rapids, and biodiversity.
• Drina National Park, established more recently to protect the Drina River canyon and its surrounding ecosystems in Republika Srpska.

Challenges to biodiversity include habitat loss, illegal logging, pollution, and the impacts of climate change. Conservation efforts are ongoing, often supported by international organizations, but face difficulties due to complex administrative structures and limited resources.

4.3. Major Rivers and Cities

Bosnia and Herzegovina is rich in water resources, with numerous rivers and tributaries carving through its mountainous landscape. The major rivers include:

• The Sava river is the largest river by volume passing through the country and forms its northern natural border with Croatia. It drains approximately 76% of the country's territory into the Danube and then the Black Sea. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of the International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR).
• The Una, Sana, and Vrbas are significant right tributaries of the Sava, located in the northwestern region of Bosanska Krajina. They are known for their natural beauty and recreational opportunities, such as rafting.
• The Bosna river, from which the country partly derives its name, is the longest river fully contained within Bosnia and Herzegovina. It flows through central Bosnia, from its source near Sarajevo northward to the Sava.
• The Drina river flows through the eastern part of Bosnia, forming a large part of the natural border with Serbia. It is known for its dramatic canyons and hydroelectric potential.
• The Neretva river is the major river of Herzegovina and the only large river in the country that flows south, emptying into the Adriatic Sea through Croatia. It is famous for the city of Mostar and its historic bridge.

The country's main urban centers, which are also significant economic and cultural hubs, include:

• Sarajevo: The capital and largest city, located in the Bosna river valley, surrounded by mountains. It is the political, cultural, and economic heart of the country.
• Banja Luka: The second-largest city and the de facto capital of the Republika Srpska entity, situated in the northwestern Bosanska Krajina region on the Vrbas river.
• Tuzla: A major industrial city in the northeastern part of Bosnia, known for its salt deposits and coal mining.
• Zenica: An industrial city in central Bosnia on the Bosna river, historically a center for steel production.
• Mostar: The largest city in the Herzegovina region and its historical capital, located on the Neretva river, famous for the Stari Most (Old Bridge).

Other notable cities include Prijedor, Bijeljina, Doboj, and Brčko.

5.1. Government Structure

The central government institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina include:

• The Presidency: This is the collective head of state, composed of three members: one Bosniak and one Croat elected from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and one Serb elected from Republika Srpska. The Chairmanship of the Presidency rotates among the three members every eight months during their four-year term. Each member has veto power over decisions if they are deemed destructive to a vital national interest of their constituent people.

• The Council of Ministers: This acts as the country's government (executive branch). The Chair of the Council of Ministers is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the Parliamentary Assembly. The Chair then appoints other ministers (e.g., Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade), who also require parliamentary approval. The distribution of ministerial posts also reflects ethnic quotas.

• The Parliamentary Assembly: This is the bicameral legislature of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
  • The House of Peoples (upper house) has 15 delegates. Two-thirds (5 Bosniaks and 5 Croats) are selected by the House of Peoples of the Federation, and one-third (5 Serbs) are selected by the National Assembly of Republika Srpska. It has significant powers to block legislation if it is deemed harmful to the vital national interests of one of the constituent peoples.
  • The House of Representatives (lower house) is composed of 42 members elected directly by the people under a system of proportional representation. Two-thirds of the members (28) are elected from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and one-third (14) from Republika Srpska.

  The electoral system is based on the two entities, with voters in the Federation electing Bosniak and Croat members of the Presidency and their representatives to the House of Representatives, while voters in Republika Srpska elect the Serb member of the Presidency and their representatives. This system has been criticized for discriminating against citizens who do not identify with one of the three constituent peoples or who reside in an entity where they are a minority for certain electoral contests (e.g., the Sejdić and Finci case at the European Court of Human Rights).
  
  The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the supreme arbiter of legal matters and has the final say on constitutional issues. It is composed of nine members: four are selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the National Assembly of Republika Srpska, and three international judges are selected by the President of the European Court of Human Rights after consultation with the Presidency. These international judges cannot be citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina or any neighboring country.

5.2. Administrative Divisions

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a highly decentralized state. Its internal political structure is primarily composed of:

• Two main Entities:
  • The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH): Covering approximately 51% of the country's territory, it is predominantly inhabited by Bosniaks and Croats.
  • Republika Srpska (RS): Covering approximately 49% of the territory, it is predominantly inhabited by Serbs.

  Each entity has its own constitution, president, parliament, government, police force, and largely separate administrative systems, retaining significant powers.

  • The Brčko District: Located in the northeast of the country, it was created in 2000 as a self-governing administrative unit under the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is officially part of both entities but is governed by neither, functioning under a decentralized system of local government supervised by an international supervisor. For election purposes, Brčko District voters can choose to participate in either the Federation or Republika Srpska elections for state-level offices. It has been praised for maintaining a multiethnic population and a degree of prosperity.

  The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is further subdivided into ten Cantons (kantoni), each with its own government and legislature. Some cantons are ethnically mixed (e.g., Bosniak-Croat majority) and have special laws to ensure power-sharing and equality, while others have a clear majority of one group. Republika Srpska is not divided into cantons but is centralized, with direct administration over its municipalities.
  
  Both entities and the Brčko District are further divided into Municipalities (općine/opštine). The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into 79 municipalities, and Republika Srpska into 64. Municipalities have their own local governments and are typically based on the most significant city or town in their territory.
  
  The country also has four officially designated Cities: Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Mostar, and East Sarajevo. The cities of Banja Luka and Mostar correspond to their respective municipalities. Sarajevo and East Sarajevo consist of several municipalities. Cities have their own city government with powers between those of municipalities and cantons (or the entity in the case of RS).
  
  This complex administrative structure, with multiple layers of government and ethnic quotas, contributes to the country's political challenges, including high administrative costs and difficulties in policy coordination and implementation.

5.3. International Supervision and Challenges

The civilian implementation of the Dayton Agreement is supervised by the Office of the High Representative (OHR), an ad hoc international institution. The High Representative is selected by the Peace Implementation Council (PIC), an international body. The High Representative holds the highest political authority in the country and has historically wielded significant powers, known as the "Bonn Powers." These powers allow the High Representative to impose laws, amend constitutions, and dismiss elected and non-elected officials who are deemed to be obstructing the peace process or violating the Dayton Agreement. Due to these vast powers, the position has sometimes been compared to that of a viceroy. While the use of Bonn Powers has decreased in recent years, the OHR remains a key institution. The international supervision is intended to end when the country is deemed politically and democratically stable and self-sustaining.

Bosnia and Herzegovina faces numerous ongoing challenges in its state-building process:

• National Reconciliation: Overcoming the legacy of the 1990s war and fostering trust among the constituent peoples remains a profound challenge. Nationalist rhetoric and differing interpretations of the past continue to hinder genuine reconciliation.
• Political Reform: The complex Dayton constitutional structure is often cited as a source of political gridlock and inefficiency. Efforts to reform the constitution to create a more functional and less ethnically divided state have largely failed due to a lack of consensus among political leaders. The European Court of Human Rights has issued several rulings (e.g., Sejdić-Finci) finding parts of the constitution discriminatory, but implementation of these rulings has been slow.
• Corruption: Corruption is a severe and pervasive problem at all levels of government and society, undermining democratic institutions, hindering economic development, and eroding public trust.
• Achieving Full Sovereignty: The continued presence and powers of the OHR are seen by some as an impediment to the country's full sovereignty, while others view it as necessary for stability.
• Functional Democratic Consolidation: Building strong, independent democratic institutions, ensuring the rule of law, and fostering an active civil society are ongoing processes. Political interference in the judiciary and media remains a concern.

Despite these challenges, the country has made progress in areas such as defense reform (unification of armed forces) and has advanced on its path towards European integration.

5.4. Foreign Relations

Bosnia and Herzegovina's foreign policy is primarily focused on regional cooperation, integration into Euro-Atlantic structures (European Union and NATO), and maintaining balanced relations with global powers. The country is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA). It was also a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean.

Relations with its immediate neighbors-Croatia, Serbia, and Montenegro-are crucial and have generally been stable since the signing of the Dayton Agreement, though occasional political tensions arise, often related to historical issues, border demarcation, or the status of constituent peoples. The implementation of the Dayton Agreement has guided efforts towards regional stabilization among the successor states of the former Yugoslavia.

5.5. Military

The Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Oružane snage Bosne i Hercegovine, OSBiH) were unified into a single professional military entity in 2005. This significant reform involved the merger of the two formerly separate entity armies: the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (VFBiH), which itself was a combination of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) and the Croatian Defence Council (HVO), and the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS). The Ministry of Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina was established in 2004 to provide civilian command and control over the unified armed forces.

The OSBiH consists of:

• Bosnian Ground Forces (Kopnena vojska)**: This is the largest component, responsible for land-based operations. As of recent estimates, the Ground Forces have around 7,200 active personnel and 5,000 reserve personnel. They are equipped with a mix of weaponry, vehicles, and military equipment of American, Yugoslavian, Soviet, and European origin.
• Air Force and Air Defense (Zračne snage i protivzračna odbrana)**: This branch has approximately 1,500 personnel and operates a variety of aircraft, primarily helicopters for transport and support roles, as well as radar systems and surface-to-air missile (SAM) batteries for air defense. They utilize MANPADS, anti-aircraft cannons, and radar systems.

The OSBiH operates under the command of the Presidency (as Commander-in-Chief) through the Ministry of Defence. A key reform has been the adoption of standardized uniforms, such as MARPAT-style uniforms, particularly for personnel serving in international missions. Domestic production programs aim to ensure army units are equipped with appropriate ammunition.

Since 2007, the OSBiH has participated in various international peacekeeping and security missions, including deployments with the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan, as well as missions in Iraq and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. These deployments have been commended by international partners.

The unification of the armed forces is considered one of the most successful post-Dayton reforms, contributing to the country's stability and its aspirations for NATO membership. The military continues to undergo modernization and professionalization efforts, often with assistance from NATO allies.

6.1. Economic Overview and Challenges

The Bosnian War inflicted enormous material damage, estimated at around €200 billion, and caused massive disruption to production, trade, and human capital. The subsequent recovery has been supported by international aid and remittances, but rebuilding infrastructure and institutions has been a long process.

Key economic indicators show a mixed picture:

• GDP: The economy has grown since the war, but remains modest compared to EU averages. According to Eurostat data, Bosnia and Herzegovina's PPS GDP per capita stood at 29% of the EU average in 2010. The World Bank predicted 3.4% growth in 2019 before the global pandemic.
• Currency: The national currency is the Convertible Mark (BAM or KM), which is pegged to the Euro under a currency board arrangement, ensuring monetary stability.
• Inflation: Annual inflation has generally been low.
• National Debt: While the national debt has seen periods of reduction, managing public finances within the complex entity structure remains a challenge. As of June 30, 2018, public debt was about €6.04 billion (34.92% of GDP).
• Unemployment: High unemployment, especially among youth, is a persistent and severe challenge. In 2017, the unemployment rate was 20.5%, though some predictions indicated a falling trend prior to recent global economic shifts.
• Trade Deficit: The country consistently runs a large trade deficit, importing significantly more than it exports.
• Corruption: Widespread corruption is a major impediment to economic development, deterring foreign investment and hindering fair competition.
• Informal (Grey) Economy: A significant informal economy, estimated by some to be around 25.5% of GDP, poses challenges for tax collection and official economic statistics.

Social equity and sustainable development are important considerations. The country has a relatively high income equality ranking compared to some nations but faces disparities between urban and rural areas and across entities. The brain drain, with skilled young people emigrating, is also a concern.

6.2. Main Industries

The economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina is diversified, with key sectors including:

• Industry: This has traditionally been a strong sector, a legacy from the Yugoslav era when Bosnia and Herzegovina was a center for heavy industry and military production. Key industrial branches include:
  • Metals: Production of aluminium (e.g., Aluminij Mostar), steel, and other metal processing.
  • Defense Industry: A long tradition of arms and military equipment manufacturing continues with companies like "Zrak" d.d. Sarajevo, PD "Igman" Konjic, and Ginex d.d. Goražde.
  • Manufacturing: This includes wood processing and furniture production (utilizing the country's abundant forests), textiles, and automotive components (e.g., car seats).
  • Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals.
• Agriculture: Conducted mainly on privately owned farms, agriculture produces grains (like wheat), fruits, vegetables, and livestock (beef, lamb). Fresh food has traditionally been an export. Northern Posavina is a particularly fertile agricultural region.
• Energy Sector:
  • Coal: Significant coal reserves are used for thermal power generation.
  • Hydroelectric Power: The country has substantial hydroelectric potential due to its numerous rivers (e.g., Neretva, Drina, Vrbas). Companies like Elektroprivreda BiH are major players. There have been discussions and plans for further development, including nuclear energy considerations in Tuzla, though these face environmental and public debate.
• Mining: Besides coal, deposits include iron ore, bauxite, lead, zinc, and manganese.
• Tourism: A rapidly growing sector (see details under Tourism).
• Service Sector: This includes trade, banking (with both domestic and international banks like Addiko Bank, Bosna Bank International), telecommunications, and IT.

Labor rights and environmental issues are important social aspects related to these industries. The transition from state-owned enterprises to private ownership has often been complex, affecting employment and working conditions. Environmental standards and their enforcement are developing, particularly concerning heavy industry and energy production.

6.3. Tourism

Tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina has been a rapidly growing sector in the post-war era, with the World Tourism Organization once projecting it to have one of the highest tourism growth rates globally between 1995 and 2020. The country offers a diverse range of attractions, blending rich history, cultural heritage, and stunning natural landscapes.

Key attractions and tourism trends include:

• Historical and Cultural Tourism**:
  • Sarajevo: The capital city, known for its unique blend of Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian architecture, historic Baščaršija (old bazaar), religious sites (mosques, churches, synagogues), and museums. It hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics and has been recognized by publications like Lonely Planet and travel blog Foxnomad as a top city to visit.
  • Mostar: Famous for its iconic Stari Most (Old Bridge), a UNESCO World Heritage site, and its charming Old Town.
  • Višegrad: Home to the Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge, another UNESCO site, immortalized in Ivo Andrić's novel "The Bridge on the Drina."
  • Medieval fortresses, Stećci (medieval tombstones, also UNESCO listed), and traditional villages like Počitelj.
  • Religious Pilgrimage**:
    • Međugorje: A small town that has become one of the most popular pilgrimage sites for Catholics worldwide due to reported apparitions of the Virgin Mary since 1981. It attracts over a million visitors annually, and pilgrimages have been officially authorized by the Vatican since 2019.

    

    • Nature and Adventure Tourism**:
      • Ski Resorts**: The mountains that hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics, such as Bjelašnica, Jahorina, and Igman, are popular skiing destinations.
      • Ecotourism and Hiking**: Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the last undiscovered natural regions of the southern Alps, with vast tracts of wild and untouched nature. The central Dinaric Alps are favored by hikers and mountaineers. National Geographic named it the best mountain biking adventure destination for 2012.
      • Whitewater Rafting**: This has become a national pastime, with popular rivers including the Vrbas, Tara (which has the deepest river canyon in Europe), Drina, Neretva, and Una. The Vrbas and Tara rivers hosted the 2009 World Rafting Championship.
      • National Parks**: Sutjeska National Park (with Perućica primeval forest), Kozara National Park, and Una National Park offer pristine nature and outdoor activities.

      Tourist arrivals have shown significant growth. In 2017, 1,307,319 tourists visited, an increase of 13.7% from the previous year, with 2,677,125 overnight stays. In 2018, tourist numbers rose to 1,883,772 (a 44.1% increase) with 3,843,484 overnight stays. A majority of tourists (around 71-72%) come from foreign countries. The HuffPost named Bosnia and Herzegovina the "9th Greatest Adventure in the World for 2013," highlighting its clean water and air, untouched forests, and wildlife.
      
      The development of sustainable and community-benefiting tourism is a key goal, aiming to leverage the country's unique assets while preserving its natural and cultural heritage and ensuring that economic benefits are widely distributed.

6.4. Infrastructure

The state of Bosnia and Herzegovina's infrastructure is crucial for its economic development and social well-being. Significant efforts have been made to rebuild and modernize infrastructure damaged during the 1990s war, but challenges remain, particularly due to the country's complex administrative structure and funding limitations.

6.4.1. Transport

Bosnia and Herzegovina's transport network includes roads, railways, airports, and limited inland waterways.

• Roads**: The road network consists of highways, national roads, and regional/local roads. Development of modern highways, such as the Pan-European Corridor Vc (which aims to connect Budapest in Hungary to Ploče in Croatia via Bosnia and Herzegovina), is a major ongoing project critical for improving connectivity and trade. However, construction progress has been slower than anticipated in some sections. The country has 5 international road routes and 20 national roads. Bus services are extensive, connecting most towns and cities domestically and offering international routes to many European countries. As of November 30, 2023, there were 1.3 million registered motor vehicles in the country.
• Railways**: Railway operations are managed by two entity-based companies: Railways of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ŽFBiH) in the Federation and Republika Srpska Railways (ŽRS) in Republika Srpska. The rail network, a successor to the Yugoslav Railways within the country's borders, requires significant modernization to improve speed, safety, and efficiency.
• Airports**: Sarajevo International Airport (also known as Butmir Airport), located about 3.8 mile ^{(6.1 km)} southwest of Sarajevo's main railway station, is the country's main international airport. Other international airports include those in Tuzla, Banja Luka, and Mostar, which primarily handle low-cost carriers and charter flights. There are 25 airports in total, including smaller airfields.
• Inland Waterways**: The Sava River, forming the northern border, is navigable and offers potential for inland waterway transport, connecting to the Danube River system. The port of Brčko is the largest river port. However, utilization is somewhat limited.

7.1. Population Overview

According to the 1991 census, conducted before the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,377,033. The Bosnian War resulted in a significant population decrease. A 1996 estimate by the World Bank Group showed a population of 3,764,425. Political disagreements made it impossible to organize a new census for over two decades.

The first post-war census was conducted in October 2013, and its final results, published in 2016 by the Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, recorded a total population of 3,531,159 people. This represented a drop of approximately 20% (around 845,000 people) compared to the 1991 census. The 2013 census figures included non-permanent Bosnian residents who were abroad at the time of the census but maintained households in the country, a methodology that was contested by officials in Republika Srpska and some Serb politicians but was deemed in line with international recommendations by Eurostat.

The population density is moderate, and urbanization rates have increased since the war, though a significant portion of the population still lives in rural areas. The age structure reflects the impacts of war (lower birth rates during the conflict, emigration of young people) and typical European demographic trends of an aging population.

7.2. Ethnic Groups

Bosnia and Herzegovina is home to three main "constituent peoples", whose equality is constitutionally guaranteed:

• Bosniaks: Constituting 50.11% of the population according to the 2013 census. They are predominantly Sunni Muslim by religious heritage.
• Serbs: Constituting 30.78% of the population. They are predominantly Serbian Orthodox Christian.
• Croats: Constituting 15.43% of the population. They are predominantly Roman Catholic.

These three groups are largely distinguished by their religious and cultural heritage rather than major linguistic differences. Other minorities make up 2.74% of the population, and include Jews, Roma, Albanians, Montenegrins, Ukrainians, and Turks, among others. A small percentage of respondents (0.77%) did not declare their ethnicity, and 0.16% gave no answer in the 2013 census.

The demographic distribution of these groups was significantly altered by the ethnic cleansing that occurred during the Bosnian War. While the Dayton Agreement largely solidified these wartime territorial divisions into the two entities (Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska), some return of refugees and displaced persons to their pre-war homes has occurred, though often facing significant challenges. The political and social implications of this multi-ethnic composition are profound, underpinning the country's complex power-sharing arrangements and ongoing challenges related to minority rights and inter-ethnic relations under the Dayton framework. The exclusion of "Others" (those not belonging to the three constituent peoples) from certain high political offices has been found discriminatory by the European Court of Human Rights.

7.3. Languages

The constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina does not specify any official languages at the state level. However, the Dayton Agreement was stated to be "done in Bosnian, Croatian, English and Serbian", which is often interpreted as de facto recognition of Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian as official languages. The Constitutional Court verified the equal status of these three languages in 2000. Subsequently, the entity constitutions were amended to make all three languages official in both the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska.

Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian are standardized varieties of what was historically known as Serbo-Croatian. They are fully mutually intelligible, sharing a common grammatical system and a large part of their vocabulary. Differences are primarily in lexicon (some words vary), pronunciation of certain sounds (e.g., the reflex of the Proto-Slavic yat vowel), and orthography. Both the Latin script and the Cyrillic script are used. Bosnian and Croatian almost exclusively use the Latin script, while Serbian uses both Latin and Cyrillic, with Cyrillic often being more prevalent in official use in Republika Srpska.

The use of one of the three language names often serves as a marker of ethnic or national identity. According to the 2013 census, 52.86% of the population declared Bosnian as their mother tongue, 30.76% Serbian, 14.59% Croatian, and 1.57% another language, while 0.21% did not give an answer.

Bosnia and Herzegovina recognizes several minority languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, including Albanian, Montenegrin, Czech, Italian, Hungarian, Macedonian, German, Polish, Romani, Romanian, Rusyn, Slovak, Slovene, Turkish, Ukrainian, and Jewish languages (Yiddish and Ladino). The German minority are mostly remnants of Danube Swabians.

7.4. Religion

Religion plays a significant role in the cultural and ethnic identity of the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The country is religiously diverse, with the main faiths closely aligning with the three constituent ethnic groups.

According to the 2013 census:

• Islam: Practiced by 50.7% of the population, predominantly Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school. Islam is the majority religion among Bosniaks.
• Christianity:
  • Orthodox Christianity: Adhered to by 30.75% of the population, primarily members of the Serbian Orthodox Church. This is the majority religion among Bosnian Serbs.
  • Roman Catholicism: Followed by 15.19% of the population. This is the majority religion among Bosnian Croats.
• Other Religions and Beliefs: 1.15% of the population reported other religious affiliations, including Protestantism and Judaism.
• Non-religious/Undeclared: 0.79% identified as atheist, 0.32% as agnostic, 0.95% did not declare their religion, and 0.15% did not answer.

Sarajevo is sometimes called the "Jerusalem of Europe" due to its historical religious diversity, with mosques, Orthodox churches, Catholic cathedrals, and synagogues often found in close proximity. Religious freedom is constitutionally guaranteed, though religious communities have faced challenges, particularly during and after the 1990s war. Religious institutions often play an important social and cultural role within their respective communities. A 2012 Pew Research Center survey found that 54% of Bosnia's Muslims were non-denominational Muslims, while 38% followed Sunnism.

7.5. Education

The education system in Bosnia and Herzegovina is complex, reflecting the country's decentralized political structure. Responsibility for education is primarily held at the entity level (Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska) and, within the Federation, at the cantonal level.

• Primary Education**: Primary schooling is compulsory and lasts for nine years, typically for children aged 6 to 15.
• Secondary Education**: This is provided by general secondary schools (gimnazija) and technical/vocational secondary schools. Studies typically last for three or four years. Pupils graduating from general secondary schools obtain the Matura (a comprehensive final exam) and can enroll in higher education institutions by passing qualification examinations. Students graduating from technical schools obtain a diploma and can either enter the workforce or pursue further specialized education.
• Higher Education**: Higher education has a long tradition in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The first bespoke higher-education institution was a school of Sufi philosophy established by Gazi Husrev-beg in Sarajevo in 1531. A Sharia law school began a five-year program in 1887 under Austro-Hungarian rule. The University of Sarajevo, established in the 1940s, became the city's first secular higher education institute. Other major public universities include the University of Banja Luka, the University of Mostar (with instruction primarily in Croatian), the University Džemal Bijedić of Mostar (with instruction primarily in Bosnian), the University of East Sarajevo, and the University of Tuzla. There are also several private and international higher education institutions, such as the Sarajevo School of Science and Technology, International University of Sarajevo, and American University in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina is a prestigious institution.

Challenges in the education system include:

• Decentralization and Fragmentation**: The highly decentralized system leads to variations in curricula, standards, and funding across entities and cantons, making coordination and reform difficult.
• Ethnic Segregation**: A significant issue is the phenomenon of "Two schools under one roof", where children from different ethnic groups attend classes in the same school building but are taught separate curricula, often in different languages, and sometimes physically separated. This system, prevalent in parts of the Federation, is widely criticized by human rights organizations and international bodies as perpetuating ethnic divisions and discrimination, hindering reconciliation and social cohesion.
• Quality and Resources**: Ensuring equitable access to quality education for all children, particularly in rural and underserved areas, remains a challenge. Funding, teacher training, and modernizing educational materials are ongoing concerns.
• Alignment with European Standards**: Efforts are underway to align the education system with European standards, such as the Bologna Process for higher education, to improve quality and facilitate student and academic mobility.

7.6. Healthcare

The healthcare system in Bosnia and Herzegovina is based on principles of universal healthcare coverage, but its structure and delivery are complex due to the country's decentralized administrative divisions. Each entity (Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska) and the Brčko District has its own Ministry of Health and health insurance fund, leading to fragmentation in policy, financing, and service provision.

• Structure**: Healthcare is primarily publicly funded through mandatory health insurance contributions. The system includes primary healthcare centers (dom zdravlja), general hospitals, and specialized clinical centers located in major cities.
• Accessibility**: While basic healthcare is generally accessible, there can be disparities in the quality and availability of services between urban and rural areas, and across different entities/cantons. Patients sometimes face long waiting times for specialist appointments and certain procedures.
• Challenges**:
  • Funding**: The system faces financial constraints, with challenges in ensuring adequate and sustainable funding for services and infrastructure.
  • Administrative Complexity**: The fragmented administrative structure complicates coordination, resource allocation, and the implementation of nationwide health policies.
  • Emigration of Medical Professionals**: Like many countries in the region, Bosnia and Herzegovina experiences emigration of doctors and nurses seeking better opportunities abroad, leading to staff shortages in some areas.
  • Public Health Issues**: Non-communicable diseases (cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes) are major public health concerns. Lifestyle factors, such as smoking and diet, contribute to these issues. Mental health services, particularly for those affected by the war, also require strengthening.
• Reforms**: Efforts are ongoing to improve the efficiency, quality, and accessibility of healthcare services, often with the support of international organizations. These include reforms in health financing, primary healthcare strengthening, and better management of health institutions.

According to the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Bosnia and Herzegovina has a low level of hunger, with a GHI score of less than 5, indicating good overall food security at the national level.

7.7. Largest Cities

Bosnia and Herzegovina has several significant urban centers that serve as demographic, economic, and cultural hubs. The largest cities, based on the 2013 census data for their respective municipalities, include:

1. Sarajevo: The capital and largest city, with a population of 275,524 in the four city municipalities (Centar, Novi Grad, Novo Sarajevo, Stari Grad). The wider Sarajevo Canton, which includes these and other municipalities, has a larger population. Sarajevo is the country's political, administrative, economic, cultural, and educational center, renowned for its historical blend of Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian influences and its vibrant cultural scene.
2. Banja Luka: The second-largest city and the de facto capital of the Republika Srpska entity, with a municipal population of 185,042. It is a major political, economic, and cultural center in the northwestern part of the country.
3. Tuzla: Located in the northeastern region, Tuzla had a municipal population of 110,979. It is an important industrial center, known for its salt production and coal mining, and is a significant urban area in the Federation.
4. Zenica: Situated in central Bosnia on the Bosna river, Zenica's municipality had 110,663 inhabitants. It is historically known as a major industrial city, particularly for steel production.
5. Bijeljina: Located in the northeastern part of Republika Srpska, Bijeljina had a municipal population of 107,715. It is an important agricultural and commercial center for the Semberija region.
6. Mostar: The main city in the Herzegovina region and an important cultural and economic center, with a municipal population of 105,797. It is famous for its historic Old Bridge (Stari Most) and serves as the administrative center of the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton.

Other significant urban centers include Prijedor, Brčko (the main town of the Brčko District), Doboj, Cazin, and Zvornik. These cities play vital roles in their respective regions in terms of administration, commerce, education, and culture.

8.1. Architecture

The architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina is a testament to its layered history, showcasing a variety of styles that reflect different periods and influences:

• Medieval Period**: Characterized by fortresses (gradine) built on hilltops, and the unique Stećci - monumental medieval tombstones, often richly decorated with carvings. These are predominantly found in Bosnia and Herzegovina and are recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Romanesque and Gothic influences can be seen in some early churches and fortifications.
• Ottoman Period (15th-19th centuries)**: This era left a profound mark, particularly in urban centers. Key features include mosques with distinctive minarets (e.g., Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque in Sarajevo), covered bazaars (čaršija), public fountains (sebilj), Turkish baths (hammam), and stone bridges, the most famous being the Stari Most (Old Bridge) in Mostar. Residential architecture featured houses with enclosed courtyards and characteristic wooden elements.
• Austro-Hungarian Period (1878-1918)**: This period brought significant modernization and Western European architectural styles. Sarajevo, in particular, saw the construction of grand public buildings in styles such as Historicism (Neo-Renaissance, Neo-Baroque), Neo-Moorish (a distinctive style blending Islamic and European motifs, e.g., Sarajevo City Hall/Vijećnica), Art Nouveau, and Secessionism.
• Interwar and Socialist Era (20th century)**: Modernist architecture became prominent, particularly in the post-World War II period under socialist Yugoslavia. This included large-scale housing projects, public buildings, and monuments, often characterized by functionalism and sometimes brutalist aesthetics.
• Contemporary Period**: Post-Bosnian War reconstruction has seen efforts to restore historic buildings, alongside new contemporary architectural developments, particularly in Sarajevo with projects like the Avaz Twist Tower.

The diverse architectural landscape showcases the country's ability to absorb and adapt various influences while maintaining unique local characteristics.

8.2. Literature

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rich and diverse literary tradition, with works written in Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian, as well as historically in Turkish, Arabic, and Persian.
Key figures and movements include:

• Medieval Literature**: Early literary activity was mostly religious, including hagiographies and liturgical texts. The Hval's Codex is a notable illuminated manuscript.
• Ottoman Period**: Literature flourished in oriental languages (Turkish, Arabic, Persian) with Bosnian Muslim writers contributing to Ottoman literary traditions. Folk epic poetry and lyrical songs (like Sevdalinka) also developed during this time.
• Austro-Hungarian and Early 20th Century**: This period saw the rise of modern literature in local Slavic languages. Prominent poets include Aleksa Šantić, Jovan Dučić, and Antun Branko Šimić. Writers like Petar Kočić explored themes of social justice and national identity.
• Yugoslav Period**: This was a prolific era. Ivo Andrić, born in Travnik, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1961, largely for his historical novels like The Bridge on the Drina and Bosnian Chronicle, which vividly depict life in Bosnia under Ottoman rule. Other major writers from this period include Meša Selimović (known for Death and the Dervish and The Fortress), Branko Ćopić (popular for his children's stories and partisan tales), and Mak Dizdar, whose poetry (notably Stone Sleeper) drew inspiration from medieval Stećci.
• Contemporary Literature**: The Bosnian War and its aftermath have heavily influenced contemporary Bosnian literature. Writers like Semezdin Mehmedinović, Miljenko Jergović, Aleksandar Hemon (who writes in English), Zlatko Topčić, Abdulah Sidran (also a renowned screenwriter), and Nedžad Ibrišimović have explored themes of war, trauma, identity, and exile.

The National Theatre, founded in 1919, has been a significant institution. Literary magazines such as Novi Plamen and Sarajevske sveske cover cultural and literary themes. The country's literature reflects its complex historical experiences and the enduring spirit of its people.

8.3. Art

The visual arts in Bosnia and Herzegovina have a long and varied history, reflecting diverse cultural influences.

• Medieval Art**: The most distinctive form of medieval art is found on the Stećci, monumental tombstones dating from the 12th to 16th centuries. These are often elaborately decorated with carvings depicting human figures, animals, hunting scenes, tournaments, symbols, and inscriptions. Twenty-eight Stećak necropolis sites, spanning Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, and Serbia, were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2016, with 20 of these sites located in Bosnia and Herzegovina itself. Art from the Kotromanić court also existed, though fewer examples survive.
• Ottoman Period**: Islamic art forms, such as calligraphy, manuscript illumination, and decorative arts (ceramics, metalwork, textiles), flourished. Mosques and other religious buildings were adorned with intricate geometric and floral patterns.
• Austro-Hungarian Period**: This era marked a renaissance in painting, with the arrival of academically trained artists influenced by European styles. The first generation of modern Bosnian painters emerged at the beginning of the 20th century, including Gabrijel Jurkić, Petar Šain, Roman Petrović, and Lazar Drljača. They often depicted local landscapes, portraits, and historical themes.
• Yugoslav Period and Contemporary Art**: After World War II, artists like Mersad Berber and Safet Zec rose to international prominence, known for their distinctive styles that often blend traditional Bosnian motifs with modern techniques. Other notable 20th-century artists include Ismet Mujezinović, Vojo Dimitrijević, and Mica Todorović. The Ars Aevi Museum of Contemporary Art in Sarajevo, founded during the war in 1992 and officially in 2007, houses a significant collection of works by renowned international and local contemporary artists, donated in solidarity with the city. The contemporary art scene continues to evolve, with artists exploring themes of identity, memory, and social commentary.

The country's artistic heritage is preserved in museums, galleries, and religious institutions, reflecting its rich cultural tapestry.

8.4. Music

The music of Bosnia and Herzegovina is a vibrant blend of traditional folk music, classical traditions, and a dynamic popular music scene.

• Traditional Folk Music**:
  • Sevdalinka (often shortened to sevdah): This is perhaps the most distinctive and emotionally resonant Bosnian musical form. Sevdalinkas are melancholic lyrical songs, often dealing with themes of love, loss, longing, and the beauty of Bosnian towns and landscapes. Traditionally performed with a saz (a Turkish string instrument), later arrangements often feature an accordion, violin, clarinet, upright bass, and vocals.
  • Ganga and Rera: These are polyphonic, shouted folk singing styles, particularly found in rural areas of Herzegovina and Dalmatian Zagora.
  • Kolo: A collective circle dance, common throughout the Balkans, accompanied by instrumental music or sometimes singing.
  • Rural Folk Instruments: Include the droneless bagpipes, wooden flutes, and the šargija (a plucked string instrument). The gusle, a single-stringed instrument, is used to accompany ancient Slavic epic poems.
  • Bosnian Roots Music: Originating from Central Bosnia, Posavina, the Drina valley, and Kalesija, this genre is usually performed by singers with two violinists and a šargija player. It appeared around World War I and gained popularity in the 1960s.
  • Ilahije i Kaside: Religious songs and odes, part of the Islamic tradition.
  • Jewish Music: Bosnian folk songs in the Ladino language, derived from the country's Sephardic Jewish population.
  • Popular Music**:
    • Bosnia and Herzegovina had a prominent pop and rock music scene within former Yugoslavia, and it continues to thrive. Famous musicians and bands include Goran Bregović (leader of Bijelo Dugme), Zdravko Čolić, Dino Merlin, Kemal Monteno, Davorin Popović (of Indexi), Elvir Laković Laka, Edo Maajka (hip-hop), Hari Varešanović (of Hari Mata Hari), Mladen Vojičić Tifa, and Željko Bebek.
    • Influential bands include Bijelo Dugme, Indexi, Plavi orkestar, Zabranjeno Pušenje, Ambasadori, and more recently Dubioza kolektiv.
    • Classical Music and Composers**:
      • Notable composers include Dušan Šestić (creator of the current national anthem), Saša Lošić (of Plavi Orkestar, also a film composer), and jazz musician and educator Sinan Alimanović. Pianist Saša Toperić is also recognized.

      Music festivals, traditional gatherings (teferič), and urban music venues contribute to the country's lively musical landscape.

8.5. Cinema and Theatre

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rich cinematic and theatrical heritage, with filmmakers and productions that have achieved significant international acclaim.

• Cinema**:
  • The Bosnian film industry gained international prominence, particularly in the post-Yugoslav era. Several Bosnian directors have won prestigious awards at major film festivals.
  • Danis Tanović is one of the most celebrated directors, whose film No Man's Land (2001) won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and the Golden Globe Award. His film Death in Sarajevo (2016) won the Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize at the Berlin International Film Festival.
  • Jasmila Žbanić is another acclaimed director. Her film Grbavica (2006) won the Golden Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival, and Quo Vadis, Aida? (2020), dealing with the Srebrenica genocide, received an Academy Award nomination for Best International Feature Film and won several BAFTA Awards and European Film Awards.
  • Emir Kusturica, though often associated with Serbia, was born in Sarajevo and his early influential works like When Father Was Away on Business (1985) and Time of the Gypsies (1988) are deeply rooted in Bosnian culture and history. He has won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival twice.
  • Other notable directors include Ademir Kenović, Ahmed Imamović, Pjer Žalica, and Aida Begić.
  • The Sarajevo Film Festival was established in 1995 during the siege of Sarajevo as an act of cultural resistance. It has since grown into the premier and largest film festival in the Balkans and Southeast Europe, attracting international filmmakers and audiences.
  • Theatre**:
    • Theatrical traditions in Bosnia and Herzegovina have a long history. The National Theatre in Sarajevo was founded in 1919, and its first director was the renowned dramatist Branislav Nušić. It serves as the main venue for opera, ballet, and drama performances.
    • Other significant theatres exist in cities like Banja Luka, Mostar, and Tuzla.
    • Contemporary theatre continues to thrive, with playwrights and directors exploring both classical and modern themes, often reflecting the country's complex social and historical realities.

    The resilience and creativity of Bosnian and Herzegovinian cinema and theatre, especially in the face of historical adversity, underscore their importance in the country's cultural landscape.

8.6. Cuisine

Bosnian and Herzegovinian cuisine is a flavorful blend of Ottoman, Mediterranean, and Central European culinary influences, reflecting the country's rich history and diverse cultural heritage. It uses many spices, typically in moderate quantities. Most dishes are light, as they are often boiled or simmered; the sauces are generally natural, consisting of little more than the natural juices of the vegetables and meats in the dish.

Typical ingredients include tomatoes, potatoes, onions, garlic, bell peppers, cucumbers, carrots, cabbage, mushrooms, spinach, zucchini, dried and fresh beans, plums, milk, paprika, and a type of cream called pavlaka (similar to sour cream or crème fraîche).

• Signature Dishes**:

• Sweets and Desserts**:

Many desserts show strong Ottoman influence, often very sweet and incorporating nuts, honey, or syrup. Examples include Baklava, Tufahija (poached apples stuffed with walnuts and topped with whipped cream), Halva, Kadaif, and hurmašice (syrup-soaked date-shaped biscuits).

• Beverages**:

Coffeehouses (kafane) are ubiquitous, serving as important social gathering places.

8.7. Sports

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a strong sporting tradition and has produced many successful athletes, both during its time as part of Yugoslavia and as an independent nation. The most significant international sporting event hosted in the country's history was the 1984 Winter Olympics, held in Sarajevo from February 7 to 19, 1984.

Popular sports and notable achievements include:

• Football (Soccer)**: The most popular sport. It dates from 1903, with popularity growing significantly after World War I.
  • Domestic League: Premijer Liga Bosne i Hercegovine. Prominent clubs like FK Sarajevo and Željezničar won the Yugoslav Championship in the past.
  • National Team: The Bosnia and Herzegovina national team qualified for its first major tournament, the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
  • Notable Players: Historically, many Bosnian players were part of the Yugoslav national team, including Safet Sušić, Zlatko Vujović, Mehmed Baždarević, Faruk Hadžibegić, and Ivica Osim. More recent stars include Edin Džeko, Miralem Pjanić, Vedad Ibišević, Emir Spahić, and Sead Kolašinac. Hasan Salihamidžić won the UEFA Champions League with FC Bayern Munich. Sergej Barbarez was a joint-top scorer in the Bundesliga. Milena Nikolić of the women's national team was the top scorer in the 2013-14 UEFA Women's Champions League.
• Basketball**:
  • The Bosna Royal basketball club from Sarajevo were European Champions in 1979.
  • The Yugoslav national team, highly successful internationally, featured prominent Bosnian players like FIBA Hall of Fame members Dražen Dalipagić and Mirza Delibašić.
  • Bosnia and Herzegovina regularly qualifies for the EuroBasket. Notable players include Mirza Teletović, Nihad Đedović, and Jusuf Nurkić. The U-16 national team won gold at the 2015 FIBA Europe Under-16 Championship and the 2015 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival.
  • Women's club Jedinstvo Aida from Tuzla won the Women's European Club Championship in 1989, led by Razija Mujanović.
• Handball**: The Borac Banja Luka handball club won seven Yugoslav Championships, the European Cup in 1976, and the International Handball Federation Cup in 1991.
• Athletics**: Amel Tuka won bronze (2015) and silver (2019) medals in the 800 metres at the World Championships. Hamza Alić won a silver medal in shot put at the 2013 European Indoor Championships.
• Combat sports**:
  • Judo: Amel Mekić became European champion in 2011.
  • Boxing: Middleweight boxer Marijan Beneš won several Yugoslav and European Championships, and a World Title in 1978.
• Chess**: The Bosnian chess team was Champion of Yugoslavia seven times. Club ŠK Bosna Sarajevo won four European Chess Club Cups. The national team achieved a runner-up position at the 31st Chess Olympiad in Moscow in 1994. Grandmaster Borki Predojević has won two European Championships.
• Sitting volleyball**: The Bosnia and Herzegovina national sitting volleyball team is a dominant force worldwide, having won multiple Paralympic gold medals (e.g., 2004, 2012), World Championships, and European Championships. Many team members are war veterans.
• Tennis**: Gaining popularity with successes from players like Damir Džumhur and Mirza Bašić at Grand Slam level.

The country has also hosted events for the 1984 Winter Olympics on mountains like Jahorina and Bjelašnica, which remain popular winter sports destinations.

8.8. Media

The media landscape in Bosnia and Herzegovina is complex, reflecting the country's political structure and post-war legacy. It includes a mix of state-owned and private for-profit corporations funded by advertising, subscriptions, and other sales-related revenues. The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina guarantees freedom of speech.

• Transformation and Development**: As a country in transition, its media system has been undergoing significant transformation. In the early post-war period (1995-2005), media development was largely guided by international donors and cooperation agencies who invested in reconstructing, diversifying, democratizing, and professionalizing media outlets.
• Regulatory Bodies and Legal Framework**: Post-war developments included the establishment of an independent Communications Regulatory Agency (RAK), the adoption of a Press Code, the establishment of the Press Council, the decriminalization of libel and defamation, and the introduction of a Freedom of Access to Information Law. A Public Service Broadcasting System (PBS) was created from the formerly state-owned broadcaster, comprising BHRT (Radio-Televizija Bosne i Hercegovine) at the state level, and entity-level broadcasters RTVFBiH (Federation) and RTRS (Republika Srpska).
• Challenges**: Despite positive developments backed by international support, domestic elites have often obstructed progress. The professionalization of media and journalists has proceeded slowly. High levels of political partisanship and strong linkages between media outlets and political systems hinder adherence to professional codes of conduct and foster a polarized media environment. Press freedom faces challenges, including political pressure, intimidation of journalists, and financial instability of media outlets.
• Major Media Outlets**:
  • Newspapers**: Prominent national publications include Dnevni avaz (Daily Voice), Oslobođenje (Liberation, one of the longest-running newspapers, founded in 1943), and Nezavisne novine. Local periodicals include the Croatian-language Hrvatska riječ and weeklies like Slobodna Bosna (Free Bosnia) and BH Dani (BH Days). Novi Plamen was a left-wing monthly magazine.
  • Television and Radio**: The public service broadcasters (BHRT, RTVFBiH, RTRS) operate alongside numerous private television and radio stations.
  • International Broadcasters**: Al Jazeera maintains a regional channel, Al Jazeera Balkans, broadcasting out of and based in Sarajevo. Since 2014, the N1 platform, an affiliate of CNN International, has broadcast with offices in Sarajevo, Zagreb, and Belgrade.
• Online Media**: Online news portals and social media have become increasingly important sources of information.
• Press Freedom Ranking**: As of 2021, Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked second highest in press freedom in the Balkan region, after Croatia, and was placed 58th internationally by Reporters Without Borders. However, conditions remain challenging.

8.9. World Heritage Sites

Bosnia and Herzegovina is home to several sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, recognizing their outstanding universal value for their cultural and historical significance. These sites are:

1. Old Bridge Area of the Old City of Mostar (Inscribed 2005):
This site includes the iconic Stari Most (Old Bridge) and its surrounding area in the historic city of Mostar. The 16th-century Ottoman bridge, which was destroyed during the Bosnian War in 1993 and meticulously reconstructed, is a symbol of reconciliation, international co-operation, and the co-existence of diverse cultural, ethnic, and religious communities. The area features pre-Ottoman, Ottoman, Mediterranean, and Western European architectural elements.

2. Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge in Višegrad (Inscribed 2007):
Located in the eastern Bosnian town of Višegrad, this historic bridge was completed in 1577 by the Ottoman court architect Mimar Sinan on the order of Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha. It is an exceptional example of Ottoman monumental architecture and civil engineering, with 11 masonry arches spanning the Drina River. The bridge is also famous as the central setting for Nobel laureate Ivo Andrić's novel The Bridge on the Drina.

3. Stećci Medieval Tombstone Graveyards (Inscribed 2016, transnational site shared with Croatia, Montenegro, and Serbia):
Stećci (singular: stećak) are monumental medieval tombstones found scattered across the Western Balkans, with the highest concentration in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Dating from the 12th to the 16th centuries, these limestone monoliths are often richly decorated with intricate carvings depicting a variety of motifs, including human figures, animals, hunting scenes, chivalric tournaments, floral and geometric patterns, and inscriptions in the Bosnian Cyrillic script (Bosančica). Of the 28 necropolises included in the transnational World Heritage inscription, 20 are located within Bosnia and Herzegovina, such as Radimlja near Stolac, Dugo Polje on Blidinje, and Gvozno Polje near Kalinovik. They bear unique testimony to the medieval cultures of the region.

These sites highlight the rich and diverse cultural heritage of Bosnia and Herzegovina, reflecting centuries of historical interactions and artistic achievements.

8.10. Public Holidays

Public holidays in Bosnia and Herzegovina reflect its multi-ethnic and multi-religious character, as well as its complex political structure. There is no unified law on public holidays at the state level that is consistently observed throughout the entire country for all holidays. Instead, holidays are regulated at the entity level (Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska) and in the Brčko District. Consequently, some holidays are observed nationwide, while others are specific to one entity or certain ethnic/religious groups.

The only holidays officially observed throughout the entire country by all are:

• New Year's Day**: January 1 and January 2
• International Workers' Day (May Day)**: May 1 and May 2

Beyond these, the entities have their own distinct sets of public holidays:

• In the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, official holidays include:**
  • Independence Day**: March 1 (commemorating the 1992 independence referendum)
  • Statehood Day**: November 25 (commemorating the first session of ZAVNOBiH in 1943, which laid foundations for Bosnian statehood within Yugoslavia)
  • Victory Day over Fascism**: May 9
  • In Republika Srpska, official holidays include:**
    • Day of Republika Srpska**: January 9 (commemorating the proclamation of the "Republic of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina" in 1992). This holiday has been deemed unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina as discriminatory against non-Serbs, but it continues to be observed in RS.
    • Day of the Establishment of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Dayton Agreement Day)**: November 21
    • Victory Day over Fascism**: May 9
    • Day of Serbian Unity, Freedom and the National Flag**: September 15 (observed jointly with Serbia since 2020)
    • Julian Calendar New Year**: January 14
    • Brčko District** also observes New Year's Day and May Day, and additionally marks **March 8** as the Day of Establishment of the Brčko District.
    • Religious Holidays**:

    Major religious holidays of the three main constituent peoples are widely observed by their respective communities, and employees are generally entitled to paid leave for these holidays. These include:

    • Orthodox Christians**: Christmas (January 7), Easter.
    • Roman Catholics**: Christmas (December 25), Easter.
    • Muslims**: Eid al-Fitr (Ramazanski Bajram) and Eid al-Adha (Kurban Bajram).

    The West Herzegovina Canton, with a predominantly Croat population, also defines additional Catholic religious holidays as non-working days, such as Epiphany (January 6), Corpus Christi, Assumption of Mary (August 15), All Saints' Day (November 1), and All Souls' Day (November 2). It also marks November 18 as the Day of Establishment of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia and Day of the West Herzegovina Canton.
    
    This complex system of holidays reflects the ongoing challenges in creating fully unified state symbols and observances in a post-conflict, ethnically divided society.