Nauru

2.1. Early history and settlement

Nauru was first settled by Micronesians and Polynesians at least 3,000 years ago. There is evidence of possible Polynesian influence. Comparatively little is known of Nauruan prehistory, although the island is believed to have had a long period of isolation, which accounts for the distinct Nauruan language that developed among the inhabitants. Traditionally, Nauruans were organized into 12 matrilineal clans or tribes: Deiboe, Eamwidamit, Eamwidara, Eamwit, Eamgum, Eano, Emeo, Eoraru, Irutsi, Iruwa, Iwi, and Ranibok. These 12 clans are represented in the twelve-pointed star on the flag of Nauru. The Iruwa clan consisted of recent immigrants, primarily from the Gilbert Islands.

Inhabitants practised aquaculture by catching juvenile milkfish (known in Nauruan as Ibija), acclimatising them to freshwater, and raising them in the Buada Lagoon, providing a reliable food source. Other locally grown components of their diet included coconuts and pandanus fruit. The name "Nauru" may derive from the Nauruan word Anáoero_{I go to the beach}^Nauru.

2.2. European discovery and colonization

In 1798, the British sea captain John Fearn, sailing his trading ship Hunter, became the first Westerner to report sighting Nauru. He named it "Pleasant Island" due to its attractive appearance. From at least 1826, Nauruans had regular contact with Europeans on whaling and trading ships that called for provisions and fresh drinking water. The last whaler to call during the Age of Sail visited in 1904.

Around this time, deserters from European ships began to live on the island. The islanders traded food for alcoholic palm wine and firearms. The introduction of firearms upset the traditional balance of power and exacerbated internal conflicts, leading to the 10-year Nauruan Civil War that began in 1878. This war resulted in significant loss of life and social disruption.

2.3. German protectorate and phosphate discovery

After an agreement with Great Britain, Germany annexed Nauru on 16 April 1888, and incorporated it into their Marshall Islands Protectorate for administrative purposes. The German administration was formalized with the arrival of German troops on 1 October 1888. The arrival of the Germans ended the civil war, and a system of kings or chiefs was established as rulers of the island, with Auweyida being the most widely known. Christian missionaries from the Gilbert Islands arrived in 1888, further influencing Nauruan society. The German settlers called the island "Nawodo" or "Onawero". Robert Rasch, a German trader who married a Nauruan woman, was the first administrator, appointed in 1890.

In 1900, the prospector Albert Fuller Ellis, working for the Pacific Islands Company, discovered that Nauru was rich in phosphate rock. The Pacific Phosphate Company (PPC), a British firm, began to exploit these reserves in 1906 by agreement with Germany, exporting its first shipment in 1907. This discovery would profoundly shape Nauru's future, leading to over a century of intensive mining.

2.4. World War I and League of Nations Mandate

In 1914, following the outbreak of World War I, Nauru was captured by Australian troops in November. After the war, the Treaty of Versailles assigned Nauru as a Class C Mandate. In 1919, it was agreed by the Allied and Associated Powers that the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand would jointly administer the island, though in practice Australia was the primary administrator. The Nauru Island Agreement of 1919 provided for the administration of the island and the extraction of the phosphate deposits by an intergovernmental British Phosphate Commissioners (BPC), which took over the rights from the Pacific Phosphate Company. The terms of the League of Nations mandate were drawn up in 1920.

The island experienced an influenza epidemic in 1920, which had a high mortality rate, killing 18% of the native Nauruan population.

2.5. World War II and Japanese occupation

During World War II, Nauru was strategically significant due to its phosphate deposits and its location. On 6 and 7 December 1940, the German auxiliary cruisers Komet and Orion sank five supply ships (four British, one Norwegian) in the vicinity of Nauru. Komet then shelled Nauru's phosphate mining areas, oil storage depots, and the shiploading cantilever, causing considerable damage but not crippling the industry.

Japanese forces occupied Nauru on 25 August 1942. The Japanese constructed an airfield on the island, which was bombed for the first time by Allied forces on 25 March 1943, preventing food supplies from being flown to Nauru. The occupation was harsh for the Nauruan people. The Japanese deported 1,200 Nauruans (almost the entire Nauruan population that could be moved) to the Chuuk Islands (then known as Truk) to work as forced labourers; only 737 survived the brutal conditions and returned. The Japanese also executed Nauruan lepers and brought in Korean and Japanese labourers to fortify the island. As part of the Allied island-hopping strategy in the Pacific, Nauru was bypassed and heavily bombed but not invaded.

Nauru was liberated on 13 September 1945, when commander Hisayaki Soeda surrendered the island to the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Navy. The surrender was accepted by Brigadier J. R. Stevenson, who represented Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee, commander of the First Australian Army, aboard the warship HMAS Diamantina. Arrangements were made to repatriate the surviving Nauruans from Chuuk; they were returned to Nauru by the BPC ship Trienza in January 1946.

2.6. United Nations Trusteeship

In 1947, a Trusteeship was established by the United Nations, with Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom again as trustees. Under these arrangements, the UK, Australia, and New Zealand were a joint administering authority. The Nauru Island Agreement provided for the first administrator to be appointed by Australia for five years, leaving subsequent appointments to be decided by the three governments. However, in practice, administrative power was exercised by Australia alone.

The post-war period saw a gradual increase in political consciousness among Nauruans. In 1948, Chinese guano mining workers went on strike over pay and conditions. The Australian administration imposed a state of emergency, mobilizing Native Police and armed volunteers of locals and Australian officials. This force, using submachine guns and other firearms, opened fire on the Chinese workers, killing two and wounding sixteen. Around 50 of the workers were arrested, and two of these were bayoneted to death while in custody. The trooper who bayoneted the prisoners was charged but later acquitted on grounds that the wounds were "accidentally received." The governments of the Soviet Union and China made official complaints against Australia at the United Nations over this incident, highlighting the human rights issues under the trusteeship.

In 1951, the Nauru Local Government Council was established, giving Nauruans a limited role in their own affairs. By the early 1960s, as phosphate reserves were visibly depleting and the environmental damage became undeniable, the future of the Nauruan people became a pressing issue. In 1964, it was proposed to relocate the population of Nauru to Curtis Island off the coast of Queensland, Australia. Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies acknowledged the obligation of the three mining countries to provide a solution. The Australian Government proposed to acquire all land on Curtis Island and offer Nauruans freehold title and Australian citizenship. The cost was estimated at 10.00 M AUD. However, the Nauruan people, led by Head Chief Hammer DeRoburt, rejected this proposal as they did not wish to become Australian citizens and desired sovereignty over Curtis Island to establish themselves as an independent nation, which Australia would not agree to. They chose instead to pursue independence and control over their remaining phosphate resources.

2.7. Independence

Nauru became self-governing in January 1966. Following a two-year constitutional convention, Nauru achieved full independence on 31 January 1968, under founding president Hammer DeRoburt. This made Nauru one of the world's smallest independent nations. In 1967, the people of Nauru purchased the assets of the British Phosphate Commissioners through the newly formed Nauru Phosphate Corporation (NPC), and in June 1970, full control of the phosphate industry passed to this locally owned corporation.

2.8. Post-independence era

The post-independence era in Nauru was initially marked by extraordinary wealth derived from phosphate mining, followed by a severe economic crisis due to resource depletion and mismanagement. This period also saw significant political and social adjustments as Nauru navigated its place in the world as a small island nation.

3.1. Topography and landscape

Nauru is an oval-shaped island with an area of 8.1 mile^{2 (21 km2)}. It is located 35 mile ^{(55.95 km)} south of the Equator. The island is a raised coral atoll, consisting of a fringing reef that is exposed at low tide and dotted with pinnacles. This reef has prevented the establishment of a deep-water port, although man-made channels allow small boats access to the island.

Inland from the beach lies a fertile coastal strip, 492 ft ^{(150 m)} to 984 ft ^{(300 m)} wide, where most of the population resides and where coconut palms flourish. This coastal belt surrounds a central plateau, known locally as "Topside". The plateau rises to coral cliffs. The highest point of the plateau, and of Nauru itself, is Command Ridge, which is 233 ft ^{(71 m)} above sea level.

The central plateau was once rich in phosphate rock, formed from guano deposited by seabirds over millennia. Over a century of strip mining has devastated this area, leaving behind a barren, lunar-like landscape of jagged limestone pinnacles, some up to 49 ft ^{(15 m)} high. This mining has rendered about 80% of Nauru's land area uninhabitable and unusable for agriculture.

The island has no rivers. The only significant body of freshwater is Buada Lagoon, an endorheic lake located in a depression in the southwest of the island, within the Buada District.

3.2. Climate

Nauru's climate is hot and very humid year-round, classified as a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af), due to its proximity to the equator and the ocean. The island is hit by monsoon rains between November and February. Annual rainfall is highly variable and is strongly influenced by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), with several significant recorded droughts.
The temperature on Nauru ranges between 86 °F ^{(30 °C)} and 95 °F ^{(35 °C)} during the day and is quite stable at around 77 °F ^{(25 °C)} at night.
Water is primarily gathered from roof catchment systems. With limited natural freshwater sources, Nauru also relies on desalination plants and, historically, water brought as ballast on ships returning for loads of phosphate. Nauru is vulnerable to the effects of climate change, particularly sea level rise, which threatens its low-lying coastal areas.

3.3. Ecology

The flora and fauna of Nauru have been significantly impacted by human activity, particularly phosphate mining. Fauna is sparse on the island due to a lack of extensive vegetation and the consequences of mining. Many indigenous birds have disappeared or become rare owing to the destruction of their habitat. There are about 60 recorded vascular plant species native to the island, none of which are endemic. Coconut farming, mining, and introduced species have seriously disturbed the native vegetation. The land around Buada Lagoon supports some bananas, pineapples, vegetables, pandanus trees, and indigenous hardwoods, such as the tamanu tree.

There are no native land mammals. Introduced species include the Polynesian rat, cats, dogs, pigs, and chickens. Native insects, land crabs, and birds are present. The most notable endemic bird is the Nauru reed warbler (Acrocephalus rehsei).

The marine ecosystem surrounding Nauru has also suffered. Phosphate runoff and silt from mining operations are estimated to have killed approximately 40% of marine life in the exclusive economic zone. Despite this, the diversity of the reef marine life makes fishing a popular activity, and scuba diving and snorkeling are practiced by tourists. General environmental issues include the devastation of the central plateau, soil erosion, limited freshwater resources, and the vulnerability of coastal areas to sea-level rise due to climate change.

4.1. Government

Nauru is a republic with a parliamentary system of government. The President is both the head of state and head of government. The President is elected by the Parliament from among its members and is dependent on parliamentary confidence to remain in office. The Cabinet is appointed by the President from among the members of Parliament and typically consists of five to six ministers. Executive power is vested in the President and the Cabinet. David Adeang is the current president.

4.2. Parliament

The Parliament of Nauru is a unicameral legislature with 19 members. Members of Parliament (MPs) are elected by popular vote from multi-member constituencies for a three-year term. Voting in Nauru is compulsory for all citizens aged 20 and over. Nauru is notable for the general absence of formal political party structures. Candidates typically stand for office as independents, and political alliances are often fluid, frequently formed based on extended family ties or personal loyalties rather than fixed party affiliations. However, some loosely organized political groupings have existed, such as the Nauru Party, the Democratic Party, Nauru First, and the Centre Party. A referendum in 2021 resulted in naturalized citizens and their descendants being barred from becoming parliamentarians, a move that raised concerns about discrimination.

4.3. Legal system and judiciary

Nauru's legal system is based on English common law and statute law enacted by the Nauruan Parliament. The Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice, is the highest court for most matters and is paramount on constitutional issues. Other cases can be appealed to the two-judge Appellate Court. Parliament cannot overturn court decisions. Historically, Appellate Court rulings could be appealed to the High Court of Australia, but this appellate jurisdiction ended entirely on 12 March 2018 after the Government of Nauru unilaterally terminated the arrangement. This decision raised concerns about judicial independence and access to justice, particularly for asylum seekers detained on the island.
Lower courts consist of the District Court and the Family Court, both of which are headed by a Resident Magistrate, who also serves as the Registrar of the Supreme Court. There are also two quasi-courts: the Public Service Appeal Board and the Police Appeal Board, both presided over by the Chief Justice.

4.4. Administrative divisions

Nauru is divided into fourteen administrative districts. These districts are grouped into eight electoral constituencies. Each district traditionally consisted of a number of villages, though modern settlement patterns have blurred these distinctions. There is no official capital city, but government offices are predominantly located in the Yaren District. The Nauru Island Council (NIC), a nine-member local government body established in 1951 (succeeding the Nauru Local Government Council), was designed to provide municipal services but was dissolved in 1999, with its assets and liabilities transferred to the national government.

The districts are:

The most populous district is Denigomodu, with 1,804 residents in 2011, many of whom reside in a settlement called "Location" built for Nauru Phosphate Corporation workers. Land tenure on Nauru is unusual: all Nauruans have certain rights to all land on the island, which is owned by individuals and family groups. Government and corporate entities do not own any land and must enter into lease arrangements with landowners to use land. Non-Nauruans cannot own land on the island.

5.1. Bilateral relations

Nauru maintains diplomatic relations with a number of countries, with a particular focus on those in the Pacific region and major aid donors.

5.1.1. Relations with Australia

The relationship with Australia is arguably Nauru's most significant. Australia was a former administrator of Nauru under League of Nations and UN mandates. Today, Australia is Nauru's largest aid donor and plays a crucial role in its economy and security. An informal agreement exists for Australia to be responsible for Nauru's defense, as Nauru has no armed forces.
A key component of this relationship is the Nauru Regional Processing Centre. Under a Memorandum of Understanding, Nauru hosts asylum seekers who attempt to reach Australia by boat, in exchange for substantial financial aid and technical assistance from Australia. This arrangement has been economically beneficial for Nauru but has drawn significant international criticism regarding the human rights of the asylum seekers and the conditions of their detention. Some sources have described Nauru as a client state of Australia due to this heavy dependence. The Australian aid has also included a Secretary of Finance to prepare Nauru's budget and advisers on health and education. Nauru uses the Australian dollar as its official currency.

5.2. Membership in international organizations

Following independence in 1968, Nauru joined the Commonwealth of Nations as a Special Member, becoming a full member in 1999. It was admitted to the Asian Development Bank in 1991 and the United Nations in 1999. Nauru is also a member of the Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, the Pacific Community (SPC), and the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission.
In February 2021, Nauru, along with the Marshall Islands, Kiribati, and the Federated States of Micronesia, announced its intention to withdraw from the Pacific Islands Forum following a dispute over the election of Henry Puna as the Forum's secretary-general. However, by February 2022, Nauru and other Micronesian countries agreed to temporarily halt their withdrawal process.
Nauru became the 189th member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in April 2016 and is a member country of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). The US Atmospheric Radiation Measurement program operates a climate-monitoring facility on the island.

5.3. Role as an offshore processing center

Nauru's role in hosting the Australian-funded regional processing center for asylum seekers has been a dominant feature of its foreign and economic policy since 2001. The arrangement began with the Tampa affair, when Australia refused entry to the Norwegian ship MV Tampa, which had rescued 438 refugees. These refugees were eventually taken to Nauru. The detention centers, State House and Topside, were operated in exchange for Australian aid.
The center was closed in 2008 but reopened in August 2012 following Australia's re-adoption of the Pacific Solution. The facility has been a significant source of income for Nauru. For example, the closure in 2008 led to concerns about job losses for about 100 Nauruans, affecting roughly 10% of the island's population.
However, the center has been plagued by controversy and severe criticism from human rights organizations like Amnesty International, which described conditions as a "horror". Reports highlighted overcrowding, inadequate medical care, long periods of detention, and severe mental health impacts on detainees, including children as young as eight attempting suicide and engaging in self-harm, and the emergence of resignation syndrome. By mid-2023, the camp was reportedly empty for the first time since 2012, having detained 4,183 people over its operational period. However, reports in 2024 indicated a small number of asylum seekers were again being held there.

7.1. Overview

The Nauruan economy is currently small and heavily reliant on external aid, particularly from Australia in exchange for hosting the Nauru Regional Processing Centre. Efforts are underway to diversify the economy, but options are limited by the island's small size, remote location, and the extensive environmental damage from past mining. The Australian dollar is the official currency. There are no personal taxes in Nauru. The unemployment rate has been extremely high, estimated at 23% in some reports, with the government being the primary employer for those who have jobs. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has noted that in the absence of a significant alternative to phosphate mining, the medium-term outlook is for continued dependence on external assistance.

7.2. Phosphate mining era and wealth

From the early 20th century until the late 1980s, Nauru's economy was dominated by the mining of high-quality phosphate rock. After gaining control of the Nauru Phosphate Corporation in 1970, the country experienced an economic boom. During the 1960s, 1970s, and early 1980s, phosphate exports generated enormous revenues, making Nauruans, on a per capita basis, among the richest people globally. GDP per capita peaked in 1981. The wealth funded a welfare state with free education and healthcare, and numerous public services. The Nauru Phosphate Royalties Trust (NPRT) was established to invest surplus mining revenues for the future.

7.3. Economic crisis and mismanagement

The prosperity was short-lived. By the early 1980s, phosphate extraction began to decline as the primary, easily accessible reserves were depleted. The NPRT suffered from severe mismanagement, corruption, and a series of disastrous investments. These included financing the failed West End musical Leonardo the Musical: A Portrait of Love in 1993, and investments in unprofitable overseas properties like the Mercure Hotel in Sydney and Nauru House in Melbourne, both of which were eventually sold in 2004 to cover debts. The national airline, Air Nauru (later Our Airline, now Nauru Airlines), also faced financial collapse, with its only Boeing 737 being repossessed in December 2005.

The value of the NPRT is estimated to have shrunk from 1.30 B AUD in 1991 to 138.00 M AUD in 2002. The National Bank of Nauru became insolvent. Facing economic collapse, Nauru briefly turned to controversial revenue-generating schemes in the 1990s, including becoming a tax haven and selling passports. It was identified by the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) as a non-cooperative country in the fight against money laundering. Nauru established licensed banks for as little as 25.00 K USD with minimal requirements. Under international pressure, Nauru introduced anti-avoidance legislation in 2003, and the FATF lifted its non-cooperative designation in October 2005.

7.4. Current economy and diversification efforts

The Nauruan economy today is significantly smaller. Small-scale secondary phosphate mining is still conducted by RONPhos (Republic of Nauru Phosphate Corporation), extracting lower-grade phosphate from previously mined areas. A major source of income since 2001 (and particularly since its reopening in 2012) has been the Australian-funded Nauru Regional Processing Centre. The closure of the center between 2008 and 2012 caused significant job losses and economic hardship.

The Nauruan government has explored deep-sea mining as a potential new revenue stream. In 2018, it partnered with DeepGreen (now Nauru Ocean Resources Inc - NORI, a subsidiary of The Metals Company) to explore the harvesting of manganese nodules from the seabed, which contain minerals for sustainable energy technology.
In July 2017, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) upgraded Nauru's tax transparency standards rating to "largely compliant." The Nauru 2017-2018 budget forecast modest economic growth.

7.5. Tourism

Tourism is not a major contributor to Nauru's economy. The island's remote location, limited infrastructure, high travel costs, and the environmental degradation of its interior are significant constraints. However, Nauru does possess some attractions, including its coastline, World War II relics, and the unique landscape of the mined-out "Topside." Opportunities for scuba diving and fishing exist.

8.1. History of phosphate mining

Phosphate rock, derived from ancient guano deposits, was discovered on Nauru in 1900 by Albert Fuller Ellis, a New Zealand-based prospector working for the Pacific Islands Company. Mining operations commenced in 1906-1907 by the British-based Pacific Phosphate Company, which had negotiated rights with Germany, the colonial power at the time.
After World War I, Nauru became a League of Nations Mandate, and the mining operations were taken over by the British Phosphate Commissioners (BPC), a consortium representing the governments of Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. The BPC continued intensive strip mining of the phosphate from the island's central plateau, known as "Topside."
Following Nauru's independence in 1968, the Nauruan people gained control over their primary resource. In 1970, the Nauru Phosphate Corporation (NPC), a state-owned enterprise, took over the mining operations. This period saw the peak of phosphate extraction and national wealth. However, by the 1990s, the high-grade primary phosphate deposits were largely exhausted. Secondary mining of lower-grade deposits has continued on a smaller scale into the 21st century.

8.2. Environmental degradation

Over a century of phosphate mining has had a devastating impact on Nauru's environment. Approximately 80% of the island's land area, primarily the central Topside plateau, has been strip-mined. This process involved removing the topsoil and vegetation to access the phosphate deposits beneath. The result is a barren, uninhabitable moonscape of jagged limestone pinnacles, some reaching heights of up to 49 ft ^{(15 m)}.
This large-scale removal of land cover has led to:

• Loss of biodiversity and habitat for native flora and fauna.
• Severe soil erosion and loss of arable land, making agriculture nearly impossible in the mined areas.
• Disruption of water tables and potential contamination of limited freshwater lenses.
• Impact on the marine ecosystem: Silt and phosphate runoff from mining activities have damaged the surrounding coral reefs and are estimated to have killed up to 40% of marine life in Nauru's EEZ.

The aesthetic and ecological damage is profound, transforming a once vegetated island interior into a wasteland.

8.3. Socio-economic consequences

Nauru's experience with phosphate wealth is a classic case of the "resource curse". The sudden influx of wealth in the mid-20th century led to:

• Extremely high per capita income and a welfare state providing free services, but little incentive for education or diverse skill development.
• A decline in traditional lifestyles, including subsistence farming and fishing, as the population became reliant on imported goods and government services funded by phosphate revenue.
• Mismanagement of the Nauru Phosphate Royalties Trust, which was intended to secure the nation's future. Poor investments, corruption, and lavish government spending led to the near-total depletion of these funds by the time phosphate revenues declined.
• When the primary phosphate deposits were exhausted, Nauru faced a severe economic crisis, with high unemployment and a collapse in living standards.
• Significant public health issues emerged, linked to the shift from traditional diets to imported processed foods, and a more sedentary lifestyle. Nauru now has among the world's highest rates of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and related cardiovascular diseases.

The long-term societal challenges stemming from phosphate dependency and subsequent economic hardship include political instability, social inequality, and a sense of loss and uncertainty about the future. The environmental devastation has also impacted the cultural connection of Nauruans to their land.

8.4. Rehabilitation efforts

Efforts to rehabilitate the mined-out areas of Nauru have been ongoing but face immense challenges. The sheer scale of the damage and the cost of restoration are prohibitive for a small nation with limited resources.
In 1989, Nauru initiated legal proceedings against Australia in the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in the case of Certain Phosphate Lands: Nauru v. Australia. Nauru argued that Australia, as the former administering power, had failed in its obligation to rehabilitate the mined lands before independence. The case was settled out of court in 1993, with Australia agreeing to pay Nauru 107.00 M AUD (approximately {{USD|73 million}} at the time) as a lump sum, with an additional 2.50 M AUD per year for 20 years (indexed to inflation) towards rehabilitation. New Zealand and the United Kingdom also contributed smaller amounts.
Despite this settlement, the rehabilitation of Topside remains a daunting task. The process involves crushing the limestone pinnacles, importing topsoil, and re-establishing vegetation. Progress has been slow, and the long-term ecological and economic viability of large-scale rehabilitation is still uncertain. The Republic of Nauru Rehabilitation Corporation is tasked with these efforts.

9.1. Population and ethnic groups

As of recent estimates (around 2021-2023), Nauru has a population of approximately 10,800 to 11,000. The population was previously larger, but in 2006, about 1,500 people left during a repatriation of immigrant workers from Kiribati and Tuvalu, driven by layoffs in the declining phosphate mining industry.
Nauru is one of the most densely populated countries in the Pacific Islands.
The ethnic composition of Nauru is:

• Nauruan: Approximately 58% of the population are indigenous Nauruans, who are of mixed Micronesian, Polynesian, and Melanesian ancestry.
• Other Pacific Islanders: About 26% of the population consists of people from other Pacific Island nations, primarily Kiribati and Tuvaluan, many of whom originally came as contract workers for the phosphate industry.
• Europeans: Approximately 8% of the population are of European descent.
• Chinese: Approximately 8% of the population are of Chinese descent, often descendants of earlier migrant workers.

9.2. Languages

The official languages of Nauru are Nauruan and English.

• Nauruan** (dorerin Naoero_{Nauruan language}^Nauru) is a distinct Micronesian language. It is spoken by the vast majority of ethnic Nauruans at home (around 96%).
• English** is widely spoken and is the language of government, commerce, and education. Due to Nauruan not being commonly used outside the country, English serves as the primary language for international communication.

9.3. Religion

Christianity is the main religion practiced on Nauru. The primary denominations, according to the 2011 census, are:

• Nauru Congregational Church: 35.71%
• Roman Catholic Church: 32.96%
• Assemblies of God: 12.98%
• Baptist: 1.48%
• Other Christian denominations and unspecified Christians make up smaller percentages.

The Constitution of Nauru provides for freedom of religion. However, the government has historically placed some restrictions on the religious practices of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses, particularly those who are foreign workers employed by the state-owned Nauru Phosphate Corporation.
The Catholic population is pastorally served by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tarawa and Nauru, which has its see in Tarawa, Kiribati. There are also small communities practicing other faiths, reflecting the diverse origins of some residents.

10.1. Education

The literacy rate on Nauru is high, at 96%. Education is compulsory for children from six to sixteen years of age, with an additional two non-compulsory years offered (years 11 and 12).
The island has three primary schools and two secondary schools: Nauru Secondary School (formerly Nauru College) and Nauru College (formerly Kayser College).
Nauru hosts a campus of the University of the South Pacific (USP), which provides tertiary education opportunities locally. Before the USP Nauru Campus was established in 1987, students seeking higher education typically had to study abroad or via distance learning.
Since 2011, the University of New England (UNE), Australia, has been involved in teacher education projects on the island, offering Nauruan teachers pathways to associate and full degrees in education. This initiative, often funded by the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, aims to improve the quality of teaching in Nauruan schools.
The Nauru Community Library is located in the new University of the South Pacific Nauru Campus building, which officially opened in May 2018. The previous community public library was destroyed in a fire, and for some time, library services were limited.

10.2. Health

Nauru's public health system provides basic medical services, but complex cases often require overseas treatment, typically in Australia. Life expectancy in 2009 was 60.6 years for males and 68.0 years for females. Nauru has one of the highest child mortality rates in the Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) region, recorded at 2.9% in 2020 according to a UNICEF study. The country faces significant public health challenges, many of which are linked to lifestyle and diet.

11.1. Traditional subsistence and modern diet

Historically, indigenous Nauruans relied on subsistence agriculture and aquaculture. Household gardens provided staples such as coconuts, breadfruit, bananas, pandanus fruit, papaya, and guavas. A sophisticated system of aquaculture was practiced in the brackish waters of Buada Lagoon, where juvenile milkfish (ibija) were caught from the sea, acclimatized, and raised, providing a crucial source of protein. Fishing in the surrounding ocean was also important.

The advent of phosphate wealth led to a dramatic shift in lifestyle and diet. As the population became more affluent, there was a decreased reliance on traditional food production and an increased dependence on imported, often highly processed, foods such as white rice, sugar, flour, and canned goods. This transition has been a major contributor to the current public health crisis, characterized by high rates of obesity and diabetes. Despite a Household and Income Expenditure Survey (HIES) in 2012-2013 finding a food poverty incidence rate of 0 (based on a daily intake of 2,100 calories per adult), a significant portion of the population (24%) lived below the basic needs poverty line, encompassing non-food essentials.

11.2. Impact of mining on agriculture and soil

Phosphate mining has had a catastrophic impact on Nauru's agricultural potential and soil quality. An estimated 80-90% of the island's land surface, particularly the central "Topside" plateau, has been rendered unusable for agriculture due to strip mining. The rich topsoil was removed, leaving a barren landscape of limestone pinnacles. While the pre-mining soil on Topside was fertile, the remaining coastal ring where most Nauruans now live has inherently poor soil quality-shallow, alkaline, and coarse-textured due to its coral origins.
This loss of arable land means Nauru is almost entirely dependent on imported food for its sustenance. Local food production is minimal and faces challenges from poor soil, limited freshwater resources (groundwater has been contaminated by mining runoff and household waste), and the high cost of importing soil amendments. Ethnobotanical studies indicate that the reduction in plant diversity due to mining has also negatively impacted the cultural connection of Indigenous Nauruans to their land, as plants traditionally had numerous uses. Water resources are extremely limited, with per capita availability significantly below WHO recommendations, and much of the groundwater is contaminated. Access to reliable sanitation facilities is also restricted for a portion of the population.

12.1. Air transport

Nauru is solely served by Nauru International Airport (IATA: INU, ICAO: ANYN). The airport is located in the Yaren District. Its single runway runs parallel to the coast.
Passenger services are provided by Nauru Airlines, the national carrier, which was formerly known as Our Airline and, before that, Air Nauru. The airline has faced periods of financial difficulty, including service interruptions and repossession of aircraft. Currently, Nauru Airlines operates flights connecting Nauru to several destinations, primarily Brisbane, Australia. Limited services also connect to Nadi (Fiji), Bonriki (Kiribati), and other Pacific destinations, though schedules can be infrequent.

12.2. Maritime and land transport

Nauru is accessible by sea via the Nauru International Port, located at the site of the former Aiwo Boat Harbour. Due to the surrounding coral reef, large ships cannot dock directly at the island. Cargo is typically transferred to smaller vessels or lighters offshore using cantilever mooring systems originally built for phosphate loading. A major modernization and expansion project for the port, aimed at improving its capacity and resilience to climate change, has been underway, though it has faced delays, including those caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.

The island has a limited road network, totaling about 19 mile ^{(30 km)}. The main road is a paved coastal ring road, approximately 12 mile ^{(19 km)} long, that encircles the island. Other roads provide access to the interior "Topside" area and Buada Lagoon.
A narrow-gauge railway, approximately 2.4 mile ^{(3.9 km)} long, was historically used to transport phosphate rock from the mines in the central plateau to the processing plants and shiploading facilities on the coast. This railway is no longer in extensive use.
There is no public bus system; private vehicles, motorcycles, and bicycles are the primary modes of land transport.

13.1. Traditional culture and contemporary influences

Traditionally, Nauruan society was organized into 12 matrilineal clans, each with its own history and symbols. These clans are represented by the 12-pointed star on Nauru's flag. Social status and land ownership were traditionally passed down through the maternal line. Angam Day, celebrated on 26 October, is a significant national holiday. It commemorates the times when the Nauruan population, after being decimated by disease or war (particularly after World War I and the 1920 influenza epidemic, and again after World War II deportations), recovered to a level considered necessary for the survival of the Nauruan people (traditionally 1,500 individuals).

Colonial rule and the subsequent influx of wealth from phosphate mining led to a significant displacement of indigenous culture by Western customs and lifestyles. Many older traditions, including certain forms of craftsmanship and social practices, have diminished. However, some forms of traditional music, arts, and crafts, particularly those related to fishing and navigation, are still practiced or remembered. Nauruan folk songs existed as of 1970, with Oh Bwio Eben Bwio being a notable example. Rhythmic singing and traditional reigen (dances) are performed, especially at celebrations. Historical dances included a "fish dance." More contemporary known dances include the frigate bird dance (iti) and the dogoropa (a stick dance). The national anthem of Nauru is "Nauru Bwiema" (Song of Nauru), with lyrics by Margaret Hendrie and music by Laurence Henry Hicks.

13.2. Sports

Australian rules football is the most popular sport in Nauru and is considered the country's national sport. There is an Australian rules football league with eight teams, and matches are played at grounds like the Linkbelt Oval. The Nauru national team, known as the "Chiefs," consistently ranks among the top international teams.
Weightlifting is also considered a national pastime, and Nauru has achieved notable success in international competitions, including the Commonwealth Games and the Olympic Games. Nauru has also participated in judo at the Olympics.
Other popular sports include volleyball, netball, fishing, and tennis. The Nauru national basketball team competed at the 1969 South Pacific Games, defeating the Solomon Islands and Fiji. Rugby sevens has a growing following, with the national team making its international debut at the 2015 Pacific Games and competing in the 2015 Oceania Sevens Championship. Soccer is a minor sport, but a Nauru national soccer team was reportedly in formation as of 2024, with former English professional footballer Dave Kitson involved in coaching.

13.3. Media

The media landscape in Nauru is limited. There are no daily news publications. The main local publication is Mwinen Ko, a fortnightly government bulletin.
Nauru has a state-owned television station, Nauru Television (NTV), which broadcasts a mix of local content and programs from New Zealand and Australia. There is also a state-owned non-commercial radio station, Radio Nauru, which carries programs from Radio Australia and the BBC, as well as local content. Internet access is available but can be expensive and of variable quality.

13.4. Public holidays

Nauru observes several public holidays, reflecting its history, culture, and Christian heritage. Major public holidays include:

• Independence Day: 31 January (celebrates independence in 1968)
• Angam Day: 26 October (commemorates the recovery of the Nauruan population)
• Constitution Day: 17 May (marks the adoption of the constitution in 1968)
• Good Friday
• Easter Monday
• Christmas Day: 25 December
• Boxing Day: 26 December
• New Year's Day: 1 January

Other holidays mentioned in sources include Day of the Tribes and National Youth Day, though their status as major public holidays may vary.