Vatican City

3.1. Early History

The name "Vatican" was already in use during the Roman Republic for the Ager Vaticanus, a marshy area on the west bank of the Tiber river, across from the city of Rome. This area was located between the Janiculum hill, the Vatican Hill, and Monte Mario, extending down to the Aventine Hill and up to the confluence of the Cremera creek. The toponym Ager Vaticanus is attested until the 1st century AD; afterwards, another toponym appeared, Vaticanus, denoting a much more restricted area: the Vatican Hill, today's St. Peter's Square, and possibly today's Via della Conciliazione.

Due to its proximity to Rome's traditional enemy, the Etruscan city of Veii (another name for the Ager Vaticanus was Ripa Veientana or Ripa Etrusca), and its susceptibility to Tiber floods, the Romans considered this originally uninhabited part of Rome to be dismal and ominous. The low quality of Vatican wine, even after the area's reclamation, was noted by the poet Martial (c. AD 40 - c. AD 102-104). Tacitus wrote that in AD 69, the Year of the Four Emperors, when the northern army that brought Vitellius to power arrived in Rome, "a large proportion camped in the unhealthy districts of the Vatican, which resulted in many deaths among the common soldiery; and the Tiber being close by, the inability of the Gauls and Germans to bear the heat and the consequent greed with which they drank from the stream weakened their bodies, which were already an easy prey to disease".

During the Roman Empire, many villas were constructed in the Ager Vaticanus after Agrippina the Elder (14 BC - AD 33) drained the area and laid out her gardens in the early 1st century AD. In AD 40, her son, Emperor Caligula (AD 12 - AD 41), built a circus for charioteers in her gardens, known as the Circus Gaii et Neronis_{Circus of Gaius and Nero}^Latin, or more commonly, the Circus of Nero. This circus was later completed by Emperor Nero. The Vatican obelisk, currently in St. Peter's Square, is the last visible remnant of the Circus of Nero. It was originally brought from Heliopolis in Egypt by Caligula and stood at the center of the circus's spina (median strip). In 1586, Pope Sixtus V had it moved to its current location, a feat of engineering directed by architect Domenico Fontana.

The Circus of Nero became the site of martyrdom for many Christians following the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64. According to tradition, it was in this circus that Saint Peter was crucified upside-down. Opposite the circus was a cemetery separated by the Via Cornelia. This necropolis contained funeral monuments, mausoleums, small tombs, and altars to pagan gods. These existed until the construction of the Constantinian Basilica of St. Peter in the first half of the 4th century. A shrine dedicated to the Phrygian goddess Cybele and her consort Attis remained active long after the ancient Basilica of St. Peter was built nearby.

Remains of this ancient necropolis were brought to light sporadically during renovations by various popes throughout the centuries, increasing in frequency during the Renaissance. It was systematically excavated by orders of Pope Pius XII from 1939 to 1941. The Constantinian basilica was built in AD 326 over what was believed to be the tomb of Saint Peter, who was buried in that cemetery. Following the basilica's construction, the area became more populated. A palace was constructed nearby as early as the 5th century during the pontificate of Pope Symmachus (reigned 498-514).

3.2. Papal States

Over time, Popes gradually acquired a secular role as governors of regions near Rome. They came to rule the Papal States, a large territory that covered a significant portion of the Italian peninsula, for more than a thousand years, from 756 until the mid-19th century. During this period, the papacy wielded considerable temporal power, influencing political, social, and military affairs in Italy and beyond. The governance of the Papal States involved complex administrative structures and often engaged the Popes in secular matters, including warfare and diplomacy, to maintain and expand their territories. The relationship between the Papal States and the Vatican area was intrinsic, as Rome, including the Vatican Hill, was the spiritual and often political heart of these domains.

However, for most of this long period, the Popes did not reside at the Vatican. The Lateran Palace, on the opposite side of Rome, was their habitual residence for about a thousand years. From 1309 to 1377, during the Avignon Papacy, the Popes lived at Avignon in France. Upon their return to Rome, they initially chose to live at the Vatican. Later, in 1583, they moved to the Quirinal Palace after its completion under Pope Paul V (1605-1621). It was only after the capture of Rome in 1870 that the Popes retired permanently to the Vatican, and the Quirinal Palace became the residence of the King of Italy.

The existence of the Papal States often led to conflicts with other European powers and internal Italian factions, impacting the lives of the populace within these territories. The administration of justice, taxation, and public order within the Papal States reflected the prevailing norms of the time, which sometimes contrasted with modern conceptions of human rights and governance.

3.3. Italian Rule (1870-1929)

In 1870, the Pope's holdings were left in an uncertain situation when Rome itself was annexed by Italian forces, thus bringing to completion the Italian unification, after a nominal resistance by the papal forces. This event marked the end of the Papal States as a territorial entity. Between 1861 and 1929, the status of the Pope was referred to as the "Roman Question".

The Kingdom of Italy made no attempt to interfere with the Holy See within the Vatican walls. However, it confiscated church property in many places. In 1871, the Quirinal Palace, formerly a papal residence, was confiscated by the King of Italy and became the royal palace. Thereafter, the Popes resided undisturbed within the Vatican walls. Certain papal prerogatives were recognized by the Italian Law of Guarantees, including the right to send and receive ambassadors.

Despite these guarantees, the Popes did not recognize the Italian king's right to rule in Rome, and they refused to leave the Vatican compound until the dispute was resolved in 1929. Pope Pius IX (1846-1878), the last ruler of the Papal States, famously referred to himself as a "prisoner in the Vatican". This self-imposed confinement symbolized the papacy's protest against the loss of its temporal power and the perceived infringement on its sovereignty. During this period, forced to give up secular power over extensive territories, the Popes increasingly focused on spiritual issues and the global governance of the Catholic Church. The "Roman Question" created significant social and political tension in Italy, particularly for Catholics torn between loyalty to their nation and their faith. The local populace of Rome experienced a shift in governance from papal to secular Italian rule, bringing about changes in laws, administration, and daily life.

3.4. Lateran Treaty and Independence

The "Roman Question", the political dispute between the Italian government and the Papacy lasting from 1870, was resolved on 11 February 1929 with the signing of the Lateran Treaty. The treaty was concluded between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy, represented by Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri on behalf of Pope Pius XI, and by Prime Minister and Head of Government Benito Mussolini on behalf of King Victor Emmanuel III.

The Lateran Treaty, which became effective on 7 June 1929, had three main components:
1. A political treaty recognizing the full sovereignty of the Holy See in the State of Vatican City, thereby establishing Vatican City as an independent sovereign state. This formally ended the "prisoner in the Vatican" status of the Popes.
2. A concordat regulating the position of the Catholic Church and the Catholic religion in the Italian state. It reaffirmed Catholic Christianity as the state religion of Italy (a status it held since an 1848 statute of the Kingdom of Sardinia, and which was later revised in 1984).
3. A financial convention providing the Holy See with compensation for the loss of the Papal States in 1870.

The treaty defined the territory of Vatican City, granting the Holy See "full ownership, exclusive dominion, and sovereign authority and jurisdiction" over it. It also granted extraterritorial status to certain properties of the Holy See located outside Vatican City, such as the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo and major basilicas in Rome. The creation of Vatican City provided the Holy See with a territorial base, ensuring its independence from any secular power, which was considered crucial for its spiritual mission. This resolution had significant social and political implications, formally reconciling the Italian state with the Catholic Church and integrating Catholic citizens more fully into the Italian nation.

3.5. World War II

During World War II, the Holy See, which governed Vatican City, pursued a policy of neutrality under the leadership of Pope Pius XII. This neutrality was largely respected by both the Axis Powers and the Allies, even after German troops occupied Rome following the Armistice of Cassibile in September 1943, and later when Allied forces liberated the city in 1944.

One of Pope Pius XII's main diplomatic priorities was to prevent the bombing of Rome, and by extension, Vatican City. He was highly sensitive to any actions that might violate Vatican neutrality, protesting even the Allied dropping of propaganda pamphlets over Rome when a few landed within Vatican City. The British government's official policy was not to molest Vatican City, but its actions regarding the rest of Rome would depend on Italian observance of the rules of war. The United States opposed bombing Vatican City, fearing offense to Catholic members of its military, but stated it could not stop the British from bombing Rome if they chose to do so. The US military even exempted Catholic servicemembers from air raids on Rome unless they voluntarily participated.

Despite these efforts, Rome was bombed by Allied forces on 19 July 1943, targeting its railway hub, resulting in approximately 1,500 deaths. Pope Pius XII toured the affected areas. Another raid occurred on 13 August 1943, after Mussolini had been ousted. The following day, the new Italian government declared Rome an open city after consulting the Holy See.

Throughout the war, Vatican City served as a refuge for many, including diplomats from countries at war with the Axis, Jews, and other political refugees. The Holy See engaged in diplomatic efforts aimed at peace and provided humanitarian aid. However, Pope Pius XII's public response to the Holocaust and other atrocities has been a subject of considerable historical debate, with critics arguing he did not do enough to condemn Nazi persecution, while defenders point to his behind-the-scenes efforts to save lives and the Church's institutional assistance to refugees and victims. The Vatican's archives related to this period have been gradually opened to scholars, fueling ongoing research into its role during the conflict and its impact on those seeking sanctuary or assistance.

3.6. Post-war History

After World War II, Vatican City and the Holy See continued to play a significant role in international affairs and within the Catholic Church. Pope Pius XII, who had refrained from creating cardinals during the war, appointed 32 new cardinals in early 1946, filling prominent vacancies such as Cardinal Secretary of State, Camerlengo, and Chancellor.

A notable change occurred under Pope Paul VI, who, in a letter dated 14 September 1970, disbanded most of the Pontifical Military Corps, including the Palatine Guard and the Noble Guard. Only the Swiss Guard was retained for the personal security of the Pope. The Gendarmerie Corps was transformed into a civilian police and security force.

The Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), convened by Pope John XXIII and concluded by Pope Paul VI, brought significant modernizing reforms to the Catholic Church, impacting its liturgy, theology, and relationship with the modern world. These changes also had an indirect influence on the Holy See's approach to global issues.

In 1984, a new concordat between the Holy See and Italy revised provisions of the 1929 Lateran Treaty. A key modification was the removal of Catholic Christianity's status as the Italian state religion, a position it had held since an 1848 statute of the Kingdom of Sardinia. This reflected changing societal views on the relationship between church and state and emphasized religious freedom.

In 1995, the construction of a new guest house, Domus Sanctae Marthae, adjacent to St. Peter's Basilica, sparked criticism from Italian environmental groups and politicians who claimed it would obstruct views of the Basilica from nearby Italian apartments. This briefly strained relations between the Vatican and the Italian government, with the Vatican asserting its right to build within its sovereign territory.

The international legal status of Vatican City as a sovereign state and the Pope's status as a head of state, as defined by the Lateran Treaty, have occasionally been subjects of academic discussion. For example, John R. Morss, in the European Journal of International Law, explored complexities arising from the unique nature of the Vatican/Holy See entity.
More recent history has seen continued diplomatic engagement by the Holy See, efforts towards financial transparency within Vatican institutions, and the leadership of Popes John Paul II, Benedict XVI, and Francis addressing global social issues, human rights, and interreligious dialogue.

4.1. Territory

Vatican City is an enclave within Rome, Italy. It is the world's smallest sovereign state, with an area of approximately 121 acre ^{(49 ha)}. Its territory is part of the Vatican Hill and the adjacent former Vatican Fields. The borders of Vatican City are predominantly defined by walls built to protect the Pope. The area was part of the Roman rione of Borgo until 1929. Being separated from the city on the west bank of the Tiber river, the area was an outcrop of the city protected by inclusion within the walls of Pope Leo IV (847-855), and later expanded by the current fortification walls built under Paul III (1534-1549), Pius IV (1559-1565), and Urban VIII (1623-1644).

When the Lateran Treaty of 1929 that gave the state its form was being prepared, the boundaries of the proposed territory were influenced by the fact that much of it was already enclosed by this loop of walls. For some tracts of the frontier, there was no wall, but the line of certain buildings supplied part of the boundary, and for a small part of the frontier, a modern wall was constructed.

The territory includes St. Peter's Square, which is distinguished from the territory of Italy only by a white line along the limit of the square where it touches Piazza Pio XII. St. Peter's Square is reached through the Via della Conciliazione, which runs from close to the Tiber to St. Peter's. This grand approach was constructed by Benito Mussolini after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaty. Access to St. Peter's Square and Basilica is generally free and open to the public.

According to the Lateran Treaty, certain properties of the Holy See located in Italian territory, most notably the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo and the major basilicas (such as St. John Lateran, St. Mary Major, and St. Paul Outside the Walls), enjoy extraterritorial status similar to that of foreign embassies. These properties, scattered throughout Rome and Italy, house essential offices and institutions necessary for the mission of the Holy See. Castel Gandolfo and the named basilicas are patrolled internally by police agents of Vatican City State, not by Italian police. However, St. Peter's Square, up to but not including the steps leading to the basilica, is normally patrolled by the Italian police.

There are no formal passport controls for visitors entering Vatican City from the surrounding Italian territory. While public access is generally limited to St. Peter's Square, St. Peter's Basilica, and the Vatican Museums (for which an entrance fee is usually charged), other areas, such as the Vatican Gardens, require pre-arranged guided tours.

4.2. Climate

Vatican City's climate is the same as Rome's: a temperate, Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa) characterized by mild, rainy winters from October to mid-May and hot, dry summers from May to September. Some minor local features, principally mists and dews, are caused by the anomalous bulk of St Peter's Basilica, the elevation, the fountains, and the size of the large paved square. The highest temperature ever recorded was 105.44 °F ^{(40.8 °C)} on 28 June 2022.

Vatican City has also undertaken environmental initiatives. In July 2007, the Vatican accepted a proposal to become the first carbon neutral state by offsetting its carbon dioxide emissions through the creation of a "Vatican Climate Forest" in Hungary, although this project did not come to fruition. On 26 November 2008, a plan announced in May 2007 to cover the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall with solar panels was put into effect. These efforts reflect a growing concern for environmental stewardship. For further details, see the Environmental Initiatives section under Infrastructure.

4.3. Gardens

Within the territory of Vatican City are the Vatican Gardens (Giardini Vaticani_{Vatican Gardens}^Italian), which account for about half of the state's territory, covering approximately 57 acre ^{(23 ha)}. These gardens, established during the Renaissance and Baroque eras, are decorated with fountains and sculptures, and represent a significant green space within the city-state.

The highest point in Vatican City, at 197 ft ^{(60 m)} above mean sea level, is located within the gardens. Stone walls bound the garden area in the north, south, and west.
The gardens date back to medieval times when orchards and vineyards extended to the north of the Papal Apostolic Palace. In 1279, Pope Nicholas III (Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, 1277-1280) moved his residence back to the Vatican from the Lateran Palace and enclosed this area with walls. He planted an orchard (pomerium), a lawn (pratellum), and a garden (viridarium). The gardens offer a place of tranquility and reflection and are accessible to the public through guided tours.

5.1. State and Holy See

Vatican City State, created in 1929 by the Lateran Pacts, provides the Holy See with a temporal jurisdiction and independence within a small territory. It is crucial to distinguish between Vatican City State as a territorial sovereign entity and the Holy See as the ecclesiastical and diplomatic sovereign entity under international law. The Holy See has existed continuously as a juridical entity since Roman Imperial times and has been internationally recognized as a powerful and independent sovereign entity from Late Antiquity to the present, without interruption, even at times when it was deprived of territory (e.g., 1870 to 1929). The State of Vatican City can thus be deemed a significant but not essential instrument of the Holy See.

Vatican City is one of the few widely recognized independent states that has not become a member of the United Nations. However, the Holy See, which is distinct from Vatican City State, holds permanent observer status at the UN, with all the rights of a full member except for a vote in the UN General Assembly. This status allows the Holy See to participate in UN debates and activities, reflecting its engagement with global issues.

5.2. Structure

The government of Vatican City has a unique structure. As governed by the Holy See, the Pope is the sovereign of the state. Legislative, executive, and judicial powers are ultimately vested in the Pope. He is supported by various administrative and advisory bodies in the governance of the city-state.

5.2.1. Head of State and Government (Pope)

The Pope is ex officio the head of state and head of government of Vatican City, a function dependent on his primary role as the Bishop of Rome and head of the Catholic Church. As the sovereign of Vatican City State, the Pope holds absolute (or supreme) legislative, executive, and judicial power. This makes Vatican City an absolute monarchy and an elective monarchy, as the Pope is elected for life by the College of Cardinals during a papal conclave. He is the only absolute monarch in Europe.

The current Pope is Pope Francis (born Jorge Mario Bergoglio in Buenos Aires, Argentina), who was elected on 13 March 2013. His official title with regard to Vatican City is Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City. While the Pope delegates day-to-day administrative functions, his authority remains supreme over all branches of government. This concentration of power in a single, non-hereditary, elected religious leader is a defining characteristic of Vatican City's governance, raising unique considerations regarding accountability, checks and balances, and the application of democratic principles within the state's specific context.

5.2.2. Governorate (Executive)

The executive authority for Vatican City State is delegated by the Pope to the Governorate of Vatican City State. This body is headed by the President of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State, who also holds the title of President of the Governorate. The President is assisted by a General Secretary and a Deputy General Secretary. These officials are appointed by the Pope for five-year terms.

The Governorate manages the daily administrative, technical, and operational affairs of the state. Its responsibilities include overseeing various directorates and central offices that deal with matters such as:

• Infrastructure and services (e.g., technical services, Vatican Post, telecommunications)
• Telecommunications and computer services
• Security services and civil protection (including the Gendarmerie Corps and Fire Brigade)
• Health and hygiene (including the Vatican Pharmacy and health services)
• Museums and cultural heritage (management of the Vatican Museums)
• Economic services (management of state finances, commercial activities)
• Pontifical Villas (such as Castel Gandolfo, though it is an extraterritorial property)

The Governorate implements laws and regulations, manages the state budget (distinct from the Holy See's budget), and ensures the functioning of essential services within Vatican City. Important actions of the Governorate must typically be confirmed by the Pontifical Commission and, in some cases, by the Pope through the Secretariat of State.

5.3. National and Public Security

Vatican City's arrangements for military defense and internal security are unique due to its small size, status as an enclave within Italy, and its neutrality.
Military defense is de facto provided by the Italian Armed Forces, as Vatican City maintains no armed forces of its own for external defense. There is no formal defense treaty with Italy, but an attack on Vatican City would likely be considered an attack on Italy.

Internal security and the personal safety of the Pope are ensured by two main bodies: the Swiss Guard and the Corps of Gendarmerie of Vatican City State. Civil defense, including firefighting, is handled by the Corps of Firefighters of the Vatican City State.

5.3.3. Crime

Crime in Vatican City is relatively uncommon given its nature and small resident population, but it does occur, predominantly consisting of petty offenses targeting the large number of tourists who visit daily. These offenses primarily include purse snatching, pickpocketing, and shoplifting. St. Peter's Square is a particular hotspot for such activities due to the dense crowds.

Jurisdictional arrangements for criminal prosecution are outlined in the Lateran Treaty. If crimes are committed in St. Peter's Square, which is normally patrolled by Italian police, the perpetrators may be arrested and tried by Italian authorities. According to Article 22 of the Lateran Treaty, Italy will, at the request of the Holy See, punish individuals for crimes committed within Vatican City and will proceed against an offender who takes refuge in Italian territory. Conversely, persons accused of crimes recognized in both Italy and Vatican City who take refuge in Vatican City or its extraterritorial properties will be handed over to Italian authorities if the crime was committed in Italian territory.

Vatican City has no long-term prison system, possessing only a few detention cells for pre-trial detention. Individuals convicted of committing crimes in Vatican City typically serve their sentences in Italian prisons, with the costs covered by the Vatican. This arrangement reflects the practical limitations of such a small state in maintaining its own extensive penal facilities. The legal system of Vatican City is based on canon law, but it also incorporates Italian law for many civil and criminal matters.

6.1. Diplomatic Representation

The Holy See, as a sovereign subject of international law, engages in diplomatic relations with states worldwide. It sends diplomatic representatives, known as Apostolic Nuncios (equivalent to ambassadors), to countries and international organizations, and it receives ambassadors accredited to the Holy See. These Nuncios represent the Pope to the local Catholic Church and the Holy See to the government of the host country.

The diplomatic corps accredited to the Holy See is one of the largest in the world, reflecting its global influence and engagement. As of 2011, the Holy See maintained diplomatic relations with 179 states. By 2023, this number had grown to 184, with Oman being the latest country to establish relations. The diplomatic network enables the Holy See to advocate for its values, contribute to international discourse on peace and justice, and protect the interests of the Catholic Church and its faithful globally. The emphasis is on dialogue, cooperation, and the promotion of human dignity and the common good, often working through multilateral channels as well as bilateral relationships.

6.2. Participation in International Organizations

The Holy See, representing Vatican City State in many international contexts, or Vatican City State itself, participates in a variety of international organizations and bodies, either as a member or as an observer. This participation allows it to contribute to global governance and address issues of international concern from its unique moral and ethical standpoint.

The Holy See has permanent observer status at the United Nations (UN), a status it has held since 1964 (though formal observer status was granted in 2004, upgrading its rights). This allows it to participate in debates, make statements, and co-sponsor resolutions, although it does not have voting rights in the General Assembly. It is also an observer or member of numerous UN specialized agencies and programs, such as UNESCO, UNHCR, FAO, WHO, and the IAEA.

Vatican City State, as a geographical entity, holds membership in organizations where statehood is a criterion and functions relate to its territory. These include:

• European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT)
• European Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Eutelsat IGO)
• International Grains Council (IGC)
• International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS)
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
• International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO)
• Interpol
• Universal Postal Union (UPU)

It also participates in the World Medical Association and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).

Through these participations, the Holy See and Vatican City advocate for peace, human rights, development, disarmament, and environmental protection, aligning with a perspective that emphasizes global solidarity and the ethical dimensions of international policy.

6.3. Non-party and Non-signatory Status

Vatican City State, or the Holy See acting on its behalf, maintains a distinct position regarding certain international treaties and courts. It is not a member of the United Nations (though the Holy See has permanent observer status). Consequently, Vatican City is not subject to the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice (ICJ).

International Criminal Court (ICC): Vatican City State is not a party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. This means it is not a member of the ICC and is not directly bound by its provisions, nor can it refer situations to the Court or have its nationals prosecuted by it unless under specific UN Security Council referrals (which are rare). The Holy See has expressed general support for the principles of international justice but has not acceded to the Rome Statute, citing various reasons including concerns about sovereignty and the specific nature of the Holy See as a non-territorial sovereign entity in some respects.

European Court of Human Rights (ECHR): Vatican City State is not a member of the Council of Europe and therefore not a party to the European Convention on Human Rights. As such, it is not subject to the jurisdiction of the European Court of Human Rights. This is consistent with its status as an enclave within Italy but not part of the broader European political integration frameworks like the EU or Council of Europe.

International Financial Transparency Standards: In recent decades, Vatican City has faced scrutiny and criticism regarding its financial transparency and practices, particularly concerning the Institute for Works of Religion (IOR), commonly known as the Vatican Bank. Historically, there have been concerns about money laundering and a lack of adherence to international financial regulations. In response, the Holy See has undertaken significant reforms to improve financial transparency and compliance with international standards, such as those set by Moneyval (the Council of Europe's anti-money laundering body) and the Financial Action Task Force. This includes establishing the Financial Information Authority (FIA) (now ASIF - Supervisory and Financial Information Authority) and enacting new laws to combat money laundering and terrorism financing. Despite these efforts, challenges remain, and the Holy See continues to work on strengthening its regulatory framework. It has not signed the OECD's "Common Reporting Standard" (CRS) aimed at preventing tax evasion, and it is one of few countries not providing publicly available financial data to the International Monetary Fund (IMF). These positions can draw criticism from advocates of universal adherence to such international norms, who argue it may hinder global efforts against financial crime and for fiscal accountability.

6.4. Relations with Italy

The relationship between Vatican City State/Holy See and the Republic of Italy is unique, foundational, and multifaceted, governed primarily by the Lateran Treaty of 1929 and its subsequent revision, the Concordat of 1984 (also known as the revised Concordat).

The Lateran Treaty established Vatican City as a sovereign independent state, resolving the "Roman Question" that had persisted since the capture of Rome in 1870. Key aspects of this relationship include:

• Territorial Sovereignty: Italy recognizes the full sovereignty of the Holy See over Vatican City State. The treaty meticulously defines the borders of Vatican City and grants extraterritorial status to certain Holy See properties within Rome and Italy, such as major basilicas and pontifical offices. These extraterritorial properties, while part of Italian territory, are subject to Holy See jurisdiction and are generally immune from Italian interference, similar to diplomatic embassies.
• Legal Cooperation: The treaty outlines provisions for legal cooperation. For instance, Italy will, at the request of the Holy See, punish individuals for crimes committed within Vatican City. St. Peter's Square, though part of Vatican City, is normally policed by Italian authorities up to the steps of the Basilica.
• Economic and Service Links: Vatican City is deeply integrated with Italy for many essential services, including water, electricity, and telecommunications. Italian currency (now the Euro, through agreements with the EU via Italy) is used.
• Citizenship: The Lateran Treaty stipulates that individuals who lose Vatican citizenship and do not possess other citizenship automatically become Italian citizens.

The Concordat of 1984 significantly revised the religious aspects of the Lateran Treaty. It notably removed Roman Catholicism as the state religion of Italy, affirming the state's neutrality in religious matters and guaranteeing religious freedom for all citizens. It also modified provisions concerning religious instruction in state schools, state recognition of canon law marriages, and state funding for the Church.

The relationship is characterized by close cooperation on many fronts, including cultural heritage preservation, security, and diplomatic matters. However, given the Holy See's distinct international role and moral voice, there can occasionally be differing perspectives on social or political issues. Overall, the bond is deeply rooted in shared history, culture, and geography, making it a cornerstone of both Vatican and Italian foreign policy.

7.1. Financial Support and Budget

Vatican City State's economy is unique and not driven by commercial production or taxation in the conventional sense. Its budget is distinct from that of the Holy See, although their finances are often intertwined.

The primary sources of income for Vatican City State include:

• Vatican Museums: Admission fees from the millions of tourists who visit the Vatican Museums, including the Sistine Chapel, represent a major source of revenue.
• Sale of Postage Stamps, Coins, Medals, and Souvenirs: Philatelic and numismatic items issued by Vatican City are highly sought after by collectors and contribute significantly to its income. Tourist mementos also add to this revenue stream.
• Publications Sales: The sale of books, periodicals, and other publications produced by the Vatican.
• Real Estate Income: The Holy See owns extensive properties worldwide, and income from these investments supports both the Holy See and, to some extent, Vatican City State.

The Holy See's budget, which funds the Roman Curia (the central administrative apparatus of the Catholic Church), diplomatic missions, and media outlets, is supported by:

• Peter's Pence: An annual collection taken up in dioceses worldwide, directly supporting the Pope's charitable works, disaster relief, and aid to churches in developing nations.
• Donations: Contributions from Catholic individuals, dioceses, and institutions.
• Investments: Income generated from the Holy See's global investments.

The incomes and living standards of lay workers in Vatican City are generally comparable to those of counterparts working in Rome. Vatican City has no income tax for its residents and employees working within its territory, and items sold within are often duty-free. Budgetary management involves ensuring that these unique revenue streams cover the operational costs of the state and the activities of the Holy See. Financial transparency and ethical management of these funds have been areas of ongoing reform and public interest.

7.2. Industries

Vatican City State does not have large-scale industrial activity due to its extremely small size and non-commercial nature. However, a few small-scale industries and production activities operate within its territory, primarily to serve the needs of the Holy See, its residents, and its functions. These include:

• Printing: The Vatican has its own printing press, the Vatican Polyglot Press (Tipografia Vaticana_{Vatican Polyglot Press}^Italian), which produces official documents of the Holy See (such as the Acta Apostolicae Sedis), books, liturgical texts, and the daily newspaper L'Osservatore Romano.
• Mosaic Production: The Vatican Mosaic Studio (Studio del Mosaico Vaticano_{Vatican Mosaic Studio}^Italian) is a historic workshop responsible for creating and restoring mosaics, particularly for St. Peter's Basilica and other Vatican properties. It also produces mosaic artworks for sale.
• Manufacture of Staff Uniforms: Uniforms for the Swiss Guard, Gendarmerie, and other Vatican staff are produced or managed through dedicated services.
• Souvenir and Religious Item Production/Retail: While much is outsourced, there's an element of managing the production and sale of religious articles, medals, and souvenirs sold within Vatican City.

These "industries" are not geared towards profit maximization in a typical commercial sense but are essential for the operational autonomy and specific needs of the Vatican. The workforce involved is relatively small, and their employment conditions are managed by Vatican authorities.

7.3. Currency and Coins

Vatican City State uses the Euro (€) as its official currency. It adopted the Euro on 1 January 1999, along with Italy and other initial Eurozone members, due to a special monetary agreement with the European Union, facilitated through Italy. Euro coins and banknotes began circulating in Vatican City on 1 January 2002.

Vatican City does not issue its own euro banknotes; these are supplied via the Italian banking system. However, it does mint its own Euro coins under the agreement with the EU. These coins feature designs specific to Vatican City, often depicting the reigning Pope or other Vatican symbols, and are produced by the Italian State Mint (Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato_{Italian State Mint}^Italian).

Issuance of Vatican euro coins is strictly limited by the monetary agreement, though a somewhat larger quantity may be allowed in a year when there is a change in the papacy (i.e., during a Sede Vacante or the election of a new Pope). Due to their limited mintage and unique designs, Vatican euro coins are highly sought after by coin collectors and often trade at values well above their face value.

Before the adoption of the Euro, Vatican City's currency was the Vatican lira, which was established with the Lateran Treaty in 1929. The Vatican lira was pegged at par with the Italian lira and both currencies were interchangeable within Vatican City and Italy. The Vatican also issued its own stamps denominated in Vatican lira.

7.4. Institute for Works of Religion (IOR)

The Institute for Works of Religion (Istituto per le Opere di Religione_{Institute for Works of Religion}^Italian - IOR), commonly known as the Vatican Bank, is a privately held financial institution located within Vatican City. It is not a typical commercial bank, as its primary purpose is to manage financial assets entrusted to it for religious or charitable works. Its clients are typically Holy See dicasteries, Catholic religious orders, dioceses, parishes, other Catholic institutions, and clergy and employees of the Vatican.

The IOR's functions include providing payment services, asset management, and investment services for its clients. It conducts worldwide financial activities. One peculiar feature noted by visitors is that some ATMs within Vatican City, connected to the IOR, offer instructions in Latin, possibly the only ATMs in the world with this feature.

Historically, the IOR has been at the center of several financial scandals and controversies, particularly concerning a lack of transparency, allegations of money laundering, and its involvement in complex financial dealings, such as the Banco Ambrosiano collapse in the 1980s. These controversies have raised significant ethical questions about the financial activities of an institution associated with the Catholic Church.

In response to these issues and increasing international pressure for financial transparency, the Holy See and Vatican City have undertaken significant reforms in recent years. Pope Benedict XVI and especially Pope Francis have initiated measures to increase oversight, improve compliance with international anti-money laundering (AML) and counter-terrorism financing (CFT) standards, and ensure that the IOR's operations align more closely with the ethical principles of the Church. This has involved strengthening regulatory bodies like the Supervisory and Financial Information Authority (ASIF), implementing new laws, and undergoing external evaluations by bodies such as Moneyval. Despite reforms, the IOR continues to be a subject of scrutiny.

8.1. Transport

Vatican City has a reasonably well-developed transport network considering its very small size, consisting mostly of a piazza, walkways, and a few streets. The state is 0.7 mile ^{(1.05 km)} long and 0.5 mile ^{(0.85 km)} wide.

• Roads: There is a small network of roads within Vatican City, primarily used by official vehicles and those with specific authorization. Public traffic is highly restricted.
• Vatican City Heliport: Located in the western part of the Vatican Gardens, it was opened in 1976. It is used by the Pope and visiting officials for quick travel, often to Castel Gandolfo or Rome's airports.
• Railway: Vatican City has the world's shortest national railway system. A 2795 ft ^{(852 m)}-long standard gauge railway line (of which 984 ft ^{(300 m)} is within Vatican territory) connects to the Italian railway network at Rome's San Pietro station. The Vatican City railway station (Stazione Città del Vaticano_{Vatican City Railway Station}^Italian) was opened in 1933 and is primarily used for freight transport (e.g., duty-free goods). Passenger services are rare, though Pope John XXIII was the first Pope to use it, and it has occasionally been used for ceremonial or special passenger trains.
• Airports: Vatican City has no airport. It is served by the airports of Rome: Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport (FCO) and, to a lesser extent, Ciampino Airport (CIA).
• Public Transport Access: Vatican City is easily accessible from Rome via public transport. The closest Rome Metro station is Ottaviano - S. Pietro - Musei Vaticani on Line A. Numerous bus lines also serve the area around Vatican City.

Movement within Vatican City is largely on foot. Vehicles require special permits, and traffic is managed by the Gendarmerie Corps.

8.2. Communications

Vatican City maintains its own independent communications infrastructure and services.

• Vatican Telephone Service (Servizio Telefonico Vaticano_{Vatican Telephone Service}^Italian): Provides telephone services within Vatican City and connections to the international network.
• Internet Domain: Vatican City controls its own internet top-level domain (ccTLD), which is .va. Broadband internet service is widely available within the state.
• Radio ITU Prefix: Vatican City has been assigned the radio prefix HV, sometimes used by amateur radio operators.
• Vatican Radio (Radio Vaticana_{Vatican Radio}^Latin): Established in 1931 by Guglielmo Marconi, Vatican Radio broadcasts programs in numerous languages on shortwave, medium wave, FM frequencies, and via the internet. Its main transmission antennae are located in Italian territory (at Santa Maria di Galeria, an extraterritorial property), which has sometimes led to disputes with Italy over emission levels. Vatican Radio is an organ of the Holy See, not the Vatican City State.
• Vatican Television Center (Centro Televisivo Vaticano_{Vatican Television Center}^Italian, CTV), now part of Vatican Media: Provides television coverage of papal events and activities within Vatican City. Like Vatican Radio, it is an organ of the Holy See.
• Newspapers: The semi-official newspaper of the Holy See is L'Osservatore Romano. It is published by a private corporation under the direction of Catholic laymen but reports on official information. The official texts of documents are published in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis, the official gazette of the Holy See, which has an appendix for documents of the Vatican City State.

These communication services ensure that Vatican City and the Holy See can communicate effectively both internally and with the global Catholic community and the wider world.

8.2.1. Postal Service

Vatican City operates its own postal service, known as Poste Vaticane. It was established on 13 February 1929, shortly after the signing of the Lateran Treaty. On 1 August 1929, the state began to release its own postage stamps under the authority of the Philatelic and Numismatic Office of the Vatican City State.

Poste Vaticane has gained a reputation for being efficient, sometimes cited as "the best in the world" and often faster than the postal service in Rome. This efficiency, combined with the unique and often beautifully designed Vatican stamps, makes its services popular with tourists, pilgrims, and philatelists. Many visitors send postcards and letters from Vatican City using its stamps as a memento.

The postal service operates several post offices within Vatican City, including a prominent one near St. Peter's Square. It is a member of the Universal Postal Union (UPU). The international postal country code prefix for Vatican City is 'SCV', and its single postal code is '00120'. Mail addressed to Vatican City should use this code (e.g., SCV-00120).

8.3. Healthcare

Vatican City provides healthcare services primarily for its residents, employees of the Holy See and Vatican City State, and their families. These services are managed by the Directorate of Health and Hygiene of the Governorate of Vatican City State.

• 'Vatican Pharmacy' (Farmacia Vaticana_{Vatican Pharmacy}^Italian): Founded in 1874, it is the only pharmacy in Vatican City. It is known for being one of the busiest pharmacies in the world, open to the public (with a prescription, if required), and often stocks medications that may not be readily available in Italy or are sold at lower prices due to Vatican City's tax-exempt status.
• 'Health Assistance Fund (FAS)': (Fondo Assistenza Sanitaria_{Health Assistance Fund}^Italian) is the healthcare entity for the Holy See.
• 'Medical Services': Basic medical and first-aid services are available within Vatican City. For more specialized treatments or hospital care, residents and employees generally rely on hospitals and clinics in Rome, often through agreements or insurance coverage. The Holy See also owns and operates the Bambino Gesù Hospital, a major pediatric hospital in Rome, which is an extraterritorial property of the Holy See and a leading center for child healthcare and research, though it serves the general public and is not exclusively for Vatican residents.

The healthcare system aims to provide for the well-being of those who live and work within the unique environment of Vatican City.

8.4. Environmental Initiatives

Vatican City has undertaken several initiatives to promote environmental sustainability, reflecting the Catholic Church's growing emphasis on care for creation (Laudato si'), particularly under Pope Benedict XVI and Pope Francis.

• 'Carbon Neutrality Goal': In 2007, Vatican City announced its intention to become the first carbon-neutral state, primarily through a reforestation project in Hungary (the "Vatican Climate Forest") intended to offset its carbon dioxide emissions. While the success and full implementation of this specific offsetting project faced challenges, the commitment signaled an increased environmental awareness.
• 'Solar Power': In 2008, a significant solar panel system was installed on the roof of the Paul VI Audience Hall. This photovoltaic system generates electricity, reducing the Vatican's reliance on external energy sources and cutting carbon emissions. The Vatican has continued to explore further use of renewable energy.
• 'Waste Management and Recycling': Vatican City has implemented comprehensive waste management programs, including robust recycling initiatives. In 2008, it began an "ecological island" for renewable waste. By July 2019, it was reported that Vatican City was set to ban the use and sale of single-use plastics as soon as its existing supply was depleted, well ahead of the EU's 2021 deadline. It is estimated that a significant percentage (around 50-55%, with goals to reach 70-75% EU standards) of Vatican City's municipal solid waste is properly sorted and recycled.
• 'Energy Efficiency': Efforts have been made to improve energy efficiency in Vatican buildings, including the use of LED lighting.
• 'Water Conservation': The historic fountains in Vatican City are managed with attention to water use, and broader water conservation practices are encouraged.
• 'Sustainable Transport': The Vatican has introduced electric vehicles into its small fleet.

These initiatives demonstrate a commitment to environmental responsibility within the world's smallest state, aiming to serve as an example and align its operations with ecological principles.

9.1. Population

As of 2023, Vatican City has a resident population of approximately 764 people. However, the number of Vatican citizens is slightly different, with around 372 Vatican citizens residing elsewhere, mainly consisting of diplomats of the Holy See (Nuncios) and cardinals residing in Rome for their duties. The total number of Vatican citizens is around 618 (including those residing in Vatican City and abroad). The total number of individuals connected to Vatican City (residents, citizens living abroad, and other accredited personnel) is about 1,136.

The resident population is composed primarily of:

• Clergy: Cardinals, bishops, priests, and other members of the clergy who work in the Roman Curia or other Vatican offices. The Pope himself is a resident.
• Swiss Guard: About 100-135 members of the Swiss Guard reside within Vatican City.
• Lay Employees and their Families: A small number of laypeople employed by the Vatican, along with their families, also reside within the city-state. In 2013, there were 13 families of Holy See employees living in Vatican City, and in 2019, there were 20 children of Swiss Guards living there.

All citizens, residents, and places of worship within Vatican City are Catholic. The city also receives thousands of tourists, pilgrims, and non-resident workers each day, significantly swelling its daytime population. The social fabric is unique, shaped by its religious purpose, small size, and the international composition of its clerical and diplomatic corps.

Note: Population figures for Vatican City can vary depending on the source and the specific criteria (residents vs. citizens). The table aims to give a general breakdown.

9.2. Languages

Vatican City does not have a single, formally enacted official language for all state functions. However, different languages are used in various official and everyday contexts:

• Italian: Italian is the primary language of Vatican City State. It is used for legislation, official communications of the state, and is the everyday language of most people who work and reside there, including many members of the Swiss Guard. The official website of Vatican City State is primarily in Italian.
• Latin: Latin is the official language of the Holy See. It is used for the authoritative versions of most official documents of the Catholic Church, including papal encyclicals, apostolic constitutions, and liturgical texts. While not the everyday spoken language, it retains a significant ceremonial and documentary importance.
• French: Historically, French has been used as a language of diplomacy by the Holy See and continues to be used in some diplomatic contexts.
• German: Swiss German is the language of command for the Swiss Guard, though individual guards take their oath of loyalty in their own native Swiss languages (German, French, Italian, or Romansh).
• Other Languages: Due to the international composition of the Roman Curia and the global nature of the Catholic Church, many other languages, including English, Spanish, and Portuguese, are commonly used in Vatican offices and communications. The official websites of the Holy See and Vatican City offer content in multiple languages.

The linguistic environment of Vatican City reflects its unique status as both a sovereign city-state and the administrative center of a global religion.

9.3. Citizenship

Citizenship of Vatican City is unique and not based on the common principles of jus sanguinis (right of blood, i.e., birth from a citizen) or jus soli (right of soil, i.e., birth within the state's territory). Instead, Vatican citizenship is granted primarily on a jus officii (right of office) basis.

This means citizenship is typically conferred upon:
1. Individuals appointed to work in a certain capacity in the service of the Holy See or Vatican City State. This includes Cardinals residing in Vatican City or Rome, diplomats of the Holy See, and other officials.
2. The Swiss Guards during their term of service.
3. The spouse and children of a Vatican citizen, provided they are living together with the citizen in Vatican City. For children, citizenship usually lasts until the age of 18 or 25 if they are students, or upon marriage for daughters.

Vatican citizenship is generally coextensive with the duration of the office or service that conferred it. Upon cessation of the appointment or service, Vatican citizenship is usually lost.
Some individuals may be authorized to reside in Vatican City without being granted citizenship.

An important provision of the Lateran Treaty (Article 9) states that anyone who loses Vatican citizenship and does not possess other citizenship automatically becomes an Italian citizen. This ensures that former Vatican citizens do not become stateless.

The Holy See, as distinct from Vatican City State, issues diplomatic and service passports to its officials engaged in foreign missions. Vatican City State can issue normal passports to its citizens who are not part of the Holy See's diplomatic corps. Having Vatican citizenship does not preclude holding another citizenship; in fact, most Vatican citizens retain their original nationality.

9.4. Statistical Oddities

Vatican City's extremely small population and unique functions as the center of the Catholic Church lead to several statistical oddities when comparing it to other countries on a per capita basis.

• Crime Rate: Due to the massive influx of tourists (millions annually) into a tiny area with a very small resident population, the number of petty crimes (like pickpocketing) can result in an extraordinarily high per capita crime rate. Most of these crimes are committed by and against non-residents.
• Wine Consumption: Vatican City often appears at the top of lists for per capita wine consumption. This is largely attributed to the communal dining practices of residents (many of whom are clergy who may receive wine as part of their provisions or consume it at meals), sales within the Vatican's tax-free supermarket (accessible to Vatican employees and residents), and its sacramental use, though the latter is a minor component of total volume.
• Gender Ratio: Since most roles conferring citizenship are traditionally held by male clergy or male Swiss Guards, the gender ratio among Vatican citizens is heavily skewed towards males. While there are lay female employees and some female residents (e.g., family members of lay employees or Swiss Guards, and some religious sisters working in Vatican offices), they form a smaller proportion of the citizenry and resident population.
• Birth and Death Rates: Natural population changes (births and deaths) are not typical demographic drivers. Births within Vatican City are extremely rare. Population changes are primarily due to appointments and cessations of office.
• Popes per km²: A jocular statistic, sometimes cited, is that Vatican City has more than two "Popes per square kilometer" (since there is one Pope and the area is less than half a square kilometer).
• Book Publishing per Capita: Given the Vatican's role in religious and scholarly publishing, if measured per capita, it would likely have one of the highest rates of book publication.

These anomalies highlight the unique nature of Vatican City as a sovereign state with a primary religious and administrative function rather than a typical residential nation-state.

10.1. Cultural Heritage and UNESCO Status

Vatican City is a site of immense cultural and historical significance, recognized globally for its unique concentration of artistic and architectural masterpieces. In 1984, the entire State of Vatican City was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Uniquely, it is the only World Heritage site that encompasses an entire sovereign state. The UNESCO citation recognizes its "unique artistic and architectural masterpieces" and its role as "a significant centre of the Christian world." The criteria for inscription were Cultural: (i), (ii), (iv), and (vi), highlighting its masterpieces of human creative genius, its influence on architectural and artistic developments, its outstanding example of an architectural ensemble illustrating significant stages in human history, and its direct association with events and traditions of outstanding universal significance.

Furthermore, Vatican City is the only site registered as a "centre containing monuments" in the "International Register of Cultural Property under Special Protection" according to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. This status underscores its exceptional cultural value and the international community's commitment to its preservation, even in times of conflict. The Holy See actively engages in efforts to conserve this heritage, balancing the needs of preservation with accessibility for pilgrims and tourists. Its cultural influence extends globally through the Catholic Church's teachings on art, beauty, and the promotion of cultural dialogue and respect for diverse traditions, often advocating for the protection of cultural heritage worldwide, especially in conflict zones or areas affected by poverty and neglect.

10.2. Art and Architecture

Vatican City is home to an unparalleled collection of art and architecture, primarily from the Renaissance and Baroque periods, making it one ofthe world's most important cultural centers.

• St. Peter's Basilica: The current basilica, built over the traditional tomb of Saint Peter, is a masterpiece of Renaissance architecture. Its construction involved a succession of renowned architects, including Donato Bramante, Michelangelo (who designed its iconic dome), Giacomo della Porta, Carlo Maderno (who designed the façade), and Gian Lorenzo Bernini (who designed St. Peter's Square and the baldachin over the high altar). The basilica houses numerous significant artworks, including Michelangelo's Pietà.
• Sistine Chapel: Famous worldwide for its frescoes, particularly Michelangelo's ceiling depicting scenes from the Book of Genesis (including The Creation of Adam) and his altar wall fresco of The Last Judgment. The chapel walls also feature frescoes by other Renaissance masters such as Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Cosimo Rosselli, depicting scenes from the lives of Moses and Christ. It is also the site of the papal conclave.
• Apostolic Palace: The official residence of the Pope, this vast complex of buildings contains chapels, apartments, and reception rooms adorned with priceless artworks. The Raphael Rooms (Stanze di Raffaello_{Raphael Rooms}^Italian) are four rooms frescoed by Raphael and his workshop, including the famous The School of Athens. Other artists like Fra Angelico (who decorated the Niccoline Chapel) also contributed significantly.
• Vatican Museums: These museums house one of the world's largest and most important art collections, accumulated by the Popes throughout centuries. The collections span Egyptian antiquities, Etruscan art, Greco-Roman sculptures (such as the Laocoön and His Sons and the Apollo Belvedere), early Christian artifacts, Renaissance masterpieces, and modern religious art.

The concentration of these works within such a small area makes Vatican City a unique repository of Western artistic and architectural heritage. The Holy See's patronage of the arts has historically played a crucial role in shaping Western culture, and it continues to emphasize the role of art in evangelization and human spiritual development.

10.3. Museums and Library

Vatican City is renowned for its extraordinary cultural institutions, principally the Vatican Museums and the Vatican Apostolic Library, which are among the oldest and most significant in the world.

• Vatican Museums (Musei Vaticani_{Vatican Museums}^Italian): This complex comprises numerous museums and galleries displaying vast collections of art and artifacts accumulated by the Popes over centuries. Key components include the Pio-Clementino Museum (classical sculptures), the Chiaramonti Museum, the Gregorian Etruscan Museum, the Gregorian Egyptian Museum, the Collection of Modern Religious Art, the Pinacoteca Vaticana (masterpieces of painting from the Middle Ages to the 19th century), the Raphael Rooms, and the Sistine Chapel. The museums attract millions of visitors annually, offering a journey through millennia of art history and human civilization. Their role extends beyond exhibition to conservation, research, and education, reflecting the Church's long-standing engagement with culture.
• Vatican Apostolic Library (Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana_{Vatican Apostolic Library}^Latin): Formally established in 1475, though its origins are much older, the Vatican Library is one of the world's oldest libraries. It holds an exceptionally important collection of historical texts, including an estimated 1.1 million printed books, 75,000 codices (manuscripts), and 8,500 incunabula (books printed before 1501). The collection includes significant biblical manuscripts, classical texts, historical documents, and illuminated manuscripts. The library serves as a major center for scholarly research. Access to its collections is primarily for qualified scholars. In recent years, the library has undertaken extensive digitization projects to make its treasures more widely accessible while ensuring their preservation.

These institutions underscore Vatican City's role as a guardian of global cultural and intellectual heritage, fostering study and appreciation of history, art, and human thought.

10.4. Science

While primarily known as a religious and cultural center, Vatican City and the Holy See have a long-standing engagement with science, primarily through institutions like the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences, and the Vatican Observatory.

• Pontifical Academy of Sciences: With roots in the Accademia dei Lincei (founded in 1603), the current Pontifical Academy of Sciences was re-established by Pope Pius XI in 1936. Located in the Casina Pio IV within the Vatican Gardens, it is an independent body of internationally renowned scientists, including Nobel laureates, from various countries and religious backgrounds. The Academy promotes the progress of the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences and the study of related epistemological questions. It organizes conferences and publishes studies on topics ranging from cosmology and neuroscience to sustainable development and global health, often advising the Pope on scientific matters and fostering dialogue between faith and science.
• Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences: Established by Pope John Paul II in 1994, this academy promotes the study and progress of social sciences, including economics, sociology, law, and political science. It aims to offer the Church elements useful for the development of its social teaching and to reflect on the application of that teaching in contemporary society.
• Vatican Observatory (Specola Vaticana_{Vatican Observatory}^Latin): One of the oldest astronomical research institutions in the world, its origins date back to the 16th century. Due to light pollution in Rome, its main research activities are now conducted at the Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope (VATT) in Arizona, USA, operated in partnership with the University of Arizona. The Observatory conducts research in various areas of astronomy and astrophysics and contributes to public education in science. Its headquarters remain at the papal summer residence in Castel Gandolfo (an extraterritorial property). It also maintains an extensive library and meteorite collection.

These institutions demonstrate the Catholic Church's historical and ongoing interest in scientific inquiry and its belief in the harmony between faith and reason. They also contribute to global discussions on the ethical implications of scientific advancements.

10.5. Sport

Sporting activities in Vatican City are modest, given its size and primary focus, but they do exist and have seen some development.

• Football (Soccer): Vatican City has an association football team, though it is not a member of FIFA or UEFA. The team is composed mainly of Vatican employees, such as Swiss Guards, police officers, museum guards, and administrative staff. It primarily plays friendly matches against other microstates, local Italian teams, or teams with religious affiliations. The Vatican City Championship (Campionato della Città del Vaticano_{Vatican City Championship}^Italian) is an amateur league contested by teams representing various Vatican departments. The Association of Vatican Amateur Sports (Associazione Sportiva Dilettantistica "Sport in Vaticano"_{Vatican Amateur Sports Association}^Italian) organizes these activities. In 2019, a women's football team was also established.
• Athletica Vaticana: Established in 2019, Athletica Vaticana is the official track and field association of Vatican City. It is recognized by the Italian National Olympic Committee (CONI) and has an agreement with the Italian Athletics Federation (FIDAL). While not a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and thus not competing in the Olympic Games, Athletica Vaticana participates in some international sporting events, including the Championships of the Small States of Europe and the Mediterranean Games. Its athletes are typically Vatican employees or residents.
• Cycling: In 2021, "Vatican Cycling," a department of Athletica Vaticana, was recognized by the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI). The Holy See has a historical connection with cycling, with Pope Pius XII declaring the Madonna del Ghisallo the patron saint of cyclists in 1948.
• Cricket: St. Peter's Cricket Club was founded in 2013 under the patronage of the Pontifical Council for Culture (now part of the Dicastery for Culture and Education). It aims to promote dialogue with other cultures and religions through sport, playing matches against teams from various backgrounds, including Anglican, Muslim, Hindu, and Sikh communities.

These sporting initiatives are often seen as a way to promote camaraderie, health, and values such as fair play and solidarity, aligning with the Church's broader social mission.

10.6. Public Holidays

Public holidays in Vatican City are primarily based on the liturgical year of the Catholic Church, as well as significant dates related to the papacy and the state. These include:

• January 1: Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God (also New Year's Day)
• January 6: Epiphany
• February 11: Anniversary of the Lateran Treaty (establishment of Vatican City State in 1929)
• Anniversary of the election of the reigning Pope (date varies, e.g., March 13 for Pope Francis)
• March 19: Solemnity of Saint Joseph, Spouse of the Blessed Virgin Mary
• Easter Sunday and Easter Monday (dates vary)
• May 1: Saint Joseph the Worker
• Ascension Day (Thursday, 40 days after Easter; date varies)
• Pentecost (Sunday, 50 days after Easter; date varies)
• Corpus Christi (Thursday after Trinity Sunday; date varies)
• June 29: Solemnity of Saints Peter and Paul, Patrons of Rome
• August 15: Solemnity of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary
• November 1: Solemnity of All Saints
• November 2: All Souls' Day (Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed)
• December 8: Solemnity of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary
• December 25: Solemnity of the Nativity of the Lord (Christmas Day)
• December 26: Feast of Saint Stephen, the First Martyr

Additionally, if the anniversary of the Pope's inauguration falls on a different day than his election, that might also be observed. Some offices may also close on local Roman holidays.

11.1. Flag

The flag of Vatican City State was adopted on 7 June 1929, the year the state was founded by the Lateran Treaty. The flag is one of only two square national flags in the world (the other being the flag of Switzerland).
It is vertically divided into two halves:

• The hoist side (left) is yellow (or gold).
• The fly side (right) is white.

Centered on the white half is the Vatican coat of arms (specifically, the emblem of the Holy See without the shield, or a simplified version of the state's coat of arms). This emblem features:

• The Papal Tiara: A triple crown symbolizing the Pope's three main offices or powers (often interpreted as teacher, priest/legislator, and king/judge, or his spiritual authority, temporal authority, and authority over the Church).
• The Keys of Heaven: Two crossed keys, one gold and one silver, bound with a red cord. These represent the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven promised to Saint Peter by Jesus Christ (Matthew 16:19), symbolizing the Pope's authority as the successor of Peter. The gold key typically represents spiritual power, and the silver key temporal power, or the power to bind and loose on Earth and in Heaven respectively.

The colors yellow (gold) and white are the traditional papal colors, dating back to the early 19th century.

11.2. Coat of Arms

The coat of arms of Vatican City State is formally defined in the Fundamental Law of Vatican City State. It is very similar to the coat of arms of the Holy See and features the same core elements, symbolizing papal authority.
The blazon consists of:

• A red shield (gules).
• Two crossed keys:
  • One key is gold (or), placed in bend (diagonally from upper left to lower right from the viewer's perspective, or dexter).
  • The other key is silver (argent), placed in bend sinister (diagonally from upper right to lower left, or sinister).
  • The wards (the bit of the key that enters the lock) are turned upwards towards the tiara, and the bows (handles) are turned downwards.
  • The keys are interlaced with a red cord (gules).
• Surmounting the keys is the Papal Tiara (triregnum), a triple crown, which is typically depicted as silver (argent) with three gold (or) diadems and a gold cross on top.

Symbolism:

• The crossed keys represent the Keys of Heaven given to Saint Peter, symbolizing the Pope's spiritual authority and his power to "bind and loose" on Earth and in Heaven. The gold key often symbolizes power in the kingdom of heaven, and the silver key the spiritual authority of the papacy on earth. The red cord symbolizes the bond between the two powers.
• The Papal Tiara symbolizes the sovereignty of the Pope and his triple office as supreme pastor, supreme teacher, and supreme priest.
• The red shield is a traditional heraldic color.

The coat of arms of the Holy See is identical except it lacks the red shield; the keys and tiara are displayed on their own. The Vatican City flag displays the keys and tiara (as on the Holy See's arms) on its white half.

11.3. Anthem

The official anthem of Vatican City State is the "Inno e Marcia Pontificale" (Inno e Marcia Pontificale_{Pontifical Anthem and March}^Italian). It was adopted on 16 October 1949 (Jubilee Year of 1950) by Pope Pius XII, replacing the previous anthem, "Marcia Trionfale" (Triumphal March) by Viktorin Hallmayer (1857).

The music for the "Inno e Marcia Pontificale" was composed in 1869 by Charles Gounod, a renowned French composer. It was originally written for the silver jubilee of Pope Pius IX's priestly ordination. The piece was initially a grand march without lyrics.

Lyrics were later written in Latin by Antonio Allegra (1905-1969), an organist of St. Peter's Basilica, and Raffaello Lavagna provided an Italian version. The Latin lyrics, titled "Christus Vincit, Christus Regnat, Christus Imperat" (Christ Conquers, Christ Reigns, Christ Commands), are often associated with the anthem, but Gounod's music is the official component.

The "Inno e Marcia Pontificale" is played at official state ceremonies, occasions involving the Pope, and when Vatican City is represented internationally. Its adoption signified a move towards a more solemn and religiously themed anthem.