Marshall Islands

2.1. Early Settlement and European Contact

Linguistic and anthropological studies suggest that the first Austronesian peoples to settle the Marshall Islands arrived from the Solomon Islands. Radiocarbon dating indicates that Bikini Atoll may have been inhabited as early as 1200 BCE, although some sample contexts raise questions about precise dating. More definitive archaeological evidence from other atolls, such as Majuro (specifically the village of Laura) and Kwajalein Atoll, points to human habitation around the 1st century CE.

These Austronesian settlers introduced vital Southeast Asian crops like coconuts, giant swamp taro, and breadfruit, along with domesticated chickens, which were crucial for making the islands permanently habitable. It is believed they might have initially seeded islands by leaving coconuts at seasonal fishing camps before establishing permanent settlements. The southern islands, receiving more rainfall, supported larger populations reliant on taro and breadfruit, while inhabitants of the drier northern atolls depended more on pandanus and coconuts.

The Marshallese were master navigators, constructing impressive outrigger canoes called walaps from breadfruit-tree wood and coconut-fiber rope. They navigated vast ocean distances using a complex understanding of stars for orientation and a unique piloting technique that involved interpreting disruptions in ocean swells caused by the undersea slopes of atolls. This allowed them to detect low-lying islands far beyond the horizon. They created stick charts, intricate lattices of coconut fronds and shells, not as in-voyage maps but as teaching tools and mnemonic devices to understand swell patterns and island locations.

Traditional Marshallese society was hierarchical, with the two main island chains, Ratak (sunrise) and Ralik (sunset), each typically ruled by a paramount chief, or iroij, who held authority over individual island chiefs (iroij). When Russian explorer Otto von Kotzebue visited in 1817, he observed thatched-roof huts, woven mat clothing, pierced ears, and tattoos. He noted that Marshallese families sometimes practiced infanticide after a third child due to frequent famines and that the iroij held considerable authority and rights over all property.

The first European to sight the Marshall Islands was Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar on August 21, 1526, who may have seen Taongi (Bokak Atoll) while commanding the Santa Maria de la Victoria. Due to strong currents and deep water, they could not land. In January 1528, the expedition of Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón landed on an uninhabited island, possibly in Ailinginae Atoll, resupplied, and encountered natives from a neighboring island. They named the islands 'Los Pintados' (The Painted Ones) due to the islanders' tattoos. Other Spanish explorers like Ruy López de Villalobos and Miguel López de Legazpi passed through, but by the late 16th century, Spanish galleons generally avoided the Marshalls, viewing them as hazardous and unprofitable.

A significant gap in European contact followed until British sea captains John Marshall and Thomas Gilbert visited in 1788 aboard the ships Scarborough and Charlotte. These vessels, part of the First Fleet transporting convicts to Australia, were en route to Guangzhou, China. They had peaceful interactions and traded with islanders at Mili Atoll on June 25, 1788. Subsequent maps and charts named the islands after Captain John Marshall.

From the 1820s to the 1850s, interactions became more hostile, possibly due to violent retaliations by Western sea captains for theft and the blackbirding (abduction) of Marshallese people for labor on plantations. A notable incident occurred in February 1824, when Mili Atoll inhabitants massacred marooned sailors from the American whaler Globe. Further attacks on ships occurred at Ebon, Jaluit, and Namdrik Atolls in 1851 and 1852.

2.2. Colonial Period

The colonial period in the Marshall Islands brought profound changes to Marshallese society, economy, and traditional ways of life, as various foreign powers asserted control and pursued their interests.

2.2.1. German Protectorate (1885-1914)

The mid-19th century saw increased Western presence. In 1857, American Protestant missionaries established a mission church and school at Ebon, gradually expanding their influence. By 1875, churches were present on five atolls, and many islanders had adopted Western clothing.

German commercial interests, particularly in the copra trade, grew significantly. In 1859, Adolph Capelle established a trading post for a German company at Ebon. After the company's bankruptcy, Capelle partnered with Anton Jose DeBrum to form Capelle & Co., a major copra trading firm, which moved its headquarters to Jaluit in 1873. Jaluit was the home of Kabua (Lebon), a powerful iroij. By 1885, German firms like Hernsheim & Co. and Deutsche Handels- und Plantagen-Gesellschaft (DHPG) controlled two-thirds of the copra trade. Contact with Westerners also introduced diseases like influenza, measles, and syphilis, leading to lethal outbreaks. Access to alcohol caused social problems, and firearms led to conflicts between rival iroij.

Following secret negotiations between Britain and Germany to divide the Western Pacific into spheres of influence, the German warship SMS Ariadne anchored at Jaluit in November 1878. Captain Bartholomäus von Werner conducted military demonstrations to "show the islanders... the power of the Europeans" and subsequently signed a treaty with Kabua and other Ralik Chain iroij, granting Germany "most-favored-nation" status and a fuelling station at Jaluit.

On August 29, 1885, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck authorized the annexation of the Marshall Islands as a protectorate, responding to petitions from German businesses. The German gunboat SMS Nautilus arrived at Jaluit on October 13, and on October 15, a protection treaty was signed with several iroij, though the German text controversially recognized Kabua as "King of the Marshall Islands." The German flag was hoisted, and though some pro-American iroij initially resisted, they eventually conceded under threat of naval force. Nauru was incorporated into the German Protectorate of the Marshall Islands in 1888.

The administration was initially financed by the Jaluit Company (Jaluit Gesellschaft), a joint-stock company formed by German commercial interests. It controlled the copra trade, collected license fees and a poll tax, and influenced colonial laws, effectively pushing out competitors. This created a monopoly, leading to protests from the British government. On March 31, 1906, the German government assumed direct control, reorganizing the Marshall Islands and Nauru as part of the protectorate of German New Guinea. German colonial rule focused on economic exploitation, primarily through copra production, and establishing administrative structures, which had lasting impacts on traditional Marshallese society and land tenure.

2.2.2. Japanese Mandate (1914-1944)

At the onset of World War I, the Empire of Japan swiftly moved to occupy Germany's colonial possessions in the Pacific. The Imperial Japanese Navy invaded Enewetak on September 29, 1914, and Jaluit on September 30, stationing an occupation force on Jaluit by October 3. Following Germany's defeat, the 1919 Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles (signed June 28, 1919) resulted in Germany ceding its Pacific colonies north of the equator, including the Marshall Islands, to Japan. These territories were administered by Japan under a Class C Mandate as the South Seas Mandate (南洋庁_Nan'yō-chō^Japanese).

The Japanese Navy initially administered the islands until 1921. In April 1922, the civilian South Seas Government was established with its headquarters in Palau, and it managed the Marshalls until World War II. Japanese surveys identified the islands' primary value as strategic, potentially enabling future southward expansion. Economically, the Marshalls continued as a major copra producer, with the 南洋貿易会社_{Nan'yō Bōeki Kaisha}^Japanese (South Seas Trading Company) taking over the Jaluit Company's operations and expanding upon the existing German colonial infrastructure. Unlike other parts of the South Seas Mandate, such as the Northern Mariana Islands and Palau which saw heavy Japanese settlement, the Japanese population in the Marshall Islands remained relatively small (under 1,000) due to the islands' distance from Japan and limited economic potential.

Japan declared its intention to withdraw from the League of Nations on March 27, 1933, officially doing so in 1935, but it continued to control the South Seas Mandate territories. As international tensions rose, Japanese military planners, who initially saw the Marshalls as too distant for extensive fortification, began to recognize their utility as forward bases for long-range bombers. In 1939 and 1940, the navy constructed military airfields on Kwajalein, Maloelap, and Wotje Atolls, along with seaplane facilities at Jaluit, in violation of the mandate's terms which prohibited militarization.

After the outbreak of the Pacific War, the United States Pacific Fleet conducted the Marshalls-Gilberts raids on February 1, 1942, striking Jaluit, Kwajalein, Maloelap, and Wotje. These were the first American air raids on Japanese territory. The United States launched its invasion of the Marshall Islands on January 31, 1944, as part of the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign. American forces simultaneously attacked Majuro and Kwajalein. By autumn 1944, the U.S. controlled most of the Marshall Islands, with the exception of Jaluit, Maloelap, Mili, and Wotje, which remained isolated Japanese garrisons. These bypassed garrisons were cut off from supplies and subjected to American bombardment, leading to severe hardship, starvation, and disease among the Japanese forces until the end of the war. The Japanese administration brought some economic development and infrastructure but also imposed its own cultural and political systems, and the islands became a key battleground, causing significant disruption and suffering for the Marshallese population.

2.3. U.S. Trust Territory and Nuclear Era

Following World War II, the Marshall Islands entered a new phase under United States administration, which was profoundly marked by the U.S. nuclear weapons testing program. This period brought both political development towards self-governance and devastating, long-lasting consequences for the Marshallese people and their environment due to nuclear testing, raising significant human rights concerns.

2.4. Path to Independence and Republic

The movement towards self-governance in the Marshall Islands gained momentum during the latter half of the U.S. administration. On May 1, 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status, the United States acknowledged the Constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Amata Kabua became the first president. The constitution incorporates both American and British constitutional concepts.

Full sovereignty and self-government were formally achieved on October 21, 1986, with the entry into force of the Compact of Free Association (COFA) between the Marshall Islands and the United States. This agreement defined the political, economic, and defense relationship between the two nations. Under the COFA, the Marshall Islands became a fully independent nation, while the U.S. retained responsibility for defense and security matters and provided substantial economic assistance. The trusteeship status was officially terminated by the United Nations Security Council Resolution 683 on December 22, 1990. The Marshall Islands joined the United Nations as a member state on September 17, 1991.

The early years of the republic saw the development of its political institutions. However, traditional chiefly systems (Iroij) continued to exert significant influence. In 1999, following allegations of political corruption, the government led by Imata Kabua (son of Amata Kabua) was replaced, with Kessai Note, a commoner, becoming president, marking a notable shift in the political landscape.
The Compact of Free Association has been a cornerstone of the Marshall Islands' economy, providing substantial financial aid. The initial compact provided significant funding, including 180.00 M USD for the continued U.S. use of Kwajalein Atoll for missile testing, 250.00 M USD in compensation for nuclear testing (though deemed insufficient by many Marshallese), and other payments. The financial provisions of the compact were amended and extended, with the most recent extension occurring in 2023 for another 20 years.

The modern Republic of the Marshall Islands continues to grapple with the legacy of nuclear testing, the existential threat of climate change, economic development challenges, and the complexities of its relationship with the United States. It actively participates in regional and international forums, advocating for nuclear disarmament, climate action, and the interests of small island developing states.

3.1. Topography and Island Formations

The Marshall Islands consist of 29 coral atolls and five solitary low coral islands. These landforms are the remnants of ancient submerged volcanoes that rose from the ocean floor. Over millennia, coral reefs grew around the subsiding volcanic peaks, eventually forming the characteristic ring-shaped atolls enclosing central lagoons. The country comprises approximately 1,225 individual islands and islets. The total land area is small, about 70 mile², but it is spread across roughly 750.00 K mile² of the Pacific Ocean. This makes the Marshall Islands one of the nations with the largest proportion of water to land in its territory.

The atolls and islands are organized into two roughly parallel chains:

• The Ratak Chain (meaning "sunrise" or eastern chain)
• The Ralik Chain (meaning "sunset" or western chain)

These chains run generally from northwest to southeast. The islands are typically narrow strips of land, often only a few hundred meters wide, and their average elevation is extremely low, about 7 ft above sea level. This low elevation makes the islands exceptionally vulnerable to sea-level rise and storm surges. The largest atoll by land area is Kwajalein Atoll, which also encloses one of the world's largest lagoons, approximately 655 mile².

3.2. Climate

The Marshall Islands experience a tropical marine climate, characterized by high temperatures and humidity throughout the year.

• Temperature: Temperatures are relatively consistent, averaging between 78.8 °F ^{(26 °C)} and 84.2 °F ^{(29 °C)}, with minimal seasonal variation.
• Rainfall: Rainfall is abundant but varies significantly between the northern and southern atolls. The southern atolls generally receive higher rainfall, around 100 in or more annually, while the northern atolls are drier, receiving closer to 50 in. There is a distinct wet season from May to November and a relatively dry season from December to April.
• Tropical Storms: The islands are located in a region where tropical cyclones (typhoons) can form, particularly during the latter half of the year. While direct hits by major typhoons are not frequent, they can cause significant damage due to the islands' low elevation.

3.3. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation

Climate change poses an existential threat to the Marshall Islands. The nation is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to the impacts of global warming.

• Sea-level rise: With an average elevation of just 6.6 ft ^{(2 m)}, rising sea levels directly threaten to inundate land, homes, and critical infrastructure. The sea around the Pacific islands has risen approximately 0.1 in ^{(3.4 mm)} per year since 1993, more than twice the global average. Projections indicate that significant portions of atolls like Majuro and Kwajalein could become permanently flooded or uninhabitable within decades. For example, a 3.3 ft ^{(1 m)} rise in sea level could permanently flood 37% of buildings in Kwajalein and 50% in Ebeye.
• Coastal erosion: Increased wave energy and higher sea levels accelerate coastal erosion, washing away precious land.
• Saltwater intrusion: Rising seas push saltwater into freshwater lenses (underground sources of fresh water) and onto agricultural land, contaminating drinking water supplies and harming crops like taro and breadfruit, thereby threatening food security.
• Increased Storm Intensity: Warmer ocean temperatures can lead to more powerful typhoons and storm surges, causing greater devastation.
• Coral bleaching: Rising sea temperatures and ocean acidification threaten coral reefs, which are vital for coastal protection, fisheries, and biodiversity.

The Marshallese government has been a vocal advocate for global climate action, emphasizing the human rights implications of climate change. National efforts focus on adaptation strategies such as building seawalls, elevating homes and infrastructure, exploring drought-resistant crops, and improving water resource management. However, the scale of the threat often exceeds local capacity, making international support crucial. The country has pledged to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, with interim targets for significant reductions by 2025, 2030, and 2035 compared to 2010 levels, despite its own per capita CO₂ emissions being relatively low (2.56 tons in 2020). The social impact of these changes is immense, potentially leading to widespread displacement and loss of cultural identity.

3.4. Biodiversity and Conservation

The Marshall Islands possess a rich marine biodiversity, centered around its coral reef ecosystems. Terrestrial biodiversity is more limited due to the small land area and soil composition of the atolls.

• Marine Biodiversity: The surrounding waters support a diverse array of marine life, including numerous species of fish (around 300, with 250 being coral reef fish), corals, sea turtles (such as green turtles, hawksbill turtles, leatherback sea turtles, and olive ridley sea turtles), and various invertebrates. At least 22 shark species, including blue sharks, silky sharks, and oceanic whitetip sharks, inhabit these waters.
• Terrestrial Biodiversity: Flora includes coconut palms, pandanus trees, breadfruit trees, and various shrubs and grasses adapted to coral island conditions. Land fauna is limited, mainly consisting of birds, lizards, insects, and land crabs, including the coconut crab. Most bird species are seabirds or migratory, with around 70 species recorded, including 31 seabirds like the black noddy and white tern. The house sparrow is an introduced land bird.
• Conservation Efforts: Recognizing the importance of its marine resources, the Marshall Islands has undertaken conservation initiatives. In October 2011, the government declared a vast shark sanctuary covering nearly 0.8 M mile^{2 (2.00 M km2)} of its ocean territory, making it the world's largest at the time. Within this sanctuary, all shark fishing is banned. Conservation efforts also focus on protecting coral reefs from threats like climate change and pollution. The protection of biodiversity is critical not only for ecological balance but also for the livelihoods and cultural heritage of the Marshallese people, who have a deep traditional connection to the ocean. Enforcement of such large protected areas, however, presents significant challenges.

3.5. Main Atolls and Islands

The Marshall Islands comprise 29 atolls and 5 individual islands. Twenty-four of these are inhabited. The main inhabited atolls and islands include:

• Majuro: The capital and largest urban center, located in the Ratak Chain. It is home to approximately half of the country's population and is the seat of government and commerce.
• Kwajalein Atoll: Located in the Ralik Chain, it is one of the world's largest coral atolls by lagoon area. It hosts the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site, a U.S. military base. The island of Ebeye within Kwajalein Atoll is one of the most densely populated areas in the Pacific.
• Jaluit Atoll: Historically an important trading and administrative center.
• Wotje Atoll, Maloelap Atoll, Mili Atoll, Arno Atoll, Ailinglaplap Atoll, Likiep Atoll, and Ebon Atoll are other significant inhabited atolls.

Several atolls remain uninhabited, some due to naturally poor living conditions or lack of fresh water, and others due to contamination from the U.S. nuclear weapons testing program. These uninhabited atolls include:

• Ailinginae Atoll
• Bikar (Bikaar) Atoll
• Bikini Atoll (uninhabited due to nuclear contamination, a UNESCO World Heritage Site recognizing the history of nuclear testing)
• Bokak Atoll (Taongi)
• Erikub Atoll
• Jemo Island
• Nadikdik Atoll (Knox Atoll)
• Rongerik Atoll (site of initial, unsuccessful relocation of Bikini islanders)
• Toke Atoll
• Ujelang Atoll (former resettlement site for Enewetak islanders)
• Rongelap Atoll (largely uninhabited due to fallout from the Castle Bravo test)

3.6. Territorial Claims

The Republic of the Marshall Islands lays claim to Wake Island, which is currently administered by the United States as an unorganized, unincorporated territory. The Marshallese government refers to Wake Island by the Marshallese name Ānen Kio_{Anen Kio}^Marshallese (new orthography) or Enen-kio_Enen-kio^Marshallese (old orthography), based on oral legends and traditional ties. The United States does not recognize this claim, and Wake Island remains under U.S. de facto control, primarily serving as a U.S. military airbase and strategic outpost.

4.1. Political System

The Marshall Islands is a parliamentary republic with an executive presidency. Its government operates under the Constitution of 1979, which establishes a democratic framework incorporating both American and British constitutional concepts. Key principles include the separation of powers, rule of law, and protection of fundamental human rights. The country has a multi-party system, although political affiliations can be fluid. Democratic development has seen periods of stability and change, including challenges related to governance and the influence of traditional leadership.

4.2. Executive Branch

The President is both the head of state and head of government. The President is elected by the members of the Nitijela (the legislature) from among themselves for a four-year term. The President appoints a Cabinet consisting of ministers who are also members of the Nitijela. The Cabinet is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the government and reports to the Nitijela. Four of the five Marshallese presidents elected since the adoption of the Constitution in 1979 have been traditional paramount chiefs, indicating the continued importance of traditional leadership in modern politics. As of January 2024, Hilda Heine is the President, having previously served and being the first female president of the country. Her election and re-elections reflect the evolving political dynamics within the nation.

4.3. Legislative Branch (Nitijela)

The legislative power of the Republic of the Marshall Islands is vested in the Nitijela, which is a unicameral (single-chamber) parliament. It consists of 33 senators. Senators are elected by universal suffrage for all citizens aged 18 and above, serving four-year terms. The members are elected from 24 electoral districts, which correspond to the inhabited atolls and islands. Some districts elect more than one senator based on population; for example, Majuro Atoll, the capital, elects five senators. The Nitijela is responsible for enacting laws, approving the national budget, and overseeing the executive branch.

Senators in the legislative body (as of a recent period, subject to change with elections) have included:

• Ailinglaplap Atoll: Christopher Loeak (AKA), Alfred Alfred Jr. (IND)
• Ailuk Atoll: Maynard Alfred (UDP)
• Arno Atoll: Mike Halferty (KEA), Jejwadrik H. Anton (IND)
• Aur Atoll: Hilda Heine (AKA)
• Ebon Atoll: John M. Silk (UDP)
• Enewetak Atoll: Jack J. Ading (UPP)
• Jabat Island: Kessai Note (UDP)
• Jaluit Atoll: Casten Nemra (IND), Daisy Alik Momotaro (IND)
• Kili Island: Eldon H. Note (UDP)
• Kwajalein Atoll: Michael Kabua (AKA), David Paul (KEA), Alvin Jacklick (KEA)
• Lae Atoll: Thomas Heine (AKA)
• Lib Island: Jerakoj Jerry Bejang (AKA)
• Likiep Atoll: Leander Leander, Jr. (IND)
• Majuro Atoll: Sherwood M. Tibon (KEA), Anthony Muller (KEA), Brenson Wase (UDP), David Kramer (KEA), Kalani Kaneko (KEA)
• Maloelap Atoll: Bruce Bilimon (IND)
• Mejit: Dennis Momotaro (AKA)
• Mili Atoll: Wilbur Heine (AKA)
• Namdrik Atoll: Wisely Zackhras (IND)
• Namu Atoll: Tony Aiseia (AKA)
• Rongelap Atoll: Kenneth A. Kedi (IND)
• Ujae Atoll: Atbi Riklon (IND)
• Utirik: Amenta Matthew (KEA)
• Wotho Atoll: David Kabua (AKA)
• Wotje Atoll: Litokwa Tomeing (UPP)

(Party affiliations: AKA - Aelon Kein Ad, UPP - United People's Party, KEA - Kien Eo Am, UDP - United Democratic Party, IND - Independent. These are subject to change.)

4.4. Judicial Branch

The judicial branch is independent of the executive and legislative branches. It is responsible for interpreting the laws and administering justice. The court system includes:

• The Supreme Court: The highest court in the Marshall Islands, it hears appeals from the High Court.
• The High Court: Has original jurisdiction over all major civil and criminal cases and appellate jurisdiction over subordinate courts.
• District Courts and Community Courts: Handle minor civil and criminal matters at the local level.

The judiciary plays a critical role in upholding the rule of law, protecting human rights, and ensuring adherence to the Constitution.

4.5. Council of Iroij

The Council of Iroij (Council of Chiefs) is an advisory body composed of 12 traditional paramount chiefs (Iroijlaplap) or other traditional leaders selected according to custom. It advises the Cabinet and the Nitijela on matters relating to Marshallese customary law, land tenure, and traditional practices. While its role is primarily advisory, the Council holds significant influence, particularly on issues concerning land rights and cultural heritage, reflecting the deep-rooted importance of traditional authority in Marshallese society.

4.6. Elections and Political Parties

Elections are held every four years for the Nitijela. The electoral system is based on plurality voting in multi-member and single-member districts. Political parties exist, but their structures and loyalties can be less rigid than in some other democratic systems. Prominent political parties have included Aelon Kein Ad (AKA), United People's Party (UPP), Kien Eo Am (KEA), and the United Democratic Party (UDP). Alliances and coalitions are common. Voter turnout and engagement are generally high. The conduct of elections is overseen by an electoral commission to ensure fairness and transparency.

4.7. Administrative Divisions

The Marshall Islands is divided into 24 municipalities, which correspond to the inhabited atolls and islands that also serve as electoral districts. Each municipality has its own local government, typically headed by a mayor, responsible for local administration and services.
The inhabited atolls and islands (municipalities) are:
Ailinglaplap Atoll, Ailuk Atoll, Arno Atoll, Aur Atoll, Ebon Atoll, Enewetak Atoll/Ujelang, Jabat Island, Jaluit Atoll, Kili Island/Bikini/Ejit, Kwajalein Atoll, Lae Atoll, Lib Island, Likiep Atoll, Majuro Atoll (capital), Maloelap Atoll, Mejit Island, Mili Atoll, Namdrik Atoll, Namu Atoll, Rongelap Atoll, Ujae Atoll, Utirik (Utrik) Atoll, Wotho Atoll, Wotje Atoll.

The following atolls and islands are uninhabited:
Ailinginae Atoll, Bikar (Bikaar) Atoll, Bikini Atoll, Bokak Atoll, Erikub Atoll, Jemo Island, Nadikdik Atoll (Knox Atoll), Rongerik Atoll, Toke Atoll, Ujelang Atoll.

5.1. Compact of Free Association with the United States

The Compact of Free Association (COFA) is the cornerstone of the Marshall Islands' relationship with the United States. First signed in 1982 and effective in 1986, it grants the U.S. sole responsibility for the international defense and security of the Marshall Islands. In return, the U.S. provides substantial economic assistance, including annual grants and contributions to a trust fund designed to provide perpetual annual payouts. The COFA also allows Marshallese citizens to emigrate to the United States without a visa to live, work, and study, although as aliens, they can be subject to removal proceedings if convicted of certain criminal offenses.

This relationship provides significant benefits, such as financial stability and security, but also presents challenges. The economic assistance, while vital, has fostered a degree of dependency. The U.S. military presence at the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Kwajalein Atoll provides rental income to landowners but also raises complex social and environmental issues. The COFA has been amended and extended, with financial provisions most recently renewed in 2023 for another 20 years, ensuring continued U.S. support. The legacy of U.S. nuclear testing also heavily influences this relationship, with ongoing Marshallese efforts to secure further compensation and healthcare for affected populations.

5.2. International Organizations and Diplomacy

The Marshall Islands was admitted to the United Nations (UN) on September 17, 1991. Within the UN, it has been a vocal advocate on issues critical to small island developing states (SIDS), particularly climate change, sea-level rise, and nuclear disarmament. The Marshall Islands has often voted consistently with the United States on UN General Assembly resolutions.

The nation is an active member of the Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), the primary regional political and economic policy organization. In February 2021, the Marshall Islands, along with four other Micronesian countries (Kiribati, Nauru, Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau), announced its intention to withdraw from the PIF following a dispute over the election of the forum's secretary-general. However, subsequent diplomatic efforts led to a resolution, and these nations, including the Marshall Islands, agreed to remain in the forum.
The Marshall Islands is also a member of the Pacific Community (SPC) since 1983 and other regional and international bodies.

Diplomatically, the Marshall Islands has taken strong stances on human rights issues. For example, in March 2017, at the UN Human Rights Council, it joined other Pacific nations in a joint statement raising concerns about human rights violations in Western New Guinea and called for a UN High Commissioner for Human Rights report on the situation. It also maintains diplomatic relations with various countries worldwide, including establishing formal ties with the Republic of China (Taiwan) rather than the People's Republic of China.

5.3. Relations with Other Nations

Beyond its primary relationship with the United States, the Marshall Islands maintains diplomatic and economic ties with several other nations. Key partners include Australia and Japan, which provide development assistance and engage in regional cooperation. In 2021, Australia and Japan announced funding for major law enforcement developments in the Marshall Islands.
The Marshall Islands has also engaged with Taiwan, being one of the few countries to maintain official diplomatic relations with it. A bilateral trade agreement with Taiwan was signed in 2019 and approved in 2023.
Relations with Iran became tense in April 2015 when the Iranian navy seized the Marshall Islands-flagged (but foreign-owned) cargo ship MV Maersk Tigris near the Strait of Hormuz. The U.S. dispatched naval assets, and while it affirmed its defense obligations to the Marshall Islands as a nation, it clarified that this did not extend to foreign-owned vessels merely flagged in the Marshalls. The ship was eventually released after a fine was paid.
In 2023, the Marshallese parliament passed a resolution expressing concern over Japan's release of treated radioactive water from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant, reflecting its heightened sensitivity to nuclear issues due to its own history.

5.4. Defense and Security

Under the Compact of Free Association, the United States has full authority and responsibility for the security and defense of the Marshall Islands. This includes protecting the islands from attack or threats and allowing U.S. armed forces to operate in the territory. The Marshall Islands itself does not have a military.
Internal security is maintained by the Marshall Islands Police, which includes a maritime surveillance unit, the Republic of Marshall Islands Sea Patrol. This unit operates patrol vessels, such as the RMIS Lomor, which was provided by Australia as part of the Pacific Patrol Boat Program. The Lomor's missions are restricted by the COFA to civilian tasks like fishery protection and search and rescue, as sovereignty protection is a U.S. responsibility. The U.S. Coast Guard also plays a role in maritime security and assistance.

6.1. Overview of Economic Structure

The Marshall Islands' Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was estimated at around 180.00 M USD in 2016, with a real growth rate fluctuating based on factors like fisheries performance and infrastructure projects. The GDP per capita was approximately 3.30 K USD in the same year. The economy faces significant structural challenges, including geographic isolation, a small domestic market, limited skilled labor, and susceptibility to natural disasters and climate change.

Imports far exceed exports, leading to a persistent trade deficit. In 2013, exports were valued at approximately 53.70 M USD, while imports were around 133.70 M USD. Financial assistance from the United States, primarily through the Compact of Free Association (COFA), is a critical component of the national budget and overall economy, funding public services, infrastructure, and development initiatives. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported in mid-2016 that the economy had seen modest expansion, partly due to improved fisheries revenue, particularly from fishing license fees. Inflation has generally remained low.

6.2. Key Sectors

The main areas of economic activity include services (largely government-funded), fisheries, agriculture (including copra production), and a significant ship registry. Tourism remains a small but potential growth sector.

6.2.1. Fisheries

The fisheries sector is a crucial contributor to the Marshallese economy, particularly the tuna industry. The country's vast Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is rich in tuna stocks.

• Tuna Transshipment and Processing: Majuro is one of the world's busiest tuna transshipment ports. In 2015, it handled 704 transshipments totaling 444,393 tons of tuna. There is also a tuna processing plant in Majuro (Pan Pacific Foods), which exports processed tuna, primarily to the United States under brands like Bumble Bee.
• License Fees: Revenue from selling fishing licenses to foreign fleets operating within the EEZ provides significant income for the government.
• Sustainable Management: Efforts are underway to promote sustainable management of fish stocks and to increase local participation and benefits from the fisheries sector. This includes participation in regional fisheries management organisations. A tuna loining plant established in 1999 employed over 400 people but closed in 2005 due to operational challenges, highlighting the difficulties in sustaining local processing industries.

6.2.2. Agriculture and Copra Production

Agriculture in the Marshall Islands is primarily small-scale and combines subsistence farming with some commercial production.

• Subsistence Farming: Traditional crops include coconut, breadfruit, pandanus, banana, taro (especially giant swamp taro), and arrowroot. These are vital for local food security. Livestock consists mainly of pigs and chickens.
• Copra Production: Copra (dried coconut meat) has historically been the most important commercial agricultural product and a key export. The Tobolar Copra Processing Plant in Majuro processes copra into coconut oil and other products. However, the industry faces challenges from fluctuating world prices and transportation costs.
• Challenges: Food security is a growing concern due to limited arable land, saltwater intrusion from sea-level rise, and vulnerability to droughts. Efforts are being made to promote traditional agriculture and healthy eating as strategies to combat climate change impacts.

6.2.4. Shipping Registry (Flag of Convenience)

The Marshall Islands operates one of the world's largest ship registries, functioning as a flag of convenience. This provides a significant source of revenue for the country.

• Operations: The registry began operations in 1990 and is managed through a joint venture with International Registries, Inc. (IRI), a U.S.-based private company.
• Size and Significance: As of 2017, the Marshallese ship registry was the second largest globally, after Panama, in terms of tonnage. There is no requirement for vessels flagged in the Marshall Islands to be owned by Marshallese individuals or corporations.
• Economic Benefits: The registry generates income through registration fees and tonnage taxes.
• Considerations: Operating a flag of convenience registry involves responsibilities regarding adherence to international maritime safety, environmental standards, and labor conditions for seafarers. The 2015 seizure of the Marshallese-flagged MV Maersk Tigris by Iran highlighted that the U.S. defense obligation under COFA does not extend to foreign-owned vessels merely flying the Marshallese flag. Due to ship-to-ship transfers, the Marshall Islands has statistically appeared as a large importer of U.S. crude oil, despite having no refining capacity.

6.3. United States Assistance and Trust Fund

Financial assistance from the United States under the Compact of Free Association (COFA) is a mainstay of the Marshallese economy.

• COFA Provisions: The original COFA and its subsequent amendments have committed the U.S. to provide substantial annual economic assistance. For instance, the amended COFA (Public Law 108-188) outlined payments such as 57.70 M USD per year through 2013 and 62.70 M USD per year through 2023. These funds support government operations, public services (health, education), infrastructure development, and specific programs. The COFA financial provisions were extended for another 20 years in 2023.
• Trust Fund: A key component of the COFA is the establishment of a Trust Fund, to which both the U.S. and the Marshall Islands contribute. The fund is intended to provide a sustainable source of revenue for the Marshallese government after certain direct U.S. grant assistance phases down.
• Dependency: While essential, this aid has created a high degree of economic dependency on the U.S. Efforts are ongoing to strengthen domestic revenue sources and promote greater economic self-sufficiency.

The United States Army also maintains the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Kwajalein Atoll, for which Marshallese landowners receive rental payments.

6.4. Currency and Monetary Policy

The official currency of the Marshall Islands is the United States dollar (USD). This simplifies international transactions and provides monetary stability, but it also means the country does not have independent control over monetary policy (e.g., setting interest rates or managing exchange rates).
In 2018, the Marshall Islands government passed the Sovereign Currency Act, announcing plans to issue its own cryptocurrency, to be called the "Sovereign" (SOV), intended to circulate alongside the U.S. dollar as legal tender. This initiative aimed to generate revenue and enhance financial autonomy but has faced scrutiny from international financial institutions like the IMF due to concerns about governance, financial integrity, and potential macroeconomic impacts.

6.5. Labor and Employment

The labor market in the Marshall Islands is characterized by a large public sector, limited private sector opportunities, and challenges in workforce development.

• Employment Rates: Unemployment and underemployment are significant issues, particularly among youth and on the outer islands.
• Major Sources of Employment: The government is the largest employer. Other sources include the U.S. military base on Kwajalein, the fisheries sector (including transshipment and processing), retail, and tourism-related activities.
• Labor Rights and Workforce Development: The Marshall Islands joined the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 2007, committing to uphold international labor standards. Efforts to improve workforce skills through education and vocational training are ongoing to meet the demands of the modern economy and reduce reliance on expatriate labor.
• Migration for Work: The COFA allows Marshallese citizens to work in the United States, providing an important outlet for employment and remittances. Significant Marshallese communities have formed in states like Arkansas, Hawaii, Oregon, and Washington.

Income tax in the Marshall Islands has two brackets, with rates of 8% and 12%. The corporate tax is 3% of revenue.

6.6. Energy

Energy production in the Marshall Islands relies heavily on imported fossil fuels, primarily diesel, for electricity generation. This results in high energy costs and vulnerability to global oil price fluctuations.

• Electricity Generation: The Marshalls Energy Company (MEC), a government entity, is the main provider of electricity, primarily through diesel generators.
• Renewable Energy Initiatives: There is a strong push to increase the use of renewable energy sources to reduce fossil fuel dependence and combat climate change.
  • Solar power: Solar energy is a promising alternative. In 2009, a 57-kilowatt solar power plant was installed at the College of the Marshall Islands, the largest in the Pacific at the time. Solar home systems have also been installed on outer atolls, such as Ailinglaplap, where 420 homes received 100-watt peak systems in 2008.
  • Coconut oil (Biofuel): Experiments have been conducted using coconut oil as a biofuel alternative to diesel for vehicles, power generators, and ships. Copra, the meat of the coconut, can yield about 1 L of oil for every 6 to 10 coconuts.

  The government has set ambitious targets for renewable energy adoption as part of its climate change mitigation strategy.

7.1. Population Statistics and Distribution

According to the 2021 census conducted by the Economic Policy, Planning and Statistics Office (EPPSO) of the Marshall Islands, the total population was 42,418. This represents a decrease from the 2011 census figure of 53,158 and the 1999 figure of 50,840. Earlier population estimates include 10,000 in 1862 and approximately 15,000 in 1960.
Population distribution is highly concentrated in urban centers. In 2021, 23,156 people (approximately 54.6% of the total) lived on Majuro Atoll, the capital. Ebeye, on Kwajalein Atoll, is the country's secondary urban center. Combined, 77.7% of the population lived in an urban setting on Majuro or Ebeye in 2021. This urbanization has led to overcrowding and strain on resources in these centers.
Population density is high in urban areas. Life expectancy and other demographic indicators are tracked, though specific recent figures require updated census reports.
Migration is a significant demographic factor. The Compact of Free Association allows Marshallese citizens to migrate to the United States. Large Marshallese communities exist in the U.S., notably in Springdale, Arkansas (estimated at over 4,300 in the 2010s), Hawaii (over 7,000 in 2010), and other states. This out-migration impacts the domestic population structure. Burial space has become limited, particularly on Ebeye, leading to practices like double graves.

7.2. Ethnic Groups and Languages

The overwhelming majority of the population is of Marshallese descent. Marshallese people are Micronesian in origin, believed to have migrated from Southeast Asia several thousand years ago. There are small minorities of immigrants from the United States, China, the Philippines, and other Pacific islands. Some Marshallese have partial Asian (notably Japanese) or European (notably German) ancestry from historical periods.
The two official languages are:

• Marshallese (Kajin Majeļ_{Kajin Majeḷ}^Marshallese): An Oceanic language belonging to the Austronesian language family. It has two major dialects, Ratak (eastern) and Ralik (western).
• English: Widely spoken, especially in government, business, and education.

Some older Marshallese may also understand Japanese due to the period of Japanese administration.

7.3. Religion

Religion plays a significant role in Marshallese society, with the vast majority of the population identifying as Christian.
According to the September 2021 census:

• Approximately 96.2% of the population identified with one of fourteen Christian denominations.
• The largest denominations (with over 1,000 adherents) were:
  • United Church of Christ - Congregational in the Marshall Islands (UCCCMI): 47.9%
  • Assemblies of God: 14.1%
  • Roman Catholic Church: 9.3% (The Catholic community is served by the Apostolic Prefecture of the Marshall Islands, with the Cathedral of the Assumption in Majuro as its headquarters.)
  • The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons): 5.7%
  • Full Gospel Church of the Marshall Islands: 5%
  • Bukot nan Jesus (Assembly of God Part Two): 3%
• Other Christian denominations, including Protestant churches and Jehovah's Witnesses, constitute smaller percentages.
• 1,128 people (2.7%) identified with a religion other than the fourteen listed Christian denominations.
• 444 people (1.1%) claimed to be irreligious or have no religious affiliation.

Majuro also has a small Baháʼí Faith community and an Islamic community, with the country's sole mosque, the Baet-Ul-Ahad Mosque, aligned with the Ahmadiyya movement. Early Catholic missionary work by figures like Father A. Erdland and Father H. Linckens in the early 20th century contributed to the establishment of Catholicism in the islands.

7.4. Health

The health status of the Marshallese population is influenced by factors such as diet, lifestyle, access to healthcare, and the profound and lasting impacts of the U.S. nuclear testing program.

7.5. Education

The education system in the Marshall Islands aims to provide basic education to all citizens, but faces challenges related to resources, teacher training, and educational attainment rates, particularly in remote areas. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI) found that the Marshall Islands fulfills 66.1% of what it should for the right to education based on its income level, with primary education at 65.5% and secondary education at 66.6%.

• Structure: The Ministry of Education, Sports and Training oversees the education system. The Marshall Islands Public School System operates public schools.
  • Primary education: Generally from grades 1 to 8.
  • Secondary education: Generally from grades 9 to 12. Access to secondary education can be limited, especially on outer islands. In the 1994-1995 school year, there were 103 elementary schools and 13 secondary schools, including private (mostly church-run) institutions.
• Language of instruction: Historically, English was prioritized, but in the 1990s, there was a shift to use Marshallese in early grades to preserve cultural heritage, with English instruction typically beginning in grade 3.
• Higher education:
  • The College of the Marshall Islands (CMI) in Majuro is the primary institution for post-secondary education, offering associate degrees and vocational programs.
  • The University of the South Pacific (USP) also has a center in the Marshall Islands, providing access to distance learning programs.
• Challenges: These include a shortage of qualified teachers, limited educational resources, low completion rates, and disparities in educational quality between urban centers and outer islands. Efforts are ongoing to improve educational outcomes and vocational training to better prepare youth for employment. Literacy rates and overall educational attainment are areas of focus for development.

8.1. Traditional Culture and Navigation

The Marshallese are renowned for their mastery of traditional ocean navigation.

• Canoe Building and Voyaging: They constructed large, seaworthy outrigger canoes (walap) capable of long ocean voyages. These canoes were essential for inter-island travel, trade, and fishing.
• Stick Charts: Perhaps the most famous aspect of Marshallese traditional knowledge is the use of stick charts (meddo_meddo^Marshallese or rebbelib_rebbelib^Marshallese). These were not maps in the Western sense but rather mnemonic devices made from coconut midribs and shells. They represented patterns of ocean swells, currents, and the refraction of waves around islands, enabling navigators to "read" the ocean and locate atolls far from sight. Navigators also relied on extensive knowledge of stars, winds, and bird flight patterns. While the daily use of these skills has declined with modern technology, efforts are made to preserve this heritage.
• Oral traditions: History, genealogies, myths, legends, and knowledge were passed down through generations via oral tradition, including chants, songs, and stories.
• Social Customs: Traditional Marshallese society is matrilineal, with land rights and identity often traced through the mother's line. The Iroij (chiefly) system, with paramount chiefs (Iroijlaplap), high chiefs (Iroijedrik), and commoners (Kajur), still plays an influential role in land tenure and social structure, although it has adapted to the modern political system. Community and extended family (bwij_bwij^Marshallese) are central to social life.

8.2. Arts and Handicrafts

Marshallese artisans are skilled in various traditional crafts.

• Weaving: Women are renowned for their fine weaving, creating items such as mats (jaki-ed_jaki-ed^Marshallese or nieded), baskets, fans (rito_rito^Marshallese), and clothing from pandanus leaves and young coconut fronds. These items often feature intricate geometric patterns and are highly valued.
• Carving: Men traditionally carved canoes, tools, and sometimes figures from wood.
• Jewelry: Shell jewelry, including necklaces and earrings, is also a traditional art form.

Contemporary arts blend traditional motifs with modern influences. Handicrafts are an important cultural expression and source of income for some families.

8.3. Sports

Several sports are popular in the Marshall Islands, both for recreation and competition.

• Popular Sports: Volleyball and basketball (especially for men) are widely played. Baseball and softball also have a following, with the Marshall Islands Baseball/Softball Federation active in promoting these sports. The country achieved a silver medal in softball at the Micronesian Games in 2012. Soccer is played, though the Marshall Islands is notable for being one of the few sovereign nations without a FIFA-affiliated national football team; however, there is a small club league and efforts to develop the sport.
• Water Sports: Given the environment, various water sports are enjoyed.
• Olympic Participation: The Marshall Islands has participated in the Summer Olympic Games since the 2008 Beijing Olympics. In the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, they were represented by two swimmers.

8.4. Cuisine

Traditional Marshallese cuisine is based on locally available ingredients, primarily from the sea and the land.

• Staple Foods: Key staples include seafood (fish, shellfish, turtles), coconut (used in various forms - milk, flesh, oil), breadfruit (mā_maa^Marshallese), taro (kotak_kotak^Marshallese, especially swamp taro or iaraj_iaraj^Marshallese), pandanus fruit, and bananas.
• Preparation Methods: Common cooking methods include baking in earth ovens (um_uum^Marshallese), grilling, and boiling.
• Traditional Dishes: Dishes often feature preserved breadfruit (bwiro_bwiro^Marshallese), taro, and fish cooked with coconut milk.

With increased globalization, imported foods such as rice, flour, and canned goods have become common, leading to dietary shifts that have contributed to health issues like diabetes.

8.5. Media and Communications

Access to media and communications has been expanding in the Marshall Islands.

• Newspapers: The main national newspaper is The Marshall Islands Journal, a bilingual (Marshallese and English) weekly publication established in 1980. Historically, a Marshallese language paper, Loan Ran Kein, was published in 1953-1954.
• Radio: Several AM and FM radio stations operate, including V7AB Majuro (Radio Marshalls, national coverage), AFN Kwajalein (American Forces Network), and various private and religious broadcasters. BBC World service is also available on FM in Majuro.
• Television: There is one state-operated broadcast television station, MBC-TV. Cable TV services are available, offering a range of international channels. AFRTS provides TV service to Kwajalein Atoll.
• Internet and Telephone: The National Telecommunications Authority (NTA) is the primary provider of telephone (landline and mobile), cable TV (MHTV), and internet services. Internet access has been improving, but connectivity, speed, and cost can be challenges, especially on outer islands.

8.6. Public Holidays

The Marshall Islands observe several public holidays, reflecting historical, cultural, and religious significance.

9.1. Air Travel

Air travel is the primary means of international access and for reaching some of the more distant outer atolls.

• International airports:
  • Marshall Islands International Airport (IATA: MAJ), also known as Amata Kabua International Airport, located in Majuro, is the main international gateway.
  • Bucholz Army Airfield (IATA: KWA) on Kwajalein Atoll serves the U.S. military base and also handles some civilian and international flights, primarily for personnel associated with the base.
• Domestic Air Services: Air Marshall Islands (AMI) is the national airline and provides essential domestic services, connecting Majuro to numerous outer island airstrips. These flights are crucial for transporting people, mail, and supplies. However, services can be infrequent and subject to weather or aircraft maintenance issues.
• Other Airlines: United Airlines provides international service to Majuro and Kwajalein, often as part of its "island hopper" route connecting Hawaii, Micronesia, and Guam. Nauru Airlines and Asia Pacific Airlines (a cargo carrier) also serve the Marshall Islands.
• Airstrips: Many outer atolls have small, often unpaved, airstrips to accommodate domestic flights.

9.2. Sea Travel

Maritime transport is fundamental for inter-island movement of both passengers and cargo, especially for atolls not served by regular air transport.

• Inter-Island Shipping: Government-owned and private vessels provide inter-island shipping services. These ships transport essential goods (food, fuel, building materials) to outer island communities and carry passengers. Schedules can be irregular, and journeys can be long. Copra is also transported from outer islands to Majuro via these ships.
• Port Facilities: The main commercial port is in Majuro, which handles international cargo and serves as a hub for the fishing industry, including tuna transshipment. Kwajalein also has significant port facilities related to the U.S. military base.
• Small Boats: Within atolls and for short inter-island trips, smaller motorboats and, traditionally, outrigger canoes are used. These are essential for daily activities like fishing and local transport.
• International Shipping: The Marshall Islands' role as a major flag of convenience means many international commercial vessels fly its flag, but this is an administrative function and does not typically involve these ships physically calling at Marshallese ports unless for specific purposes like transshipment.

The challenges in transportation include the high cost of fuel, maintenance of infrastructure (airports, ports, vessels), vast distances between islands, and vulnerability to weather and climate change impacts on coastal facilities. Improving reliable and affordable transportation is a key development priority for the nation.