Liberia

2.1. Indigenous peoples and early European contact

Archaeological evidence, including Oldowan artifacts, attests to ancient human presence in West Africa. Undated Acheulean artifacts are documented across the region, and the Middle Stone Age (MSA) core and flake technologies were present from at least the Chibanian period (around 780,000-126,000 years ago). These MSA technologies persisted until the Terminal Pleistocene/Holocene boundary (around 12,000 years ago), representing some of the youngest examples in Africa. Later Stone Age (LSA) populations showed significant technological diversification, including microlithic and macrolithic traditions. Microlithic industries with ceramics became common by the Mid-Holocene, coupled with an intensification of wild food exploitation. These societies gradually transitioned to food production around 4,000-3,500 years ago, possibly through contact with northern pastoralists and agriculturalists as the environment became more arid. Hunter-gatherer communities survived in forested parts of West Africa much later.

The region known as the Pepper Coast or Grain Coast has been inhabited by indigenous African peoples since at least the 12th century. Mande-speaking people expanded from the north and east, leading to the southward migration of many smaller ethnic groups towards the Atlantic Ocean. Among the earliest documented peoples in this area were the Dei, Bassa, Kru, Gola, and Kissi. This influx was compounded by the decline of the Mali Empire in 1375 and the Songhai Empire in 1591. As inland regions experienced desertification, inhabitants moved to the wetter coastal areas, bringing skills such as cotton spinning, cloth weaving, iron smelting, rice and sorghum cultivation, and social and political institutions from the Mali and Songhai empires. Shortly after the Mane people conquered the region, the Vai people, formerly of the Mali Empire, immigrated into the Grand Cape Mount County region. The Kru ethnic group opposed the Vai influx, forming an alliance with the Mane to halt further Vai migration. Coastal peoples built canoes and engaged in trade with other West Africans from Cap-Vert to the Gold Coast.

Between 1461 and the late 17th century, Portuguese, Dutch, and British traders established contacts and trading posts in the region. The Portuguese named the area Costa da Pimenta (Pepper Coast), later known as the Grain Coast, due to the abundance of melegueta pepper grains, a commodity highly valued in Europe. These traders bartered various goods with local populations.

2.2. Colonization by American freed slaves and establishment of Liberia

In the early 19th century, a movement emerged in the United States to settle free-born African Americans and formerly enslaved individuals in Africa. This was driven by the severe racial discrimination they faced in the U.S., including political disenfranchisement and the denial of civil, religious, and social rights. The American Colonization Society (ACS), formed in 1816, spearheaded this effort. Its members included Quakers, who believed Black people would have better opportunities for freedom and prosperity in Africa, and some slaveholders, who saw the "repatriation" of free people of color as a means to prevent slave rebellions.

In 1820, the ACS began its 祖国再建運動_{homeland reconstruction movement}^Japanese, sending the first group of 88 freed slaves from New York to West Africa. In 1822, the ACS began sending free people of color to the Pepper Coast to establish a colony, initially called Christopolis on Cape Mesurado, later renamed Monrovia in honor of U.S. President James Monroe, a prominent ACS supporter. Mortality from tropical diseases was extremely high; of the 4,571 emigrants who arrived between 1820 and 1843, only 1,819 survived. Between 1822 and the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, more than 15,000 freed and free-born African Americans, along with 3,198 Afro-Caribbeans, relocated to what became Liberia. These settlers, carrying their culture and traditions, gradually developed a distinct Americo-Liberian identity. Many were of mixed race, educated in American culture, and did not identify with the indigenous tribes they encountered. They established an ethnic group with a cultural tradition infused with American notions of political republicanism and Protestant Christianity.

The ACS was supported by prominent American politicians like Abraham Lincoln, Henry Clay, and James Monroe. However, Lincoln, in 1862, described Liberia as only "in a certain sense...a success" and alternatively proposed assisting free people of color to emigrate to Chiriquí, now part of Panama. Similar state-based organizations established colonies like Mississippi-in-Africa, Kentucky in Africa, and the Republic of Maryland, which Liberia later annexed.

The Americo-Liberian settlers often had difficult relations with the indigenous peoples. Colonial settlements were raided by the Kru and Grebo from their inland chiefdoms. Believing themselves culturally and educationally superior, the Americo-Liberians developed as an elite minority, creating and maintaining political power. They adopted Western styles of dress, such as hoop skirts and tailcoats, and generally viewed themselves as superior to the indigenous Africans. Indigenous peoples were not granted birthright citizenship in their own land until 1904. Americo-Liberians encouraged religious organizations to establish missions and schools to educate the indigenous populations, though this often came with an agenda of cultural assimilation.

2.3. Declaration of Independence and Americo-Liberian rule

On July 26, 1847, the Americo-Liberian settlers issued a Declaration of Independence and promulgated a constitution, establishing the independent Republic of Liberia. This constitution was modeled on the political principles of the United States Constitution. Joseph Jenkins Roberts, a wealthy free-born African American from Virginia who had settled in Liberia, was elected as its first president, serving from 1848 to 1856. On August 24, 1847, Liberia adopted its 11-striped national flag. The United Kingdom was the first country to recognize Liberia's independence in 1848. The United States, however, did not grant recognition until February 5, 1862, after the Southern states, which held strong political power and opposed a free Black republic, had seceded to form the Confederacy. Liberia was the first African republic to proclaim its independence and is Africa's oldest modern republic. Along with Ethiopia, it was one of only two African countries to maintain its sovereignty during the European colonial "Scramble for Africa."

The leadership of the new nation consisted largely of Americo-Liberians, who established political and economic dominance in the coastal areas. They maintained relations with the U.S. in developing these areas and trade. The passage of the 1865 Ports of Entry Act prohibited foreign commerce with inland tribes, ostensibly to "encourage the growth of civilized values" before allowing such trade. By 1877, the True Whig Party became the country's most powerful political entity. Composed primarily of Americo-Liberians, it maintained social, economic, and political dominance for over a century, until 1980, effectively creating a one-party state where a party nomination virtually ensured election. This perpetuated patterns seen in European colonial rule elsewhere in Africa, with a small elite holding disproportionate power and indigenous populations largely excluded.

Pressure from the United Kingdom, controlling Sierra Leone to the northwest, and France, with interests to the north and east, led to the loss of Liberia's claims to extensive territories, which were annexed by Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast. Liberia struggled to attract investment to develop infrastructure and a larger, industrial economy. A decline in the production of Liberian goods in the late 19th century, coupled with governmental financial struggles, resulted in indebtedness from a series of international loans. This period of economic stagnation lasted for about 50 years from the 1870s.

Despite these challenges, Liberia made diplomatic efforts. On July 16, 1892, Martha Ann Erskine Ricks, born into slavery in Tennessee, met Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle and presented her with a handmade quilt featuring the Liberian coffee tree, Liberia's first diplomatic gift. Ricks stated, "I had heard it often, from the time I was a child, how good the Queen had been to my people-to slaves-and how she wanted us to be free."

During this period of Americo-Liberian rule and economic hardship, social tensions simmered. William Wadé Harris (c. 1860-1929), later known as Prophet Harris, initiated an anti-government movement and was arrested. Originally raised Methodist and later studying Anglican mission work, Harris claimed to have received a revelation from the angel Gabriel while imprisoned in 1910. He then began extensive preaching, reportedly performing miracles. Between 1913 and 1915, his evangelical work extended beyond Liberia to the Gold Coast (modern Ghana), attracting at least 100,000 converts. This religious movement arose against a backdrop of declining traditional religions and economic distress, reflecting broader societal changes.

2.4. Early 20th century, World Wars, and resource exploitation

In the early 20th century, American and other international interests focused on resource extraction, with rubber production becoming a major industry. In 1914, Imperial Germany accounted for three-quarters of Liberia's trade, a concern for British and French colonial authorities as tensions with Germany rose.

Liberia remained neutral in World War I until August 4, 1917, when it declared war on Germany. Subsequently, it was one of 32 nations at the Versailles Peace Conference in 1919, which ended the war and established the League of Nations. Liberia was among the few African and non-Western nations to participate in both.

The 1927 Liberian general election highlighted the True Whig Party's entrenched power, with electoral proceedings widely considered fraudulent; the winning candidate, Charles D. B. King, was declared to have received votes amounting to more than 15 times the number of eligible voters, while the loser actually received around 60% of the eligible vote.

Shortly thereafter, allegations of modern slavery in Liberia led the League of Nations to establish the Christy Commission. Its findings revealed government involvement in widespread "forced or compulsory labour," particularly exploiting minority ethnic groups to enrich well-connected elites. The report implicated government officials in a system where Liberian laborers were forcibly shipped to the Spanish colony of Fernando Po (now Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea) under conditions akin to the slave trade. As a result of the international outcry and the commission's report, President Charles D. B. King and Vice President Allen N. Yancy resigned in 1930. Arthur Barclay's nephew, Edwin Barclay, succeeded King as president. The economic depression of the 1930s pushed Liberia to the brink of collapse, with government revenue falling to just 321.00 K USD in 1933. The nation's finances were somewhat stabilized when new rubber plantations, established under a 1926 agreement with the American Firestone Company (granting a 99-year lease for rubber cultivation in exchange for financial aid), began production in 1934.

During World War II, Liberia initially remained neutral but later supported the Allied cause. The United States, recognizing Liberia's strategic importance, made significant infrastructure improvements to support its military efforts in Africa and Europe against Germany. This included the construction of the Freeport of Monrovia and Roberts International Airport under the Lend-Lease program, even before the U.S. officially entered the war in 1942. Liberia formally declared war on Germany, Japan, and Italy in 1944.

2.5. Tubman era: Economic development and political consolidation

Following World War II, President William Tubman, who took office in 1944, ushered in a period of significant economic and political change. He encouraged foreign investment through his "Open Door" policy, leading Liberia to achieve the second-highest rate of economic growth globally during the 1950s. This era saw increased prosperity and a heightened international profile for the country. Tubman also made efforts towards national unification, aiming to reduce the economic, political, and social disparities between the Americo-Liberian elite and the indigenous populations. Infrastructure development was a key focus.

Internationally, Liberia was a founding member of the United Nations. It was a vocal critic of South African apartheid, a proponent of African independence from European colonial powers, and a strong supporter of Pan-Africanism. Liberia also played a role in funding the Organisation of African Unity (OAU).

However, Tubman's long rule (until his death in 1971) was also characterized by single-party dominance by the True Whig Party and autocratic political control. While he promoted equality, underlying social tensions and inequalities persisted, as the Americo-Liberian elite largely retained their privileged position. Upon Tubman's death in 1971, Vice President William R. Tolbert Jr. assumed the presidency. Tolbert continued some of Tubman's policies, expressing a commitment to equality for all Liberians and attempting to dismantle systems of nepotism. He also shifted foreign policy, establishing relations with the Soviet Union, China, Cuba, and other Eastern Bloc countries, which distanced Liberia somewhat from its traditional alignment with the United States. Tolbert's efforts to address severe poverty through various policies were largely unsuccessful, leading to declining public confidence.

2.6. Political instability and 1980 coup d'état

Growing political unrest marked the late 1970s. In 1973, Toba-Nah Tipoteh formed the anti-government group "Movement for Justice in Africa" (MOJA). In 1979, protests erupted against a government-proposed increase in the price of rice. Gabriel Baccus Matthews, a former State Department official under Tolbert and a key MOJA member, led large-scale protests against the Tolbert administration and was sentenced to death for sedition, though he was later released.

On April 12, 1980, this simmering political tension culminated in a military coup led by Master Sergeant Samuel Doe of the Krahn ethnic group. President William R. Tolbert Jr. was overthrown and assassinated. Doe and his fellow plotters, under the banner of the People's Redemption Council (PRC), subsequently executed most of Tolbert's cabinet and other Americo-Liberian government officials and True Whig Party members on a Monrovia beach. This bloody coup marked the definitive end of over a century of Americo-Liberian political dominance and brought Liberia's first indigenous leader to power.

As a strategic Cold War ally of the West, Doe's regime initially received significant financial backing from the United States. However, the PRC was widely criticized for corruption, human rights abuses, and political repression. After Liberia adopted a new constitution in 1985, Doe was elected president in subsequent elections that were internationally condemned as fraudulent. On November 12, 1985, a failed coup was launched by Thomas Quiwonkpa, an ethnic Gio whose soldiers briefly occupied the national radio station. Government repression intensified in response; Doe's troops retaliated by targeting and executing members of the Gio and Mano ethnic groups in Nimba County, killing between 600 and 1,500 people. In 1986, Doe formally inaugurated the Second Republic of Liberia with himself as president.

2.7. First Liberian Civil War (1989-1997)

In December 1989, the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), a rebel group led by Charles Taylor and composed largely of Gio and Mano people seeking revenge for Doe's atrocities, launched an insurrection from Nimba County against Doe's government. The NPFL received backing from neighboring countries such as Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast. This invasion triggered the First Liberian Civil War.

By September 1990, Doe's forces controlled only a small area around the capital. That month, Doe was captured and brutally tortured to death by a splinter rebel faction, the Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL), led by Prince Y. Johnson. Doe's execution plunged the country further into chaos as rebel factions began to fight amongst themselves. Amos Sawyer established an interim government, but the NPFL, controlling much of the country, did not recognize it.

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) organized a military intervention force, the ECOMOG, led primarily by Nigeria and Ghana, to restore order. The fighting intensified, with various factions emerging, including the Krahn-based United Liberation Movement of Liberia for Democracy (ULIMO), which later split into ULIMO-J (led by Roosevelt Johnson) and ULIMO-K (led by Alhaji G.V. Kromah). Taylor's NPFL, in retaliation for Sierra Leone's support of ECOMOG, intervened in the Sierra Leone Civil War by backing the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) led by Foday Sankoh.

The war was marked by extreme brutality, widespread human rights abuses, the use of child soldiers, and mass displacement. Between 1989 and 1997, an estimated 60,000 to 200,000 Liberians died (Japanese sources suggest 150,000+; Korean sources cite 250,000 for both wars combined), and by 1996, around 700,000 others had become refugees in neighboring countries. The United States, citing past failures in economic aid and the complexity of the conflict, declared a policy of non-intervention but provided financial support to ECOMOG.

A peace deal was reached in 1995, leading to a ceasefire in 1996. Ruth Perry headed an interim government, becoming Africa's first female (though unelected) head of state. In the 1997 general election, Charles Taylor, whose campaign slogan infamously was "He killed my ma, he killed my pa, but I will vote for him," was elected president with 75.3% of the vote. This marked the beginning of Liberia's Third Republic. Taylor, having received campaign funds from Taiwan, established diplomatic relations, leading to a break with the People's Republic of China.

2.8. Second Liberian Civil War (1999-2003)

Under Charles Taylor's presidency, Liberia became internationally isolated, widely regarded as a pariah state. His government was accused of profiting from blood diamonds and illegal timber exports to fund the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in the Sierra Leone Civil War, perpetuating regional instability.

The Second Liberian Civil War began in 1999 when Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), a rebel group based in northwestern Liberia and backed by Guinea, launched an armed insurrection against Taylor's government. In March 2003, another rebel group, the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL), supported by Ivory Coast and composed largely of Krahn fighters, began launching attacks against Taylor from the southeast.

Peace talks between the warring factions commenced in Accra, Ghana, in June 2003. During these talks, Taylor was indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) for war crimes and crimes against humanity related to his role in the Sierra Leone conflict. By July 2003, rebel forces had launched an assault on Monrovia, besieging the capital.

Under intense pressure from the international community, domestic peace movements like the Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace (led by Leymah Gbowee), and the advance of rebel forces, Taylor resigned in August 2003 and went into exile in Nigeria. His vice president, Moses Blah, briefly served as interim president. A comprehensive peace agreement, the Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement, was signed later that month, officially ending the war. The two civil wars combined resulted in the deaths of an estimated 250,000 people (about 8% of the population) and the displacement of many more, with Liberia's economy shrinking by 90%.

2.9. 21st century: Peacebuilding, democratic transitions, and contemporary challenges

The United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) began deploying in September 2003 to provide security, monitor the peace accord, and assist in rebuilding state institutions. An interim government, led by Chairman Gyude Bryant, took power the following October. UNMIL also undertook a disarmament, demobilization, reintegration, and repatriation (DDRR) program for former combatants.

The subsequent 2005 Liberian general election was internationally regarded as the freest and fairest in Liberian history. Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, a US-educated economist, former Minister of Finance, and former Director of the UN Development Programme's Africa Bureau, was elected president, becoming Africa's first elected female head of state. Upon her inauguration in January 2006, Sirleaf requested Taylor's extradition from Nigeria. In March 2006, Taylor was apprehended and transferred to the SCSL for trial in The Hague. He was eventually convicted in 2012 and sentenced to 50 years in prison.

In 2006, the Sirleaf government established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to address the causes and crimes of the civil wars and promote national healing, though its recommendations have faced challenges in implementation. In 2011, peace activist Leymah Gbowee was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for her work in leading the women's peace movement that significantly contributed to ending the Second Liberian Civil War. President Sirleaf was also a co-recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize that year, recognized for her non-violent struggle for the safety of women and for women's rights to full participation in peace-building work. Sirleaf was re-elected for a second six-year term in the 2011 Liberian general election.

Liberia faced a severe public health crisis with the 2014-2016 West Africa Ebola outbreak, which originated in Guinea and spread to Liberia. The epidemic claimed over 4,800 lives in Liberia (over 2,800 confirmed deaths by November 2014 as per some sources) and severely strained its already fragile healthcare system and economy. The country was declared Ebola-free multiple times before the epidemic was finally contained.

The 2017 Liberian general election saw former professional footballer George Weah elected president. His inauguration in January 2018 marked Liberia's first fully democratic transition of power in 74 years. Weah's presidency focused on fighting corruption, reforming the economy, combating illiteracy, and improving living conditions. However, his administration also faced criticism regarding governance and economic management.

In the tightly contested 2023 Liberian general election, opposition leader Joseph Boakai, who had previously served as Vice President under Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, defeated Weah. Boakai was sworn in as Liberia's new president on January 22, 2024. Contemporary challenges for Liberia include consolidating democratic institutions, ensuring justice and reconciliation for past atrocities, combating pervasive corruption, addressing high rates of poverty and unemployment, rebuilding infrastructure, and strengthening the rule of law and human rights protections.

3.1. Topography and climate

Liberia is situated in West Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean to its southwest. It lies between latitudes 4° and 9°N, and longitudes 7° and 12°W. The landscape is characterized mostly by flat to rolling coastal plains that contain mangroves and swamps. These plains rise to a rolling plateau and low mountains in the northeast. Tropical rainforests cover the hills, while elephant grass and semi-deciduous forests are the dominant vegetation in the northern sections.

Liberia's watershed generally flows in a southwestern pattern towards the sea, as new rains move down the forested plateau from the inland mountain range of Guinée Forestière in Guinea. Cape Mount, near the border with Sierra Leone, receives the most precipitation in the nation. The country's main northwestern boundary is traversed by the Mano River, while its southeastern limits are bounded by the Cavalla River. Liberia's three largest rivers are the St. Paul, exiting near Monrovia; the St. John River, at Buchanan; and the Cestos River, all of which flow into the Atlantic. The Cavalla is the longest river in the nation at 320 mile.

The highest point wholly within Liberia is Mount Wuteve at 4.7 K ft ^{(1.44 K m)} above sea level, located in the northwestern Liberia range of the West Africa Mountains and the Guinea Highlands. Mount Nimba, near Yekepa, is higher at 5.7 K ft ^{(1.75 K m)} above sea level, but it is not wholly within Liberia as it straddles the border with Guinea and Ivory Coast, making it the tallest mountain in those countries as well.

The climate is equatorial in the south, hot year-round with heavy rainfall from May to October, often with a short interlude in mid-July to August. During the winter months of November to March, dry, dust-laden harmattan winds blow inland from the Sahara, causing dry conditions and affecting visibility.

3.2. Biodiversity and conservation

Liberia possesses about forty percent of the remaining Upper Guinean forest, a significant global biodiversity hotspot. This rich ecosystem is home to a vast array of flora and fauna. Four terrestrial ecoregions lie within Liberia's borders: Guinean montane forests, Western Guinean lowland forests, Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, and Guinean mangroves. Forests on the coastline are composed mostly of salt-tolerant mangrove trees, while the more sparsely populated inland has forests opening onto a plateau of drier grasslands. Liberia was an important producer of rubber in the early 20th century, and rubber plantations remain a feature of its landscape.

The country's fauna includes endangered species such as elephants, the pygmy hippopotamus, chimpanzees, leopards, various species of duikers, and other monkeys. These animals are often hunted for human consumption as bushmeat. Bushmeat is widely eaten in Liberia and considered a delicacy. A 2004 public opinion survey found that bushmeat ranked second behind fish as a preferred source of protein in Monrovia. Bushmeat is also often illegally exported to neighboring Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast. The World Conservation Union estimates that fewer than 3,000 pygmy hippos remain in the wild.

Liberia is also home to various animal-hosted diseases. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, which causes nagana (animal trypanosomiasis) and sleeping sickness in humans, is endemic in some animal hosts, including domestic and wild animals. Its vector, the tsetse fly Glossina palpalis gambiense, is a constant presence in the rainforests. The Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is also found in Liberia. The Hairy Slit-Faced Bat (Nycteris hispida) is known to suffer from malaria in the region.

Conservation efforts include the establishment of protected areas such as Sapo National Park and the East Nimba Nature Reserve. However, these areas face threats from poaching, illegal logging, and agricultural encroachment.

3.3. Environmental issues

Liberia faces significant environmental challenges. Deforestation is a major concern, driven by unsustainable logging practices, slash-and-burn agriculture for subsistence farming, and charcoal production. A 2004 UN report estimated that 99% of Liberians burned charcoal and fuelwood for cooking and heating. Illegal logging increased after the end of the Second Civil War in 2003. In 2012, controversy arose when President Sirleaf granted licenses to companies to cut down 58% of Liberia's remaining primary rainforest, though many of these permits were later canceled after international protests. In September 2014, Liberia and Norway entered into an agreement whereby Liberia would cease all logging in exchange for 150.00 M USD in development aid, a landmark deal aimed at protecting its forests.

Other environmental issues include soil erosion, particularly in deforested areas, and pollution in urban centers like Monrovia. Since 2006, the international community, via the World Bank, has funded garbage collection and disposal in Monrovia.

Liberia is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. These include extreme weather events, sea-level rise affecting coastal areas, and changes in water systems and availability. Climate change is expected to severely impact key sectors of the Liberian economy, especially agriculture, fisheries, and forestry. The country has been an active participant in international and local policy discussions related to climate change adaptation and mitigation.

4.1. Structure of government

The Constitution of Liberia establishes the framework for the government.
The executive branch is headed by the President of Liberia, who serves as the head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of Liberia. The president, along with the Vice President of Liberia, is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and can serve a maximum of two terms. Presidential duties include signing or vetoing legislative bills, granting pardons, and appointing Cabinet members, judges, and other public officials.

The legislative branch is the bicameral Legislature of Liberia, consisting of the Senate (upper house) and the House of Representatives (lower house). The House of Representatives has 73 members, apportioned among the 15 counties based on the national census, with each county guaranteed a minimum of two members. Representatives are elected by plurality vote in their respective electoral districts for six-year terms. The House is led by a Speaker. The Senate is composed of 30 members, with two senators elected from each county for nine-year terms, also by plurality vote. The Vice President of Liberia serves as the President of the Senate, with a President pro tempore presiding in their absence.

The judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court of Liberia, which consists of a Chief Justice and four Associate Justices. Justices are nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate, serving until the age of 70. The judiciary also includes circuit courts, specialty courts (such as criminal, civil, and labor courts), magistrate courts, and justices of the peace. The judicial system is a blend of common law, based on Anglo-American law, and customary law. An informal system of traditional courts still exists in rural areas, and trial by ordeal, though officially outlawed, has reportedly continued in some instances.

From 1877 to 1980, Liberian politics was dominated by the True Whig Party. Today, over 20 political parties are registered, often based around personalities and ethnic affiliations rather than distinct ideologies, and many suffer from poor organizational capacity. The 2005 elections marked the first time that the president's party did not gain a majority of seats in the Legislature, indicating a shift towards a more competitive multi-party system. According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices, Liberia is ranked 65th electoral democracy worldwide and 9th electoral democracy in Africa.

4.2. Military

The Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL) are the country's military forces. As of 2023, the AFL had approximately 2,010 active personnel. The majority are organized into the 23rd Infantry Brigade, which includes two infantry battalions, one engineer company, and one military police company. There is also a small Liberian National Coast Guard with about 60 personnel and several patrol ships. The AFL previously had an Air Wing, but its aircraft and facilities have been out of operation since the civil wars. Efforts are underway to reactivate the Air Wing with assistance from the Nigerian Air Force.

The old military was completely disbanded following the civil wars and rebuilt from 2005 with significant assistance and funding from the United States. This military assistance program, known as Operation Onward Liberty from 2010, aimed to create a professional, apolitical military. The operation concluded in 2016, though the Michigan National Guard continues to work with the AFL as part of the U.S. National Guard's State Partnership Program.

Since 2013, Liberia has deployed peacekeepers to other countries as part of UN or ECOWAS missions. The largest deployment has been an infantry unit to Mali (MINUSMA), with smaller numbers of personnel in Sudan, Guinea-Bissau, and South Sudan. Approximately 800 of the AFL's personnel were deployed to Mali in several rotations before the UN mission there ended in December 2023. In 2022, Liberia's military budget was 18.70 M USD.

4.3. Foreign relations

Following the turmoil of the First and Second Liberian Civil Wars, Liberia's internal stabilization in the 21st century led to a return to cordial relations with neighboring countries and much of the Western world. The United States has historically been a key partner, reflecting the unique origins of Liberia. This relationship encompasses diplomatic, economic, and security cooperation.

As with many African countries, the People's Republic of China has become an important partner in post-conflict reconstruction and economic development, investing in infrastructure and other sectors. Liberia switched its diplomatic recognition from Taiwan to China in 2003 after Charles Taylor's departure.

Liberia is a founding member of the United Nations and its specialized agencies. It is also a member of the African Union (AU), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the African Development Bank (AfDB), the Mano River Union (MRU) alongside Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Ivory Coast, and the Non-Aligned Movement. Liberia became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2016.

In the past, Liberia's relations with its neighbors, particularly Guinea and Sierra Leone, were strained due to accusations of Liberia backing rebel groups in those countries during its civil wars. However, relations have significantly improved with the restoration of peace and democratic governance in the region.

4.4. Law enforcement and crime

The Liberian National Police (LNP) is the country's national police force, responsible for maintaining law and order. As of October 2007, it had 844 officers in 33 stations in Montserrado County. The National Police Training Academy is located in Paynesville. The LNP has faced significant challenges, including a history of corruption, lack of resources, and the need for professionalization, particularly in the post-conflict era. International partners have assisted in efforts to reform and rebuild the police force.

Internal security is characterized by general lawlessness in some areas, coupled with the historical danger of former combatants re-establishing militias. Common crimes include theft, armed robbery, and domestic violence. Rape and sexual assault are serious and frequent issues, with Liberia having one of the highest incidences of sexual violence against women globally. Rape is the most frequently reported crime, accounting for more than one-third of sexual violence cases. Adolescent girls are the most frequently assaulted, and perpetrators are often adult men known to the victims. The legacy of the civil wars, where sexual violence was used as a weapon, has contributed to this ongoing crisis.

The criminal justice system, including courts and correctional facilities, also faces challenges such as backlogs, limited resources, and corruption, which can hinder access to justice.

4.5. Corruption

Corruption is a pervasive and deeply entrenched problem at all levels of the Liberian government and society, significantly undermining governance, economic development, and public trust. When President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf took office in 2006, she declared corruption "the major public enemy." Despite various anti-corruption initiatives and the establishment of institutions like the Liberia Anti-Corruption Commission (LACC), progress in curbing corruption has been slow and challenging.

In 2014, the U.S. ambassador to Liberia stated that corruption was harming people through "unnecessary costs to products and services that are already difficult for many Liberians to afford." Liberia consistently ranks poorly on international corruption perception indices. For instance, while its score on Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index showed some improvement from 2.1 in 2007 (ranking 150th out of 180 countries), corruption remains a systemic issue. According to Transparency International's 2010 Global Corruption Barometer, 89% of Liberians reported having to pay a bribe when dealing with public-facing government functionaries, the highest national percentage in the world at that time.

Corruption manifests in various forms, including bribery, embezzlement of public funds, nepotism, and lack of transparency in public procurement and resource management. It impacts essential services, diverts resources from development priorities like health and education, and erodes citizen confidence in state institutions, posing a significant obstacle to Liberia's long-term stability and prosperity.

6.1. Overview and trends

The Central Bank of Liberia is responsible for printing and maintaining the Liberian dollar (LRD), Liberia's primary currency. The United States dollar (USD) is also legal tender and widely used. Liberia is one of the world's poorest countries, with a formal employment rate estimated at only 15%. Its GDP per capita peaked in 1980 at 496 USD (then comparable to Egypt), but plummeted due to political instability and conflict. In 2011, the country's nominal GDP was 1.15 B USD, with a nominal GDP per capita of 297 USD, among the lowest globally.

Historically, the Liberian economy has relied heavily on foreign aid, foreign direct investment (FDI), and exports of natural resources such as iron ore, rubber, and timber. Following a peak in growth in 1979, the economy began a steady decline due to economic mismanagement after the 1980 coup. This decline was drastically accelerated by the outbreak of civil war in 1989; GDP was reduced by an estimated 90% between 1989 and 1995. After the war ended in 2003, GDP growth began to recover, reaching 9.4% in 2007. However, growth slowed during the Great Recession (4.6% in 2009) and was severely impacted by the 2014 Ebola crisis. Recent growth has been modest, with ongoing efforts to diversify the economy and attract investment. In September 2024, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) approved a financial arrangement of approximately 210.00 M USD for Liberia, including an immediate disbursement of around 8.00 M USD, to support economic recovery and address fiscal challenges.

Current impediments to growth include a small domestic market, inadequate infrastructure (especially transportation and energy), high transportation costs, poor trade links with neighboring countries, and the high dollarization of the economy. Inflation spiked in 2008 due to global food and energy crises, reaching 17.5%, before declining. Liberia's external debt was estimated at approximately 4.50 B USD (800% of GDP) in 2006, but significant bilateral, multilateral, and commercial debt relief between 2007 and 2010 reduced this to 222.90 M USD by 2011.

Liberia gained observer status with the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2010 and became an official member in 2016. The country has attracted substantial FDI relative to its GDP, with 16.00 B USD in investment reported since 2006, particularly in iron ore and palm oil industries through concession agreements with multinational corporations like ArcelorMittal, BHP, and Sime Darby. However, some of these concessions, especially in the palm oil sector (e.g., Sime Darby of Malaysia and Golden Veroleum of the USA), have faced accusations of destroying local livelihoods and displacing communities, raising concerns about the social and environmental impact of such investments.

6.2. Major sectors

The Liberian economy is primarily based on agriculture and natural resource extraction, with a growing service sector.

6.2.2. Mining

Liberia is rich in mineral resources, including iron ore, gold, and diamonds. Mining, particularly of iron ore, has historically been a major contributor to export earnings. The iron ore sector has attracted significant foreign investment, with companies like ArcelorMittal operating major mines (e.g., in Nimba County, reviving the former LAMCO mine near Yekepa). Gold and diamond mining also occur, often on an artisanal and small-scale basis, which can present challenges for regulation and ensuring fair labor practices.

Liberia's history with diamonds is linked to the "blood diamond" issue, where diamond sales funded conflicts in the region. During the civil wars, Liberia acted as a major trader in Sierra Leonean conflict diamonds, exporting over 300.00 M USD in diamonds in 1999. This led to a UN ban on Liberian diamond exports in 2001. The ban was lifted in 2007 after Liberia joined the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme, an international initiative to prevent conflict diamonds from entering the legitimate market. Efforts continue to promote responsible mining practices and ensure that mineral wealth contributes to national development and benefits local communities. Additional UN sanctions were placed on Liberian timber exports in 2003, which had risen from 5.00 M USD in 1997 to over 100.00 M USD in 2002 and were believed to be funding rebels in Sierra Leone. These timber sanctions were lifted in 2006.

6.3. Telecommunications

Liberia's telecommunications infrastructure was severely damaged during the civil wars but has seen considerable development since, particularly in mobile telephony. Mobile phone penetration is widespread, with multiple providers offering services. According to some sources, there are six major newspapers, and approximately 65% of the population has mobile phone service. Internet access is growing but remains limited, especially in rural areas, and is often expensive. Efforts are ongoing to expand broadband connectivity and leverage Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) for development, including in education, health, and governance. Radio remains a predominant means of mass communication, especially given literacy rates and access to other media.

6.4. Transportation

Liberia's transportation network faces significant challenges due to historically poor infrastructure, damage from civil wars, and difficult terrain and climate.

• Roads: The road network is largely unpaved, and many roads become impassable during the heavy rainy season. Efforts are ongoing to rehabilitate and pave key arterial roads connecting major cities and economic zones, often with support from international donors.
• Ports: The Freeport of Monrovia is the country's main port, handling the majority of international trade. Other ports include Buchanan (primarily for iron ore export), Greenville, and Harper. These ports require ongoing modernization and dredging to accommodate larger vessels and improve efficiency.
• Airports: Roberts International Airport (RIA), located near Harbel, is the country's primary international airport. James Spriggs Payne Airport in Monrovia serves domestic and regional flights. Infrastructure at these airports has been upgraded but requires further development.
• Railways: Liberia has historically had railways built primarily for transporting iron ore from mines to ports (e.g., from Yekepa to Buchanan, and from Bomi Hills to Monrovia). Some of these lines fell into disrepair during the wars, but sections have been rehabilitated for current mining operations. There is no national passenger rail network.

The poor state of transportation infrastructure significantly increases the cost of doing business, limits access to markets for agricultural products, and impedes the delivery of social services to rural areas.

6.5. Energy

Liberia's energy sector is characterized by extremely low electricity generation capacity and access rates, high costs, and heavy reliance on expensive, privately-owned diesel generators. The state-owned Liberia Electricity Corporation (LEC) operates a small grid, primarily serving the Greater Monrovia District. Total installed capacity was only 20 MW in 2013, a stark decline from a pre-war peak of 191 MW in 1989. The cost of electricity, where available, is among the highest in the world (e.g., 0.54 USD per kWh).

Significant efforts have been made to rehabilitate and expand the energy infrastructure. The Mount Coffee Hydropower Project, with a potential maximum capacity of 88 MW (historically 80 MW), was severely damaged during the civil wars. Its repair and expansion were completed in stages, with full commissioning around 2018, significantly boosting national generation capacity. Construction of new heavy fuel oil (HFO) power plants has also added capacity. Liberia has also begun importing power from neighboring Ivory Coast and Guinea through the West African Power Pool (WAPP), aiming to improve reliability and reduce costs.

Exploration for offshore oil has been undertaken, with unproven reserves potentially exceeding one billion barrels. The government has divided its offshore waters into blocks and auctioned exploration licenses, attracting international oil companies like Repsol, Chevron, and Woodside Petroleum. However, the development of a significant oil industry remains uncertain. The focus remains on improving access to affordable and reliable electricity for households and businesses, which is crucial for economic growth and poverty reduction.

6.6. Poverty and food security

Liberia suffers from high levels of poverty and food insecurity, exacerbated by its history of conflict, economic instability, and vulnerability to shocks like the Ebola crisis. A large percentage of the population lives below the international poverty line (83% in 2015 according to WFP). Access to basic services such as clean water, sanitation, healthcare, and education is limited, particularly in rural areas.

Food insecurity is a persistent challenge. Liberia imports a significant portion of its staple food, rice (around 90% according to some sources), making it vulnerable to global price fluctuations and supply disruptions. Malnutrition rates, especially among children under five, have been a concern (20.4% in 2007). Agricultural productivity is low, and many smallholder farmers struggle with access to inputs, markets, and credit. The civil wars disrupted agricultural production and displaced rural populations, further undermining food security.

National and international efforts focus on alleviating hunger, improving agricultural productivity through sustainable practices, strengthening social safety nets, enhancing resilience to shocks, and promoting livelihoods, particularly for vulnerable populations such as women, children, and rural communities. Addressing land tenure issues and ensuring equitable access to resources are also critical components of poverty reduction and food security strategies.

7.1. Ethnic groups

Liberia's population was 4,694,608 according to the 2017 national census. Of these, 1,118,241 lived in Montserrado County, the most populous county and home to the capital, Monrovia. The Greater Monrovia District accounts for 970,824 residents. Nimba County is the next most populous, with 462,026 residents. Prior to 2008, the last census was in 1984 (2,101,628 people). The population was 1,016,443 in 1962 and 1,503,368 in 1974. Liberia has had a high population growth rate, estimated at 4.50% per annum in 2006. In 2010, approximately 43.5% of Liberians were below the age of 15.

The population includes 16 officially recognized indigenous ethnic groups, which comprise about 95% of the total. These groups include the Kpelle (the largest, 20.3%, mainly in Bong County), Bassa (13.4%), Grebo (10%), Gio (or Dan) (8%), Mano (7.9%), Kru (6%), Lorma (5.1%), Kissi (4.8%), Gola (4.4%), Krahn (4%), Vai (4%), Mandingo (or Mandinka) (3.2%), Gbandi (3%), Mende (1.3%), Sapo (1.2%), Belleh (0.8%), and Dei (or Dewoin) (0.3%). Other Liberians make up 0.6%, other Africans 1.4%, and non-Africans 0.1%.

Americo-Liberians, descendants of African American settlers, make up about 2.5% of the population. Congo people, descendants of repatriated Kongo and Afro-Caribbean formerly enslaved people who arrived starting in 1825, also constitute an estimated 2.5%. These two groups, though a small minority, historically held significant political and economic power.

Numerous immigrants, including Lebanese, Indians, and other West African nationals, have come as merchants and form a notable part of the business community. Intermarriage between ethnic Liberians and Lebanese has resulted in a mixed-race population, particularly around Monrovia. A small minority of Liberians are White Africans of European descent. The Liberian constitution controversially restricts citizenship to "Negroes or persons of Negro descent," a provision with historical roots in protecting the settler state but which raises contemporary questions about inclusivity.

7.2. Languages

English is the official language of Liberia and serves as the lingua franca, used in government, education, and commerce. However, a significant portion of the population also speaks one or more of the country's indigenous languages. As of 2022, there are 27 indigenous languages spoken in Liberia, belonging primarily to the Mande, Kru, and Mel (Southern Atlantic) language families. While English is official, each indigenous language is a first language for only a small percentage of the population.

A variety of creolized English dialects, collectively known as Liberian English, are also widely spoken. These dialects range from more standard forms to those heavily influenced by indigenous languages and West African Pidgin English. The Vai people are notable for possessing their own indigenous script, the Vai script.

7.3. Religion

According to the 2008 National Census, 85.6% of Liberia's population practiced Christianity. Muslims represented a minority of 12.2%. A small percentage identified with traditional indigenous religions (0.5%) or claimed no religion (1.5%). Other faiths like Baháʼí, Hindu, Sikh, or Buddhist are practiced by very small numbers. 2010 estimates suggest the religious composition is predominantly Protestant (76.3%), followed by Islam (12.2%), Roman Catholicism (7.2%), other Christian denominations (1.6%), unaffiliated (1.4%), and other faiths (1.3%).

The Christian population is predominantly Protestant, with diverse denominations such as Lutheran, Baptist, Episcopal (Anglican), Presbyterian, Pentecostal, United Methodist, African Methodist Episcopal (AME), and AME Zion. Many of these denominations were introduced by African-American settlers. The Roman Catholic Church also has a significant presence. Protestantism was historically associated with the Americo-Liberian settlers, while indigenous peoples largely adopted Christianity over time from their traditional animist beliefs.

Many Liberians, including Christians, also participate in traditional, gender-based indigenous religious secret societies, such as Poro for men and Sande for women. The Sande society is known to practice female genital mutilation.

Islam is primarily practiced by the Mandingo and Vai ethnic groups. Liberian Muslims are predominantly Sunni, with smaller communities of Shia, Ahmadiyya, Sufi, and non-denominational Muslims.

The Liberian constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right. While the Constitution mandates the separation of church and state, Liberia is often considered a Christian state in practice. Public schools may offer biblical studies, though parents can opt their children out. Commerce may be restricted on Sundays and major Christian holidays by law. The government does not legally require businesses or schools to excuse Muslims for Friday prayers.

8.1. Overview of human rights situation

Liberia has made significant strides in improving its human rights record since the end of the civil wars in 2003, particularly with the establishment of democratic institutions and increased space for civil society. However, serious human rights challenges persist. These include weaknesses in the rule of law, an under-resourced and often corrupt judiciary leading to limited access to justice, and impunity for past human rights violations. Freedom of expression and the press are generally respected, but journalists and activists can face harassment or intimidation. Police brutality and misconduct remain concerns, despite efforts to reform the security sector. Prison conditions are often harsh and overcrowded.

8.2. Gender equality and women's rights

Despite electing Africa's first female head of state, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, women in Liberia continue to face significant discrimination and challenges. Gender-based violence is pervasive, including alarmingly high rates of rape and domestic violence, often perpetrated with impunity. The legacy of the civil wars, during which sexual violence was widespread, contributes to this problem. Harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation (FGM) are prevalent in some communities, particularly within the context of traditional Sande societies; an estimated 58.2% to 66% of women have undergone FGM. While a domestic violence law was passed, marital rape is not explicitly criminalized.

Women's political participation has increased, but they remain underrepresented in decision-making positions at all levels of government. Economic empowerment for women is hampered by limited access to education, land, credit, and formal employment. Efforts by governmental bodies and civil society organizations aim to promote gender equality, combat gender-based violence, increase women's political and economic participation, and challenge discriminatory social norms.

8.3. LGBT rights

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals in Liberia face significant legal and societal discrimination. Same-sex sexual activity is criminalized under Liberian law ("voluntary sodomy" is a misdemeanor). There are no legal protections against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. In July 2012, the Liberian Senate voted unanimously to enact legislation to further prohibit and criminalize same-sex marriages, reflecting widespread social conservatism and hostility towards LGBT people. LGBT individuals often face harassment, violence, and stigma, making it difficult for them to live openly and safely. Advocacy for LGBT rights is challenging due to the hostile environment.

8.4. Citizenship and racial considerations

A controversial provision in the Liberian Constitution (Article 27b) restricts Liberian citizenship to "Negroes or persons of Negro descent." This provision dates back to the country's founding, intended to create a haven for people of African descent and protect the settler state from foreign (white) domination. However, in contemporary Liberia, this clause is a subject of ongoing debate. Critics argue that it is discriminatory, anachronistic, and hinders national inclusivity and investment by excluding people of non-Black African descent, including Liberians of Lebanese or other ancestries who may have lived in the country for generations. Proponents argue it protects Liberia's unique identity and heritage. In 2018, President George Weah expressed that the rule was "unnecessary, racist, and inappropriate," signaling a potential move towards reform, though legislative changes face domestic opposition. This issue touches on fundamental questions of national identity, equality, and non-discrimination.

8.5. Impact of civil wars on human rights

The two Liberian Civil Wars (1989-1997 and 1999-2003) had a devastating and lasting impact on the human rights landscape. Widespread atrocities were committed by all factions, including mass killings, torture, rape and other forms of sexual violence, forced recruitment of child soldiers, and mass displacement. A culture of impunity for these crimes has largely persisted. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), established in 2006, documented many of these abuses and made recommendations for justice, reparations, and institutional reforms. However, the implementation of these recommendations, particularly those related to prosecutions for war crimes and crimes against humanity, has been very limited. This lack of accountability remains a significant obstacle to national reconciliation and the establishment of a just and rights-respecting society. Victims continue to seek justice and support, and civil society groups advocate for the establishment of a war crimes court for Liberia. The long-term consequences also include deep societal trauma, broken social fabric, and the normalization of violence in some contexts.

10.1. Ebola virus epidemic and aftermath

The 2014-2016 West Africa Ebola outbreak had a devastating impact on Liberia. The virus, which spread from Guinea, overwhelmed the country's already fragile health system. As of November 17, 2014, there were 2,812 confirmed deaths from the outbreak in Liberia, with thousands more infected. The epidemic led to widespread social and economic disruption, school closures, and a breakdown of essential health services for other conditions.

Response efforts, supported by international organizations and partners, focused on case identification, contact tracing, isolation and treatment, safe burials, and community engagement. The crisis highlighted critical weaknesses in public health infrastructure, surveillance systems, and emergency preparedness. In the aftermath, efforts have been made to strengthen the health system, improve disease surveillance, train healthcare workers, and rebuild community trust in health services. The long-term consequences include lingering health issues for survivors, psychosocial trauma, and the economic impact on affected households and the national economy.

11.1. Traditions and lifestyle

The social customs and cultural standards of the Americo-Liberians were rooted in the antebellum American South. Early settlers often wore formal attire like top hats and tailcoats and modeled their homes on those of Southern plantation owners. Many Americo-Liberian men were members of the Masonic Order of Liberia, which became significantly involved in the nation's politics. Quilting is a notable textile art form in Liberia, a skill brought by the settlers. Liberia hosted National Fairs in 1857 and 1858 where prizes were awarded for needle arts. Martha Ann Ricks, a well-known Liberian quilter, presented a quilt featuring the Liberian coffee tree to Queen Victoria in 1892. When President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf took office, she reportedly had a Liberian-made quilt installed in her presidential office.

Indigenous traditions remain strong, particularly in rural areas. These include distinct forms of music, dance, storytelling, and craftsmanship. Traditional secret societies, such as the Poro for men and the Sande for women, play important roles in social cohesion, education, and initiation rites in many communities. These societies often have their own unique rituals, symbols, and artistic expressions, including masks and costumes used in ceremonies. The practice of polygamy is accepted under customary law in some communities, with reports indicating that about one-third of married Liberian women between the ages of 15-49 are in polygamous marriages. Men may have up to four wives under customary law.

11.2. Literature

Liberia has a literary tradition that dates back over a century, reflecting its unique historical narrative. Prominent Liberian authors include Edward Wilmot Blyden, a major pan-Africanist intellectual of the 19th century, Bai T. Moore, Roland T. Dempster, and Wilton G. S. Sankawulo. Bai T. Moore's novella, Murder in the Cassava Patch, is considered one of Liberia's most celebrated literary works. Contemporary Liberian literature continues to explore themes of identity, conflict, diaspora, and social change.

11.3. Cuisine

Liberian cuisine heavily incorporates rice, the country's staple food. Other common ingredients include cassava (often processed into fufu or gari), fish (fresh and dried), bananas, plantains, citrus fruits, coconut, okra, and sweet potatoes. Palm oil is widely used in cooking. Heavy stews, often quite spicy with habanero and scotch bonnet chilies, are popular and typically eaten with rice or fufu. Dishes like palm butter soup, jollof rice (with local variations), and cassava leaf stew are common. Liberia also has a tradition of baking, influenced by American settlers, which is somewhat unique in West Africa, including various types of bread, cakes, and pastries.

11.4. Sports

The most popular sport in Liberia is association football (soccer). The country has produced notable players, the most famous being George Weah, who had a successful international career playing for top European clubs and was named FIFA World Player of the Year in 1995 - the only African player to have received this honor to date. Weah later entered politics and served as President of Liberia from 2018 to 2024. The Liberia national football team has reached the Africa Cup of Nations finals twice, in 1996 and 2002.

Basketball is the second most popular sport. The Liberian national basketball team has competed in the AfroBasket championship, reaching the tournament in 1983 and 2007. The Samuel Kanyon Doe Sports Complex in Monrovia serves as a multi-purpose stadium, hosting FIFA World Cup qualifying matches, international concerts, and national political events.

11.5. Media

The media landscape in Liberia includes newspapers, radio, television, and online platforms. Radio is the predominant medium for news and information dissemination, particularly in rural areas, due to higher literacy rates and lower access to electricity and print media. Several privately-owned and community radio stations operate across the country. There are also a number of newspapers, primarily based in Monrovia. Television broadcasting is less widespread.

Press freedom is constitutionally guaranteed, and the media has played an important role in political discourse and democratization, especially in the post-conflict period. However, journalists and media outlets can face challenges, including financial constraints, occasional harassment or intimidation, and political pressure. The development of a professional and independent media sector is considered crucial for good governance and public accountability.

11.6. Measurement system

Liberia is one of only three countries in the world (the others being the United States and Myanmar) that have not fully adopted the International System of Units (SI), commonly known as the metric system, as their official system of weights and measures. Consequently, United States customary units (e.g., pounds, feet, gallons) are predominantly used in daily life, commerce, and many official contexts.

The Liberian government has expressed intentions to transition towards the metric system. This change has been gradual, and government reports and official documents sometimes concurrently use both U.S. customary units and metric units. In 2018, the Liberian Commerce and Industry Minister announced that the government was committed to adopting the metric system to facilitate international trade and standardize measurements. However, the widespread practical adoption of the metric system throughout society remains an ongoing process.