Seychelles

2.1. Early History and European Arrival

Seychelles remained uninhabited throughout most of recorded history. Simulations of Austronesian migration patterns suggest a probability that Asians visited the islands. Some sources indicate potential early visits by Arab and Maldivian seafarers as early as the 7th or 8th century, and tombs visible until 1910 at Anse Lascars on Silhouette Island have been conjectured to belong to these traders.

The first recorded European sighting occurred on 15 March 1502, when the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama, leading his 4th Portuguese India Armada, passed the Amirantes. The first sighting was made by Thomé Lopes aboard the ship Rui Mendes de Brito. Da Gama's ships passed close to an elevated island, likely Silhouette Island, and the following day, Desroches Island. The Portuguese later mapped a group of seven islands, naming them The Seven Sisters. However, no permanent settlement was established. The earliest recorded landing was in January 1609 by the crew of the Ascension under Captain Alexander Sharpeigh during the fourth voyage of the English East India Company. For a period, the islands served as a transit point for trade between Africa and Asia and were occasionally used by pirates.

2.2. French and British Colonial Rule

France began to assert control over the islands in the mid-18th century. In 1742, France sent an expedition to Seychelles. On 1 November 1756, Captain Corneille Nicholas Morphey laid a Stone of Possession on Mahé, formally claiming the islands for France. The islands were named after Jean Moreau de Séchelles, who was Louis XV's Minister of Finance at the time. The first French settlement was established in August 1770, when the French ship Thélémaque, commanded by Leblanc Lécore, landed 28 people-15 white men and 13 enslaved men and women from Africa and India-on Ste. Anne Island. This marked the beginning of permanent human habitation.

During the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars, Seychelles became a point of contention between France and Great Britain. On 16 May 1794, during the War of the First Coalition, the British frigate Orpheus, commanded by Captain Henry Newcome, arrived at Mahé. Jean Baptiste Quéau de Quincy, the French administrator of Seychelles, chose not to resist the superior British force. Instead, he successfully negotiated terms of capitulation that allowed the settlers a privileged position of neutrality, enabling them to continue their affairs despite the ongoing conflict.

Britain eventually assumed full control following the surrender of Mauritius in 1810. This control was formalized in 1814 by the Treaty of Paris, which ceded Seychelles and Mauritius to Britain. Initially administered as a dependency of Mauritius, Seychelles became a separate Crown Colony in 1903. Under British rule, a plantation economy developed, based on coconut, cinnamon, and vanilla. The British administration also saw the arrival of indentured laborers from India. Political development was slow, but legislative council elections were held in 1948, 1966, and 1970, gradually increasing local political participation. In 1971, the Seychelles International Airport was opened, a crucial step that would later facilitate the growth of the tourism industry.

2.3. Independence and Modern Nationhood

Seychelles achieved independence from the United Kingdom on June 29, 1976, becoming a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations. As part of the independence agreement, the islands of Aldabra, Farquhar, and Desroches, which had been detached to form part of the British Indian Ocean Territory in 1965, were returned to Seychelles. The initial post-independence government was a coalition, with James Mancham, leader of the conservative Seychelles Democratic Party (SDP), as President, and France-Albert René, leader of the socialist Seychelles People's United Party (SPUP), as Prime Minister.

This coalition was short-lived. On June 5, 1977, while Mancham was attending a Commonwealth conference in London, supporters of René staged a coup d'état, installing René as President. René declared that he wanted to "keep Seychelles for the Seychellois" and discouraged over-dependence on tourism. In 1978, the SPUP was renamed the Seychelles People's Progressive Front (SPPF). A new constitution in 1979 declared Seychelles a socialist one-party state. René's government pursued policies aimed at social development, including expanding access to education and healthcare, but also suppressed political dissent and curtailed civil liberties. His rule faced several coup attempts during the 1980s. Notably, in 1981, a group of 43 South African mercenaries led by Mike Hoare, disguised as holidaying rugby players, attempted a coup. The attempt was foiled after a gun battle at the airport, with most mercenaries escaping by hijacking an Air India plane. Another significant attempt occurred in 1986, led by Seychelles Minister of Defence Ogilvy Berlouis, prompting President René to request assistance from India. The Indian Navy dispatched the frigate INS Vindhyagiri to Port Victoria in Operation Flowers are Blooming, helping to avert the coup.

The end of the Cold War and internal pressure for democratic reform led to changes in the early 1990s. In 1991, René announced a return to a multi-party system. Exiled political leaders, including James Mancham, returned to the country. A first draft of a new constitution failed to receive the requisite 60% of votes in 1992, but an amended version, guaranteeing multi-party democracy and human rights, was approved in a referendum in 1993. In the subsequent presidential and legislative elections held the same year, René and the SPPF were victorious, largely credited with maintaining stability and overseeing economic growth through tourism. René remained president until 2004, when he stepped down in favor of his Vice-President, James Michel. Michel won presidential elections in 2006, 2011, and narrowly in the 2015 election.

In 2016, Michel resigned and was succeeded by Vice President Danny Faure. The 2016 parliamentary elections resulted in an opposition coalition, Linyon Demokratik Seselwa (LDS), winning a majority in the National Assembly, leading to a period of cohabitation and signaling a significant shift in the political landscape. The 2020 general election marked a historic turning point: Wavel Ramkalawan of the LDS was elected President, defeating incumbent Danny Faure. This was the first time since the 1977 coup that an opposition party had won the presidency, representing a major step in Seychelles' democratic development. Challenges remain, including ensuring continued democratic consolidation, addressing economic vulnerabilities, and promoting social equity.

In June 2012, Seychelles committed to protecting 30% of its marine waters. In January 2013, the country declared a state of emergency due to tropical Cyclone Felleng, which caused widespread flooding and landslides. By January 2023, Seychelles announced the final stages of completing its marine spatial plan, covering 0.5 M mile^{2 (1.35 M km2)}, aimed at bolstering its blue economy.

3.1. Government Structure

Seychelles is a presidential republic. The President is both the head of state and head of government, elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The President presides over and appoints the Cabinet, subject to the approval of a majority of the legislature. As of 2023, the President is Wavel Ramkalawan.

The legislature is the unicameral National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale_{National Assembly}^French). It consists of 35 members. Of these, 26 are elected directly by popular vote from single-member constituencies, while the remaining nine seats are allocated proportionally based on the percentage of votes received by each party in the direct elections. All members serve five-year terms. The National Assembly is responsible for enacting laws, approving the national budget, and overseeing the executive branch.

3.2. Political Landscape and Major Parties

Seychelles' political landscape has undergone a significant transformation since its independence. Following the 1977 coup, President France-Albert René and his Seychelles People's Progressive Front (SPPF) established a socialist one-party state that lasted until 1991. During this period, political opposition was suppressed, though the government focused on social welfare programs.

The early 1990s saw a transition to a multi-party democracy, with a new constitution adopted in 1993. Despite this, the SPPF (renamed the People's Party (PP) in 2009, and then United Seychelles (US) in 2018) remained the dominant political force for many years, with René and his successor, James Michel, winning successive presidential elections.

The main opposition historically came from parties that eventually coalesced into Linyon Demokratik Seselwa (LDS), a coalition espousing social liberalism. Key member parties include the Seychelles National Party (SNP). The 2016 parliamentary election was a turning point, with the LDS winning a majority in the National Assembly, leading to a period of "cohabitation" with President Danny Faure of United Seychelles. This marked the first time the ruling party did not control the legislature since the return to multi-party democracy.

The general election in October 2020 was historic, as Wavel Ramkalawan of the LDS was elected President, defeating incumbent Danny Faure. The LDS also secured a strong majority in the National Assembly, winning 25 seats to United Seychelles' 10. This marked the first peaceful transfer of presidential power to an opposition party in Seychelles' history, signifying a crucial step in its democratic consolidation. The political environment continues to evolve, with a focus on strengthening democratic institutions, ensuring accountability, and addressing national development challenges within a multi-party framework.

3.3. Judiciary and Law Enforcement

The Seychellois legal system is a blend of English common law, the Napoleonic Code Napoléon, and customary law. The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court of Seychelles, which was created in 1903. It is the highest trial court and the first court of appeal from all lower courts and tribunals. The highest court of law is the Seychelles Court of Appeal, which serves as the court of final appeal in the country. Judges are appointed by the President from candidates recommended by the Constitutional Appointments Authority.

Historically, Seychelles has faced challenges related to its justice system. In 2014, the country had the highest incarceration rate in the world, at 799 prisoners per 100,000 population. This was a matter of concern for human rights organizations. However, by 2022, the incarceration rate had significantly decreased to 287 per 100,000 population, placing Seychelles 31st globally. This reduction suggests efforts towards reforming the correctional system and potentially addressing the root causes of high incarceration. The focus on human rights within the correctional system remains an important aspect of judicial and law enforcement reform, including ensuring fair trial standards, humane prison conditions, and effective rehabilitation programs. Law enforcement is primarily the responsibility of the Seychelles Police Force.

3.4. Administrative Divisions

Seychelles is divided into twenty-six administrative districts. These districts encompass all the inner islands. The capital, Victoria, is composed of eight districts, collectively referred to as Greater Victoria. Another fourteen districts are considered the rural part of the main island of Mahé. The island of Praslin is divided into two districts, and one district covers La Digue along with other smaller inner islands. The Outer Islands (Îles Eloignées_{Distant Islands}^French) collectively form the twenty-sixth district, which was more recently created, largely for tourism and conservation management purposes.

The districts are:

• Greater Victoria
  • Bel Air
  • La Rivière Anglaise (English River)
  • Les Mamelles
  • Mont Buxton
  • Mont Fleuri
  • Plaisance
  • Roche Caiman
  • Saint Louis
• Rural Mahé
  • Anse aux Pins
  • Anse Boileau
  • Anse Etoile
  • Au Cap
  • Anse Royale
  • Baie Lazare
  • Beau Vallon
  • Bel Ombre
  • Cascade
  • Glacis
  • Grand'Anse Mahé
  • Pointe La Rue
  • Port Glaud
  • Takamaka
• Praslin
  • Baie Sainte Anne (Anse Volbert)
  • Grand'Anse Praslin (Grande Anse)
• La Digue and remaining Inner Islands
  • La Digue (Anse Réunion)
• Outer Islands
  • Outer Islands (Îles Éloignées)

  These districts serve as the primary level of local government and administration in the country.

3.5. Foreign Relations

Seychelles pursues a foreign policy of non-alignment and maintains diplomatic relations with a wide range of countries. It is a member of numerous international organizations, including the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Commonwealth of Nations, La Francophonie, and the Indian Ocean Commission (IOC).

During the Cold War, particularly under President France-Albert René's socialist government (1977-1991), Seychelles navigated a complex international environment. There were allegations of foreign interference, including claims that the United States, France, and South Africa supported plots to overthrow René's government due to its socialist leanings and non-aligned stance. Despite this, Seychelles maintained some pragmatic ties; for instance, the US operated a satellite tracking station on Mahé until 1996. More recently, under the Obama administration, the US conducted drone operations from Seychelles as part of counter-terrorism efforts in the region.

India has emerged as a key strategic partner for Seychelles, particularly in defense and maritime security. India has provided patrol vessels and aircraft to the Seychelles Coast Guard and has been involved in developing strategic assets on Assumption Island. However, a 2018 agreement for India to build a military base on Assumption Island faced domestic opposition in Seychelles and was not ratified by its parliament, highlighting the democratic checks and balances in Seychellois foreign policy decisions. Seychelles signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in 2018.

Relations with Japan were formally established in 1976. Seychelles primarily exports frozen fish, such as tuna, to Japan, while importing automobiles and machinery. Neither country has a resident embassy in the other; Seychelles' interests in Japan are handled by its embassy in China, and Japan's interests in Seychelles were traditionally handled by its embassy in Kenya, though Japan opened a liaison office in Seychelles in 2019.

During the early 2000s, a controversial Economic Development Act (1995), which offered immunity from extradition to foreign investors bringing over 10.00 M USD, drew international criticism for potentially sheltering criminals. This act was repealed in 2000. However, reports later surfaced of North Korean operatives possessing Seychelles passports, raising concerns about illicit activities.

Seychelles generally maintains an objective stance in international dealings, though its foreign policy is increasingly shaped by concerns over maritime security, climate change, and the development of its "blue economy." The country advocates for the interests of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) on the global stage.

3.6. Military and Security

The Seychelles People's Defence Force (SPDF) is the military of Seychelles. It consists of several distinct branches: an Infantry Unit (including special forces and presidential guard), a Coast Guard (which includes a marine unit), and an Air Force. The SPDF's total strength is relatively small, estimated at around 650 active personnel. Conscription was previously in place but has since been abolished.

The SPDF was formed after the 1977 coup, with initial support and training from Tanzania. During the Cold War, especially after a 1981 mercenary coup attempt linked to South Africa, the René government sought military assistance from Eastern Bloc countries like the Soviet Union, China, and North Korea.

In recent years, India has played a significant role in developing the SPDF, providing training, equipment (such as patrol vessels and aircraft), and infrastructure support. An agreement to develop facilities on Assumption Island for Indian use was met with domestic political opposition and was not ratified, underscoring public scrutiny over security partnerships. China has also contributed to infrastructure projects in Seychelles, including the National Assembly building, and had considered establishing a resupply point, though it ultimately chose Djibouti for its first overseas base.

A primary security concern for Seychelles is maritime security in its vast Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The country has been an active participant in international efforts to combat Somali piracy, which significantly impacted its tourism and fisheries sectors. Piracy was estimated to cost Seychelles 4% of its GDP at its peak, due to lost revenue and increased security expenditures. Seychelles has received international assistance, including patrol boats, aircraft, and intelligence support, for its anti-piracy operations. The country has also prosecuted and incarcerated convicted pirates, contributing to regional stability. These efforts have had an impact on local communities, both through economic disruption and the social effects of hosting foreign military personnel and pirate detainees.

4.1. Topography and Island Composition

Seychelles is an archipelagic state located in the Somali Sea segment of the Indian Ocean, northeast of Madagascar and about 1.0 K mile ^{(1.60 K km)} east of Kenya. The Constitution lists 155 named islands, and an additional 7 reclaimed islands have been created since its publication. The majority of these islands are uninhabited, with many dedicated as nature reserves. The total land area is 175 mile^{2 (452 km2)}, while its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) covers approximately 0.5 M mile^{2 (1.34 M km2)}. The largest island, Mahé, is home to the capital, Victoria, and about 90% of the population.

The islands are broadly divided into two main groups: the Inner Islands and the Outer Islands.
The Inner Islands consist of 42 granitic islands and 2 coralline islands. These are the oldest mid-oceanic granitic islands on Earth, remnants of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana that separated from Africa and India millions of years ago. This granitic base gives them a rugged, mountainous topography, with Mahé's highest peak, Morne Seychellois, reaching 2969 ft ^{(905 m)}. The main Inner Islands are Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette Island, and La Digue. These islands are relatively close together and sit on the shallow Seychelles Bank. They account for 54% of the total land area and host 98% of the entire population. Two coral sand cays, Denis and Bird, lie north of the granitics on the edge of the bank. Two coral islands, Coëtivy and Platte, are south of the granitics.

The Outer Islands are more numerous but sparsely populated or uninhabited. They are predominantly low-lying coralline islands and atolls. They are grouped into five clusters:
1. The Amirantes group (29 coral islands), west of the granitics, including Desroches.
2. The Southern Coral Group, including Coëtivy and Platte (sometimes grouped with Inner Islands due to proximity but geologically distinct from granitics).
3. The Alphonse group, including Alphonse Atoll.
4. The Farquhar Group (13 coral islands), south-southwest of the Amirantes, including Farquhar Atoll.
5. The Aldabra Group (67 raised coral islands), west of the Farquhar Group, including the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Aldabra Atoll, the world's second-largest coral atoll. Other islands in this group include Assumption Island, Astove, and Cosmoledo.

The reclaimed islands, such as Eden Island, Ile Perseverance, and Romainville, have been created primarily around Mahé to provide additional land for housing and commercial development.

4.2. Climate

Seychelles experiences a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification: Af), which is generally hot and humid, moderated by maritime influences. The temperature varies little throughout the year. On Mahé, daily temperatures range from 75.2 °F ^{(24 °C)} to 86 °F ^{(30 °C)}. Rainfall is abundant, with Victoria receiving an average of 0.1 K in ^{(2.30 K mm)} annually, while the mountain slopes can receive up to 0.1 K in ^{(3.60 K mm)}. Precipitation is generally less on the coralline Outer Islands.

There are two main seasons, governed by the trade winds:

• The Southeast Trade Winds blow from May to November, bringing a cooler and drier period. July and August are the coolest months, with average low temperatures around 75.2 °F ^{(24 °C)}. This is generally considered the most pleasant time of the year.
• The Northwest Monsoon Winds prevail from December to April, resulting in warmer and wetter conditions with higher humidity (around 80%). March and April are typically the hottest months, though temperatures seldom exceed 87.8 °F ^{(31 °C)}. The heaviest rainfall usually occurs in December and January.

Most of the islands lie outside the main tropical cyclone belt, so destructive storms and high winds are rare. However, the islands can be affected by the peripheral effects of cyclones forming further south in the Indian Ocean, as seen with Cyclone Felleng in 2013.

4.3. Wildlife and Biodiversity

Seychelles is a biodiversity hotspot, renowned for its high levels of endemism and unique ecosystems, a result of its long geological isolation. The country has made significant commitments to conservation, allocating 42% of its land territory and a substantial portion of its marine territory as protected areas.

Like many isolated island ecosystems, Seychelles experienced biodiversity loss following human settlement. This included the disappearance of most giant tortoise populations from the granitic islands, the felling of extensive coastal and mid-level forests, and the extinction of species such as the Seychelles chestnut-flanked white-eye, the Seychelles parakeet, and the saltwater crocodile. However, the rate of extinction has been lower than on islands like Mauritius or Hawaii, partly due to a shorter period of human occupation.

Today, Seychelles is celebrated for numerous conservation success stories. The endemic Seychelles black parrot, the national bird, is protected. The Aldabra giant tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea), once driven to near extinction by sailors and pirates, now thrives with a population of around 150,000 on Aldabra Atoll, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Smaller populations have been reintroduced to other islands like Curieuse. The granitic islands also support distinct species of Seychelles giant tortoise. The endemic freshwater crab genus Seychellum is found only in the granitic Seychelles, and the islands host a further 26 species of crabs and five species of hermit crabs.

The islands host some of the world's largest seabird colonies, particularly on Aldabra, Cosmoledo, and Aride Island. Aride Island alone hosts the world's largest populations of two seabird species. The sooty tern breeds in vast numbers. Other common birds include the cattle egret and the fairy tern. Over 1,000 species of fish have been recorded in Seychelles' waters, which also support vibrant coral reefs and diverse marine megafauna, including sea turtles, sharks, and cetaceans.

The flora of the granitic islands is also exceptional, with about 268 native flowering plant species, of which around 70 (28%) are endemic. The most famous is the coco de mer palm (Lodoicea maldivica), which grows naturally only on the islands of Praslin and Curieuse. It produces the world's heaviest seed, sometimes nicknamed the "love nut" due to its suggestive shape. Other unique plants include the critically endangered jellyfish tree (Medusagyne oppositifolia), found only in a few locations on Mahé, and Wright's gardenia (Rothmannia annae), exclusive to Aride Island. Several unique orchid species also occur. Seychelles is home to two terrestrial ecoregions: the Granitic Seychelles forests and the Aldabra Island xeric scrub. The country achieved a perfect score of 10/10 on the 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index, ranking it first globally.

4.4. Environmental Issues and Conservation Efforts

Despite its conservation successes, Seychelles faces significant environmental challenges. Climate change is a major threat, with sea level rise posing an existential risk to low-lying coralline islands and coastal areas of granitic islands. Increased sea surface temperatures have led to severe coral bleaching events, notably in 1998, which damaged many reefs. While some reefs, like those around Silhouette Island, have shown healthy recovery, the long-term resilience of coral ecosystems remains a concern.

Invasive alien species (IAS) are another major threat to Seychelles' unique biodiversity. Introduced plants and animals can outcompete native species and alter ecosystem dynamics. Considerable effort is dedicated to IAS management and eradication on several islands, often with positive results for native flora and fauna restoration. Habitat loss and fragmentation, particularly on the more populated granitic islands, also impact biodiversity.

Seychelles has a strong legal and institutional framework for environmental protection. The use of spearguns and dynamite for fishing was banned in the 1960s due to local conservationist efforts, contributing to the relative tameness of marine life towards snorkelers and divers. The government has committed to ambitious conservation targets, including the protection of 30% of its EEZ, formalized through a comprehensive Marine Spatial Plan. This initiative, supported by international partners and innovative financing mechanisms like "blue bonds," aims to balance conservation with sustainable economic development, particularly for the "blue economy" (sustainable use of ocean resources).

National efforts are complemented by numerous NGOs and international collaborations focused on research, monitoring, habitat restoration, and species conservation programs. The country claims to have achieved nearly all of its Millennium Development Goals, with environmental protection increasingly becoming a cultural value. However, balancing economic development, particularly tourism and fisheries, with environmental sustainability remains an ongoing challenge. The social and economic dimensions of conservation, ensuring that local communities benefit from and participate in conservation efforts, are crucial for long-term success.

5.1. Economic Structure and Key Sectors

Seychelles' economy has undergone a significant transformation since its independence in 1976. Historically, it was a plantation-based economy, with cinnamon, vanilla, and copra (dried coconut kernel) as the chief exports. In the 1960s, about 33% of the working population was employed in plantations. Since independence, and particularly with the development of international air access, the economy has shifted to become predominantly service-oriented. Per capita output has expanded to roughly seven times the old near-subsistence level.

Today, the two main pillars of the Seychellois economy are tourism and fisheries. Tourism employs about 30% of the labor force and is the primary source of foreign exchange. The fisheries sector, especially tuna fishing and processing, is also a major contributor to exports and employment. Victoria is home to one of the largest tuna canneries in the Indian Ocean. While tourism and fisheries dominate, agriculture still employs a small percentage (around 3%) of the labor force, producing crops like sweet potatoes, vanilla, coconuts, and cinnamon, primarily for local consumption and niche exports. Small-scale manufacturing, including the processing of coconuts and vanilla, also exists.

Seychelles has the highest nominal GDP per capita of any African nation and boasts a high Human Development Index. The government has a pervasive presence in economic activity, with public enterprises active in petroleum product distribution, banking, imports of basic products, and telecommunications. However, there have been efforts towards privatization and encouraging foreign investment. Issues of labor rights and the equitable distribution of economic benefits are important considerations for inclusive development. The country was ranked as the least corrupt in Africa by Transparency International in its 2020 Corruption Perception Index. The US Air Force operated an Indian Ocean Tracking Station on Mahé, which was significant for the local economy until its closure in August 1996 after the Seychelles government attempted to substantially increase the rent.

5.2. Tourism Industry

Tourism became a significant industry following the opening of Seychelles International Airport in 1971. This development essentially bifurcated the economy into the declining plantation sector and the burgeoning tourism sector. The tourism sector offered better remuneration, leading to a decline in agricultural employment. Throughout the 1970s, there was a sustained period of hotel construction, including the opening of notable establishments like Coral Strand Smart Choice, Vista Do Mar, and Bougainville Hotel in 1972.

Seychelles is marketed as an upmarket, luxury tourist destination, famed for its pristine beaches, clear turquoise waters, unique granite rock formations, and lush tropical vegetation. Key attractions include Anse Lazio on Praslin, Anse Source d'Argent on La Digue, and the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Aldabra Atoll and Vallée de Mai Nature Reserve. Eco-tourism, diving, snorkeling, sailing, and fishing are popular activities. Tourist demographics traditionally include a large proportion of visitors from Europe.

The government has actively encouraged foreign investment to upgrade hotels and other tourism-related services. This has led to significant investment in real estate projects and new resort properties. However, there is an ongoing debate about balancing the economic benefits of tourism with its socio-economic and environmental impacts. Concerns include the strain on natural resources (water, energy), waste management, the impact on coastal ecosystems, and ensuring that local communities benefit equitably from tourism revenues. Sustainability is a key focus, with efforts to promote eco-friendly practices and limit the scale of development in sensitive areas. The COVID-19 pandemic severely impacted the tourism sector in 2020 when Seychelles closed its borders; however, the country reopened to international tourists in March 2021 following progress in its national vaccination program.

5.3. Economic Policies and Challenges

The Seychelles government has pursued various strategies to manage its economy, focusing on fiscal stability, economic diversification, and attracting foreign investment. Historically, especially during the one-party state era, there was significant state intervention in the economy. Since the transition to a multi-party system and a more market-oriented approach, policies have included curbing the budget deficit, containing social welfare costs, and privatizing some public enterprises.

One of the major economic challenges has been managing public debt. In 2008, facing a balance of payments crisis, Seychelles defaulted on its debt and subsequently entered into an IMF-backed reform program. This included unpegging the Seychellois rupee from a basket of currencies and allowing it to float freely, alongside fiscal consolidation measures. These reforms helped stabilize the economy.

The government continues to prioritize economic diversification to reduce over-reliance on tourism and fisheries. Efforts are focused on developing the "blue economy" (sustainable use of ocean resources), promoting the offshore financial services sector (through the Financial Services Authority and relevant legislation), and encouraging small-scale manufacturing and value-added processing. Attracting foreign direct investment remains a key strategy.

However, Seychelles faced international scrutiny over its Economic Development Act of 1995, which controversially offered immunity from extradition to foreign investors who invested over 10.00 M USD. This law, perceived as potentially shielding criminals, was repealed in 2000 due to international pressure. Despite this, concerns were later raised when reports emerged of North Korean operatives possessing Seychellois passports, highlighting ongoing challenges in governance and international financial dealings.

Ensuring sustainable economic development that benefits all segments of society and addresses social equity remains a core challenge. This includes managing the environmental impact of development, addressing income inequality, and creating sufficient employment opportunities for the local population. According to the Index of Economic Freedom, Seychelles' economic freedom has been increasing since 2010.

5.4. Energy Resources

Seychelles is heavily reliant on imported fossil fuels for its energy needs, primarily for electricity generation and transportation. Multinational oil companies have explored the waters around the islands, but no commercially viable oil or gas reserves have been found to date. In 2005, a deal was signed with US firm Petroquest, granting it exploration rights to about 12 K mile^{2 (30.00 K km2)} around Constant, Topaz, Farquhar, and Coëtivy islands until 2014, but this did not lead to discoveries.

The country imports oil, mainly refined petroleum derivatives, from the Persian Gulf. In 2019, Seychelles imported approximately 5,700 oil barrels per day. A significant portion of this imported oil is re-exported as bunker fuel for ships and aircraft calling at Mahé, as Seychelles is strategically located along international shipping routes. There are no oil refining capacities on the islands. Oil and gas import, distribution, and re-export are primarily managed by the state-owned Seychelles Petroleum Company (Seypec), while oil exploration is the responsibility of the Seychelles National Oil Company (SNOC).

The high dependence on imported oil exposes the economy to volatile global oil prices and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Consequently, there is a growing emphasis on developing renewable energy sources. Initiatives include promoting solar photovoltaic (PV) installations, exploring wind power potential, and investigating ocean-based renewable energy technologies. The government has set targets for renewable energy penetration in the national grid, aiming to enhance energy security, reduce import costs, and contribute to climate change mitigation, aligning with goals of environmental and economic sustainability.

6.1. Population Composition

Seychelles had no indigenous population. The current Seychellois population is a melting pot of ethnicities, primarily descending from African, French, Indian, Chinese, and Arab immigrants and traders who arrived over centuries. This intermingling has resulted in a predominantly Creole society, where most Seychellois are of mixed ancestry. The largest ethnic influences are African (largely from East Africa, brought as enslaved people or later as workers) and European (mainly French settlers). Smaller but significant contributions come from Indian (indentured laborers and merchants) and Chinese (merchants) communities.

The total population was estimated to be 100,600 in 2022. The population growth rate is moderate. The median age of the Seychellois population is around 34 years. The vast majority of the population lives on the main island of Mahé, with smaller communities on Praslin and La Digue. The Outer Islands are very sparsely populated.

When the British gained control during the Napoleonic Wars, they allowed the French upper class (often referred to as Gran blan or "big whites") to retain their land and influence. Both French and British settlers utilized enslaved Africans. Even after the British prohibited slavery in 1835, African workers continued to arrive. The British administration also employed Indians on indentured servitude, leading to a small Indian population, who, like a similar minority of Chinese, often engaged in commerce. Over time, extensive intermarriage has led to a society where distinct ethnic lines are often blurred, fostering a unique Seychellois Creole identity.

6.2. Languages

Seychelles has three official languages: Seychellois Creole, English, and French.

Seychellois Creole (Kreol Seselwa_{Kreol Seselwa}^crs) is the most widely spoken language and serves as the lingua franca of the nation. It is a French-based creole language that evolved from the interactions between French settlers and enslaved people from Africa and Madagascar. It is the native language of about 91% of the population and is used in daily life, in the National Assembly for debates, and in some media. It often incorporates words and phrases from English and other languages.

English is the language of government, business, and education. Laws are passed and published in English, and most official websites and business communications are in English. It is spoken as a native language by about 5.1% of the population but is widely understood and used as a second language.

French remains an official language due to historical ties and is spoken by a segment of the population (around 0.7% as a native language). It is used in some cultural contexts and is taught in schools.

Tamil is also spoken by a segment of the Indo-Seychellois community, contributing to the country's multilingual fabric. Seychelles is a member of both the Commonwealth of Nations and La Francophonie.

6.3. Religion

The majority of Seychellois are Christians. According to the 2022 census:

• Roman Catholicism is the largest denomination, adhered to by 61.3% of the population. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Port Victoria serves the Catholic community.
• Anglicanism is the second-largest Christian group, with 5.0% of the population.
• Other Christian denominations account for 8.6%.

Hinduism is the second largest single religion in Seychelles, practiced by 5.4% of the population, primarily by the Indo-Seychellois community. The Arulmigu Navashakthi Vinayagar Temple in Victoria is a prominent Hindu landmark.

Islam is practiced by 1.6% of the population. Other faiths account for 1.1%, while 5.9% of the population identified as non-religious or did not specify a religion.

The Constitution of Seychelles provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right. Interfaith relations are typically amicable.

6.4. Education

Seychelles has one of the highest literacy rates in sub-Saharan Africa. As of 2018, 95.9% of the population aged 15 and over can read and write. Education is a high priority for the government, with a focus on ensuring accessibility and quality for all social groups.

Formal education was limited until the mid-19th century when Roman Catholic and Anglican churches established mission schools in 1851. The government took over responsibility for these schools in 1944. A teacher training college opened in 1959, leading to an increase in locally trained teachers and the establishment of new schools. Since 1981, a system of free and compulsory education has been in effect for children in grades one to nine, starting at age six. Primary school attendance is very high, around 94%. Adult education classes have also contributed to raising adult literacy rates significantly over the decades.

The public school system consists of 23 crèches (kindergartens), 25 primary schools, and 13 secondary schools, located on Mahé, Praslin, La Digue, and Silhouette. There are also three private schools: École Française, International School Seychelles, and the Independent School (all on Mahé, with an International School branch on Praslin).

Post-secondary education is provided by several institutions, including the Seychelles Polytechnic, the School of Advanced Level Studies, the Seychelles Tourism Academy, the Seychelles Institute of Technology, the Maritime Training Centre, the Seychelles Agricultural and Horticultural Training Centre, and the National Institute for Health and Social Studies. The University of Seychelles was established in 2009, in conjunction with the University of London, aiming to provide higher education opportunities domestically and reduce brain drain. The focus remains on improving educational outcomes and ensuring that the education system meets the evolving needs of the country's economy and society.

6.5. Social Issues

Seychelles has made notable progress in various social areas, though challenges remain. The country generally promotes social welfare and has worked towards improving social justice, with a particular focus on vulnerable groups and minorities.

Status of Women:

Women in Seychelles play significant roles in society and the economy. They have high rates of participation in education and the workforce. Legally, women have equal rights to men. Matrilineal influences are observable in some social structures, with mothers often playing a dominant role in the household, managing expenditures, and overseeing children's welfare. Unwed mothers are a common societal norm, and the law requires fathers to provide child support. While men are traditionally seen as important for their earning capacity, their domestic role can be relatively peripheral in some family structures. Efforts continue to address issues such as gender-based violence and to ensure full gender equality in all spheres of life. Women are active in politics and public service, though representation in top leadership positions can still be improved.

LGBT Rights:
Seychelles has made significant strides in advancing LGBT rights, particularly compared to many other African nations. Same-sex sexual activity between consenting adults was decriminalized in May 2016, when the National Assembly voted to repeal colonial-era laws that criminalized homosexual acts. The bill was approved in a 14-0 vote. Furthermore, employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is banned in Seychelles, making it one of the few African countries to have such legal protections for LGBT individuals. While legal reforms represent progress, societal acceptance and addressing discrimination in practice continue to be areas of focus for LGBT advocacy groups and human rights organizations.

Other social issues include addressing poverty and income inequality despite the country's relatively high GDP per capita. Access to affordable housing and healthcare are ongoing concerns. The government has various social welfare programs aimed at supporting vulnerable populations.

7.1. Arts and Music

Seychellois art and music are vibrant expressions of its Creole culture, blending diverse historical influences.
Arts: Visual arts in Seychelles are inspired by the islands' stunning natural beauty. Painters produce a wide range of works using media from watercolors and oils to acrylics, collages, and recycled materials. Local sculptors create fine works in wood, stone, and bronze. The National Art Gallery, inaugurated in 1994, showcases works by Seychellois artists. Other galleries include Kenwyn House and Kaz Zanana Art Gallery in Victoria. Local crafts, such as basketry and items made from coconut shells, are also popular.

Music: Music and dance play a prominent role in Seychellois culture and festivities. Rooted in African, Malagasy, and European traditions, the music characteristically features drums like the tambour and tam-tam, simple string instruments, and more recently, the violin and guitar.
Popular traditional dances include:

• Sega: A rhythmic dance with hip-swaying and shuffling feet, shared with other Indian Ocean islands like Mauritius and Réunion.
• Moutya: A dance with origins in the era of slavery, often used historically to express strong emotions and discontent. It is characterized by suggestive movements and percussion. In 2021, Moutya was inscribed on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List as a symbol of psychological comfort and resistance against hardship and social injustice.

The music of Seychelles is diverse, reflecting a fusion of cultures. It incorporates African rhythms (such as the zez and bom, similar to the Brazilian berimbau), European contredanse, polka, and mazurka; French folk and pop influences; taarab and soukous from Africa; and even Polynesian and Indian musical elements. Contombley is a popular form of percussion music, and Kontredans (based on European contra dance) is popular in competitions during the annual Festival Kreol. Music is sung in Seychellois Creole, French, and English. Contemporary Seychellois musicians often blend these traditional forms with modern genres.

7.2. Cuisine

Seychellois cuisine is a flavorful fusion of African, French, British, Indian, and Chinese influences, reflecting the diverse heritage of its people. Seafood is a cornerstone, given the archipelago's rich marine resources.

Staple foods include fish, seafood, and shellfish, often accompanied by rice. Fish dishes are prepared in numerous ways: steamed, grilled, wrapped in banana leaves, baked, salted, and smoked. Curry dishes, often made with coconut milk, are also a significant part of the cuisine.

Other common ingredients and dishes include:

• Coconut: Used extensively in curries, desserts, and as coconut milk.
• Breadfruit, mangoes, and kordonnyen fish (rabbitfish).
• Chicken dishes, such as chicken curry.
• Dal (lentils).
• Saffron rice.
• Fresh tropical fruits.
• Ladob: A versatile dish that can be sweet or savory. The dessert version usually consists of ripe plantain and sweet potatoes (but may also include cassava, breadfruit, or corossol), boiled with coconut milk, sugar, nutmeg, and vanilla until creamy. The savory version typically includes salted fish cooked with plantain, cassava, or breadfruit, using salt instead of sugar and omitting vanilla.
• Shark chutney (Chatini Rekin_{Shark chutney}^French): Typically consists of boiled, skinned shark, finely mashed and cooked with squeezed bilimbi juice and lime. It is mixed with onion and spices, with the onion often fried.

Dishes are frequently garnished with fresh flowers, adding to their visual appeal.

7.3. Media

The media landscape in Seychelles includes print, broadcast, and online outlets.
The main daily newspaper is the Seychelles Nation, which is state-owned and generally reflects government views and current topics. Other privately-owned newspapers include Le Nouveau Seychelles Weekly, The People, Regar, and Today in Seychelles. These publications offer a range of perspectives. Foreign newspapers and magazines are available in some bookshops and newsagents. Newspapers are published mostly in Seychellois Creole, French, and English.

The primary television and radio network is the Seychelles Broadcasting Corporation (SBC), a state-owned entity. SBC offers locally produced news, discussion programs, and entertainment in Seychellois Creole, English, and French. It operates television channels and radio stations. There are also imported English- and French-language television programs available. Access to international satellite television has grown in recent years, providing a wider variety of content. Internet access and online news sources are also increasingly prevalent. Freedom of the press and access to information are areas that continue to evolve with the country's democratic development.

7.4. Sports

Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Seychelles and has seen significant growth in popularity. The national team participates in regional and continental competitions. Seychelles hosted the 2015 African Beach Soccer Championship and is set to host the 2025 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup, which will be the first FIFA beach soccer tournament held in Africa.

Other popular sports include volleyball, basketball, and athletics. Water sports, such as sailing, windsurfing, and sport fishing, are also widely enjoyed by both locals and tourists, given the country's maritime environment. Cricket was introduced during the colonial era by the British; the Seychelles Cricket Association was formed in 1983 and became an ICC member in 2010. Seychelles participates in various international sporting events, including the Commonwealth Games and the Indian Ocean Island Games.

7.5. World Heritage Sites

Seychelles is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, both recognized for their outstanding natural universal value and critical importance for conservation:

1. Aldabra Atoll: Inscribed in 1982, Aldabra is one of the largest raised coral atolls in the world. It is relatively untouched by human influence due to its isolation and protection. Aldabra is renowned for its unique flora and fauna, including the world's largest population of Aldabra giant tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea), estimated at around 150,000 individuals. The atoll also supports significant populations of seabirds, including large frigatebird and booby colonies, and is an important breeding ground for green turtles and hawksbill turtles. Its pristine marine environment includes healthy coral reefs and a rich diversity of fish and other marine life.

2. Vallée de Mai Nature Reserve: Inscribed in 1983, this reserve is located on the island of Praslin. It is a palm forest that has remained largely unchanged since prehistoric times. The Vallée de Mai is famous for being the home of the endemic coco de mer palm (Lodoicea maldivica), which produces the largest and heaviest seed in the plant kingdom. The reserve also supports five other endemic palm species and a rich variety of endemic fauna, including the rare Seychelles black parrot, the Seychelles blue pigeon, and several species of geckos and snails. It provides a glimpse into the ancient palm forests that once covered much of Gondwana.

These sites are crucial for global biodiversity conservation and are flagship examples of Seychelles' commitment to environmental protection.