Vanuatu

3.1. Prehistory

The prehistory of Vanuatu before European contact is largely obscure due to the lack of written records and limited archaeological work. The islands' volatile geology and climate have also likely destroyed or hidden many prehistoric sites. Archaeological evidence gathered since the 1980s supports the theory that the Vanuatuan islands were first settled approximately 3,000 years ago, between 1100 BCE and 700 BCE, almost certainly by people of the Lapita culture. This culture, originating from the northwest in the Solomon Islands archipelago and the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea, spread across the Pacific. DNA studies of a 3,000-year-old skeleton found near Port Vila in 2016 suggest some early settlers may have arrived directly from the Philippines or Taiwan, pausing only briefly en route.

The Lapita people brought with them crops such as yam, taro, and banana, as well as domesticated animals like pigs and chickens. Their arrival coincided with the extinction of several species, including the land crocodile (Mekosuchus kalpokasi), land tortoise (Meiolania damelipi), and various flightless bird species. Notable Lapita sites in Vanuatu include Teouma on Éfaté, Uripiv and Vao off the coast of Malakula, and Makue on Aore. The Teouma site is particularly significant for its large ancient cemetery containing the remains of 94 individuals.

Over centuries, the Lapita culture in Vanuatu evolved, becoming more localized as long-distance trade and migration patterns contracted. However, some limited long-distance trade continued, with cultural similarities found in Fiji, New Caledonia, the Bismarcks, and the Solomons. There is also evidence of trade connections and possible population movements with Polynesian peoples to the east. It is thought that the Lapita people mixed with, or were pioneers for, later migrants from Melanesia, leading to the darker-skinned physiognomy typical of modern Ni-Vanuatu. Despite these migrations, the Austronesian languages of the Lapita peoples were maintained, with all of Vanuatu's over 100 indigenous languages belonging to the Oceanic languages branch of the Austronesian family. This linguistic hyperdiversity is attributed to factors like continuous migration waves, numerous decentralized communities, inter-group hostilities, and challenging geography.

Oral traditions speak of a significant figure (or title), Roy Mata, who, around the 16th-17th century, is said to have united local clans on Efate and presided over an era of peace. Archaeological sites on Efate and the nearby islands of Lelepa and Eretoka, associated with Roy Mata, provide evidence supporting these oral histories. Chief Roi Mata's Domain, encompassing these sites, was designated Vanuatu's first UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008, recognizing its outstanding cultural value.

Geological records show a massive volcanic eruption on Ambrym around 200 CE and another from the Kuwae volcano around 1452-1453 CE, which would have devastated local populations and likely resulted in further population movements and cultural shifts. Human cannibalism was reportedly widespread in some parts of Vanuatu in prehistoric times.

3.2. Arrival of Europeans and Early Contact (1606-1906)

The first European contact with the islands of Vanuatu occurred in April 1606, when the Portuguese explorer Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, sailing for the Spanish Crown, arrived. He departed from Callao, Peru, sailed past the Banks Islands, and landed briefly on Gaua (which he named Santa María). Continuing south, Queirós reached the largest island, Espiritu Santo, on April 27, 1606. Believing he had found the great southern continent, Terra Australis, he named it La Austrialia del Espíritu Santo_{The Southern Land of the Holy Spirit}^Spanish and claimed the archipelago for Spain as part of the Spanish East Indies. The Spanish established a short-lived settlement called Nueva Jerusalem at Big Bay on the north side of Espiritu Santo. However, relations with the indigenous Ni-Vanuatu quickly deteriorated due to mistreatment by the Spanish, and the settlement was abandoned after only a month due to attacks and illness among the crew.

Europeans did not return for over 160 years until 1768, when French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville sailed by the islands on May 22, naming them the Great Cyclades. Bougainville's crew landed on Ambae and initially traded peacefully with the local population, though he reported being attacked later. In July-September 1774, British explorer Captain James Cook extensively explored the islands. He named them the New Hebrides, after the Hebrides islands off the west coast of Scotland, a name that persisted until independence in 1980. Cook generally maintained cordial relations with the Ni-Vanuatu by offering gifts and avoiding violence.

In 1789, William Bligh sailed through the Banks Islands after the mutiny on the Bounty. Whaleships became regular visitors from the early 19th century, with the first recorded visit by the Rose in February 1804 and the last known by the John and Winthrop in 1887.

The discovery of sandalwood on Erromango in 1825 by trader Peter Dillon led to a rush of incomers. This trade, highly profitable due to demand in China, caused significant disruption and often violent clashes between immigrant Polynesian workers and indigenous Ni-Vanuatu. The sandalwood trade experienced booms and busts across various islands like Efate, Espiritu Santo, and Aneityum, but supplies were largely exhausted by the mid-1860s.

From the 1860s, a notorious labor trade known as "blackbirding" began. Planters in Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Samoan islands recruited, often coercively, Ni-Vanuatu men to work on plantations. At its peak, more than half the adult male population of several islands worked abroad under harsh conditions. This practice, combined with the introduction of European diseases to which the Ni-Vanuatu had no immunity, led to a severe population decline. The blackbirding trade gradually wound down as Australia, Fiji, and Samoa barred further recruitment by the early 1910s.

Christian missionaries, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, began arriving from 1839. They initially faced hostility, exemplified by the killings of John Williams and James Harris of the London Missionary Society on Erromango in 1839. Despite these setbacks and the diseases they inadvertently introduced, missionaries persisted, leading to many conversions. However, Ni-Vanuatu often syncretized Christianity with their traditional kastom beliefs. Presbyterian missionaries were particularly successful on Aneityum, while the Anglican Melanesian Mission trained young converts in New Zealand and Norfolk Island.

European settlers also arrived, seeking land for cotton plantations. After the collapse of international cotton prices following the American Civil War, they switched to coffee, cocoa, bananas, and coconuts. Initially, British subjects from Australia were the majority, but French planters, notably through the Compagnie Caledonienne des Nouvelles-Hébrides (CCNH) established in 1882 by John Higginson, soon outnumbered them. By 1906, French settlers (401) significantly outnumbered British settlers (228).

3.3. Colonial Era: New Hebrides Condominium (1906-1980)

The competing interests of French and British settlers, coupled with a state of near lawlessness and frequent disputes over land purchased under dubious circumstances, led to calls for formal annexation. The Convention of 16 October 1887 established a Joint Naval Commission to protect French and British citizens, but it had no jurisdiction over internal native affairs. Pressure from French settlers in New Caledonia for annexation was countered by Britain's reluctance to cede its influence entirely.

This complex situation culminated in the establishment of the Anglo-French Condominium in 1906. This unique and often dysfunctional form of government involved separate British and French administrations, legal systems, judicial processes, and financial frameworks, which only converged in a Joint Court. This dual system was often referred to as the "Pandemonium" due to its inherent inefficiencies.

3.3.1. Early Period (1906-1945)

Under the Condominium, land expropriation and the exploitation of Ni-Vanuatu workers on plantations continued. The Anglo-French Protocol of 1914, formally ratified in 1922, aimed to extend the Condominium's authority and curb the worst abuses, with some support from missionaries. Despite some improvements, labor abuses persisted, and Ni-Vanuatu were officially stateless, barred from acquiring citizenship of either colonial power. The underfunded and duplicated administrations struggled with effective governance, and essential services like education and healthcare were largely left to missionary organizations.

During the 1920s and 1930s, indentured workers from Vietnam (then part of French Indochina) were brought to the New Hebrides to work on plantations. By 1929, around 6,000 Vietnamese were present. Poor working conditions and the influence of Allied troops during World War II, who were generally more sympathetic to their plight than the planters, led to some social and political unrest among the Vietnamese workers in the 1940s. Most Vietnamese were repatriated in 1946 and 1963, though a small Vietnamese community remains in Vanuatu today.

The Second World War brought significant changes. The Fall of France in 1940 allowed Britain to gain greater authority. Australian forces were stationed on Malakula to protect Australia from potential Japanese invasion. After the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the United States joined the war. With Japan's rapid advance through Melanesia, the New Hebrides became a critical frontline. From May 1942, US troops were stationed on Efate and Espiritu Santo, constructing airstrips, roads, and military bases. At its peak, some 50,000 American personnel were stationed in the New Hebrides, outnumbering the native population of roughly 40,000. Thousands of Ni-Vanuatu were engaged in construction and support roles as part of the Vanuatu Labor Corps, and a small New Hebrides Defence Force of about 200 men was established.

The American presence, with its relative wealth, informal habits, and the presence of African American troops serving with a degree of equality (albeit in a segregated force), significantly undermined the colonial hierarchy and the notion of European superiority. This period was famously depicted in James A. Michener's novel Tales of the South Pacific. With the successful Allied reoccupation of the Solomons in 1943, the New Hebrides lost their strategic importance. The Americans withdrew in 1945, selling some equipment and dumping the rest into the sea at a site now known as Million Dollar Point on Espiritu Santo. The rapid American deployment and withdrawal fueled the growth of "cargo cults," most notably the John Frum movement on Tanna, where followers hoped that by emulating American practices and returning to traditional values, "cargo" (material goods) would be delivered to them. The Condominium government returned but, understaffed and underfunded, struggled to reassert its authority.

3.3.2. Independence Movement and Self-Governance (1945-1980)

Following World War II, the wave of decolonization sweeping European empires began to influence the New Hebrides. From the 1950s, the Condominium government initiated modernization and economic development efforts, albeit belatedly. Hospitals were built, medical staff trained, and immunization campaigns undertaken. The mission-run school system was expanded and improved, with primary enrollment becoming near-universal by 1970. Plantations faced greater oversight, with crackdowns on worker exploitation and higher wages for Ni-Vanuatu. New industries like cattle ranching, commercial fishing, and manganese mining were established. Ni-Vanuatu gradually began to assume more influential roles in the economy and the church. However, political power remained firmly in British and French hands; an Advisory Council set up in 1957, which included some Ni-Vanuatu representation, had little actual power.

Economic development had unintended social consequences. In the 1960s, planters began fencing off and clearing large areas of bushland for cattle ranching, often on land considered communally-held kastom land by Ni-Vanuatu. This led to significant resentment and the rise of indigenous movements. On Espiritu Santo, the Nagriamel movement was founded in 1966 by Chief Buluk and Jimmy Stevens. Nagriamel opposed further land clearances and advocated for gradual, Ni-Vanuatu-led economic development. The movement gained a large following, prompting a crackdown by the authorities, with Buluk and Stevens arrested in 1967. Upon their release, they began to press for complete independence.

In 1971, Father Walter Lini, an Anglican priest, established the New Hebrides Cultural Association, later renamed the New Hebrides National Party (NHNP), which also focused on achieving independence and opposing land expropriation. The NHNP gained prominence in 1971 when the Condominium government intervened after a surge in land speculation by foreign nationals.

Meanwhile, French settlers and Francophone or mixed-race Ni-Vanuatu formed parties advocating for more gradual political development: the Mouvement Autonomiste des Nouvelles-Hébrides (MANH) on Espiritu Santo, and the Union des Communautés des Nouvelles-Hébrides (UCNH) on Efate. These parties, along with Nagriamel and others (collectively known as the 'Moderates'), represented largely Catholic Francophone interests and a more gradual path to independence, often backed by France, which sought to maintain its influence in the region, especially in mineral-rich New Caledonia. The NHNP, conversely, was seen as the party of Anglophone Protestants and was supported by Britain, which was increasingly looking to exit the colony.

Economic development continued with the establishment of numerous banks and financial centers in the early 1970s, taking advantage of the territory's tax haven status. A mini-building boom occurred in Port Vila, and cruise ship tourism grew rapidly. This boom led to increased urbanization, with the populations of Port Vila and Luganville expanding quickly.

In November 1974, Britain and France agreed to create a New Hebrides Representative Assembly, partly based on universal suffrage and partly on appointed representatives of various interest groups. The first election in November 1975 resulted in a victory for the NHNP. The Moderates disputed the results, with Jimmy Stevens threatening secession. After delays, protests, and some fresh elections in disputed areas, the Assembly finally convened in November 1976.

In 1977, the NHNP renamed itself the Vanua'aku Pati (VP) and advocated for immediate independence under a strong central government and an Anglicisation of the islands. The Moderates continued to support a gradual transition and a federal system, maintaining French as an official language. A joint Anglo-French and Ni-Vanuatu conference in London in March 1977 agreed to hold fresh Assembly elections and an independence referendum in 1980. The VP boycotted this conference and the subsequent election in November, setting up a parallel 'People's Provisional Government' which controlled many areas, leading to violent confrontations.

A compromise eventually led to a Government of National Unity and fresh elections in November 1979, which the VP won comfortably. Independence was scheduled for July 30, 1980. The Moderates, performing less well than expected, disputed these results.

Tensions persisted throughout 1980. Violent clashes occurred between VP and Moderate supporters on several islands. On Espiritu Santo, Nagriamel and Moderate activists under Jimmy Stevens, funded by the American libertarian organization Phoenix Foundation, took over the island's government in January and declared the independent Republic of Vemarana. This prompted VP supporters to flee and the central government to institute a blockade. In May, an abortive Moderate rebellion on Tanna resulted in the death of one of their leaders. British and French troops were sent in July to forestall the Vemarana secessionists. However, French ambivalence towards independence effectively neutered the force, leading to a collapse of law and order on Espiritu Santo and widespread looting. These events underscored the deep divisions and external influences impacting the path to independence, with significant social disruption for the affected communities.

3.4. Independence (1980-present)

The New Hebrides, renamed Vanuatu, achieved independence as planned on July 30, 1980, with Walter Lini of the Vanua'aku Pati (VP) as the first Prime Minister and Ati George Sokomanu as the ceremonial President, replacing the Resident Commissioners. The transition was not entirely peaceful. The Anglo-French forces withdrew in August, and Lini controversially called in troops from Papua New Guinea to quell the secessionist Vemarana movement on Espiritu Santo, led by Jimmy Stevens. This brief conflict became known as the "Coconut War". The PNG forces quickly suppressed the revolt, and Stevens surrendered on September 1, 1980; he was subsequently jailed.

Walter Lini remained Prime Minister until 1991, leading an Anglophone-dominated government and winning elections in 1983 and 1987. His government pursued a non-aligned foreign policy, opposing Apartheid in South Africa and all forms of colonialism. Vanuatu under Lini established relations with countries like Libya and Cuba and was a vocal critic of French presence in New Caledonia and French nuclear testing in French Polynesia. This independent stance sometimes strained relations with traditional Western partners and impacted aid flows.

By the late 1980s, opposition to Lini's leadership grew. In 1987, after Lini suffered a stroke, a faction of the Vanua'aku Pati under Barak Sopé broke away to form the Melanesian Progressive Party (MPP). An attempt by President Sokomanu to unseat Lini also failed. Lini became increasingly distrustful, leading to further splits within the VP. In September 1991, a vote of no confidence removed Lini from power. Donald Kalpokas became prime minister, and Lini formed a new party, the National United Party (NUP). The economy had entered a downturn due to political turmoil, Lini's foreign policy, and a crash in the price of copra, Vanuatu's main export.

The 1991 election saw the Francophone Union of Moderate Parties (UMP) emerge as the largest party, forming a coalition with Lini's NUP, with the UMP's Maxime Carlot Korman becoming Prime Minister. This marked a shift towards a more free-market economic approach, public sector cuts, improved opportunities for Francophone Ni-Vanuatu, and renewed ties with France.
Since 1991, Vanuatuan politics has been characterized by instability, with a series of fractious coalition governments and frequent votes of no confidence leading to numerous changes in prime ministers. Despite this political volatility, the democratic system has largely been maintained, and Vanuatu has remained relatively peaceful. Throughout the 1990s, the UMP was often in power, with the premiership alternating between Korman and Serge Vohor. Both leaders faced financial scandals, including Vohor's implication in a scheme to sell Vanuatu passports. In 1996, Vohor and President Jean-Marie Léyé were briefly abducted by the Vanuatu Mobile Force over a pay dispute. A riot occurred in Port Vila in 1998 over alleged financial impropriety in the Vanuatu National Provident Fund. A Comprehensive Reform Program was enacted in 1998 to improve economic performance and combat corruption.

The 1998 election brought the VP under Donald Kalpokas back to power, but he resigned within a year, replaced by Barak Sopé (MPP) in 1999, who was himself ousted in 2001. Despite political uncertainty, Vanuatu's economy saw growth fueled by demand for Vanuatu beef, tourism, remittances, and aid from the Asian Development Bank and the US Millennium Challenge Account. Vanuatu was removed from the OECD's list of 'uncooperative tax havens' in 2003 and joined the World Trade Organization in 2011.

Edward Natapei (VP) became Prime Minister in 2001 and won the 2002 election. The 2004 election saw Serge Vohor (UMP) return, but he was ousted after a controversial attempt to recognize Taiwan. His successor, Ham Lini (NUP), switched recognition back to the People's Republic of China, which remains a major aid donor. In 2007, violent clashes between migrants from Tanna and Ambrym in Port Vila resulted in two deaths, highlighting underlying social tensions.

The period from 2008 saw heightened political turmoil with frequent leadership changes. Sato Kilman of the People's Progressive Party (PPP) held the premiership multiple times, interspersed with terms by Natapei and Vohor. In 2013, Moana Carcasses Kalosil of the Green Confederation became the first naturalized citizen (of French-Tahitian ancestry) to become Prime Minister. He supported the West Papuan independence movement, a stance also expressed by some previous leaders. Kalosil was ousted in 2014, replaced by Joe Natuman (VP), who was himself removed in 2015 by Kilman.

In March 2015, Vanuatu was devastated by Cyclone Pam, a Category 5 severe tropical cyclone, which caused 16 deaths, widespread destruction, and significant social and economic disruption, underscoring the nation's extreme vulnerability to natural disasters and climate change. A major corruption investigation in 2015 led to the conviction of numerous MPs in Kilman's government, including former PM Moana Carcasses Kalosil, for bribery. This scandal weakened Kilman's government, and he lost the 2016 election to Charlot Salwai of the Reunification Movement for Change (RMC). Salwai, in turn, lost the 2020 election amidst allegations of perjury, bringing Bob Loughman (VP) to power as the country dealt with the aftermath of Cyclone Harold and the global COVID-19 pandemic. Vanuatu recorded its first COVID-19 case in November 2020, having been one of the last countries to remain virus-free. This period demonstrated the critical need for robust public health infrastructure and social safety nets.

In October 2023, Vanuatu announced its aim to be the first Pacific country to eliminate cervical cancer, a significant public health initiative.
In December 2024, a powerful magnitude 7.3 earthquake struck near the capital, Port Vila, on Efate, causing extensive damage, at least 19 fatalities, and affecting an estimated 116,000 people, roughly a third of the nation's population. This event once again highlighted the critical need for disaster preparedness, resilient infrastructure, and international support for recovery and rebuilding efforts, particularly for the most affected communities.

Throughout its post-independence history, Vanuatu has faced challenges in maintaining political stability, combating corruption, and achieving sustainable economic development. Issues of social equity, access to education and healthcare, land rights, and environmental protection remain central to its national agenda, reflecting a continuous struggle for social progress and improved quality of life for its citizens.

4.1. Topography and Major Islands

The islands of Vanuatu are predominantly of volcanic origin, resulting in rugged, mountainous terrain with limited coastal plains. Most islands are steep, with unstable soils. The archipelago is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, a zone of high seismic and volcanic activity. The highest point in Vanuatu is Mount Tabwemasana, at 6.2 K ft ^{(1.88 K m)}, located on the island of Espiritu Santo.

The fourteen largest islands by surface area are, from largest to smallest:

• Espiritu Santo (1.5 K mile^{2 (3.96 K km2)}) - The largest island, home to Luganville and Mount Tabwemasana.
• Malakula (0.8 K mile^{2 (2.04 K km2)})
• Efate (347 mile^{2 (900 km2)}) - The most populous island and location of the capital, Port Vila.
• Erromango (343 mile^{2 (888 km2)})
• Ambrym (262 mile^{2 (678 km2)}) - Known for its active twin volcanoes.
• Tanna (214 mile^{2 (555 km2)}) - Home to the active Mount Yasur volcano.
• Pentecost (190 mile^{2 (491 km2)}) - Famous for its land diving (Naghol) ritual.
• Epi (172 mile^{2 (445 km2)})
• Ambae (or Aoba) (155 mile^{2 (402 km2)}) - Site of the active Manaro Voui volcano.
• Gaua (127 mile^{2 (328 km2)})
• Vanua Lava (129 mile^{2 (334 km2)})
• Maewo (117 mile^{2 (304 km2)})
• Malo (69 mile^{2 (180 km2)})
• Aneityum (or Anatom) (61 mile^{2 (159 km2)})

The nation's largest towns are the capital Port Vila on Efate, and Luganville on Espiritu Santo. Vanuatu's total land area is approximately 1.8 K mile^{2 (4.70 K km2)}, out of a total area (including water) of roughly 4.7 K mile^{2 (12.27 K km2)}. The shoreline is mostly rocky with fringing coral reefs and no continental shelf, dropping rapidly into the ocean depths. This topography limits arable land and makes coastal areas vulnerable to tsunamis and storm surges. Two islands, Matthew and Hunter, are uninhabited and are also claimed by France as part of New Caledonia. This territorial dispute adds a layer of complexity to Vanuatu's maritime boundaries.

4.2. Climate

Vanuatu has a tropical climate, characterized by about nine months of warm to hot, rainy weather and the possibility of cyclones, followed by three to four months of cooler, drier weather influenced by southeasterly trade winds, which occur from May to October. The water temperature ranges from 71.6 °F ^{(22 °C)} in winter to 82.4 °F ^{(28 °C)} in the summer. Days become hotter and more humid starting in October, with daily temperatures ranging from 68 °F ^{(20 °C)} to 89.6 °F ^{(32 °C)}.

The country experiences a long rainy season, with significant rainfall occurring almost every month. The wettest and hottest months are from December through April, which also coincides with the tropical cyclone season. The driest months are generally June through November. Annual rainfall averages about 0.1 K in ^{(2.36 K mm)} but can be as high as 0.2 K in ^{(4.00 K mm)} in the northern islands.
Vanuatu is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including rising sea levels, increased intensity of cyclones, and changes in rainfall patterns, which pose significant threats to its environment, economy, and the livelihoods of its people.

4.3. Flora and Fauna

Despite its tropical forests, Vanuatu has a relatively limited number of terrestrial plant and animal species compared to larger landmasses. The islands form a distinct terrestrial ecoregion known as the Vanuatu rain forests, part of the Australasian realm.

Vanuatu is home to an indigenous flying fox, Pteropus anetianus. These fruit bats are important for rainforest regeneration as they pollinate flowers and disperse seeds. Their diet consists of nectar, pollen, and fruit. However, their populations are in decline across their South Pacific range. There are no large indigenous mammals.

The country has 19 native reptile species, including the flowerpot snake, found only on Efate. The Fiji banded iguana (Brachylophus fasciatus) was introduced as a feral species in the 1960s. There are eleven species of bats (three unique to Vanuatu) and sixty-one species of land and water birds. The small Polynesian rat is thought to be indigenous, while larger rat species arrived with Europeans, as did domesticated animals such as hogs, dogs, and cattle. The ant species of some islands were catalogued by biologist E. O. Wilson.

The marine environment is rich, with over 4,000 species of marine molluscs and a large diversity of marine fishes. However, some marine species, like cone snails and stonefish, carry potent toxins fatal to humans. The invasive Giant East African land snail arrived in the 1970s and has spread significantly. A small population of three or four adult saltwater crocodiles exists in Vanuatu's mangroves, believed to have arrived from the Solomon Islands or New Guinea after cyclones; there is no current breeding population.

The islands have been subject to logging, particularly of high-value timber, and wide-scale slash-and-burn agriculture. Conversion of land to coconut plantations and cattle ranches has also occurred, leading to increased soil erosion and landslides. While well-vegetated, most islands show signs of deforestation. This environmental degradation puts pressure on local ecosystems and biodiversity.

4.4. Natural Disasters

Vanuatu is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world, frequently affected by a range of natural hazards including tropical cyclones, earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic activity. The country's ranking as first on the WorldRiskIndex highlights its extreme vulnerability. These events have profound societal impacts, affecting infrastructure, livelihoods, and the well-being of the population, particularly vulnerable groups.

Tropical Cyclones: Located in the South Pacific cyclone belt, Vanuatu experiences cyclones regularly during the November to April season.

• Cyclone Pam (March 2015): A Category 5 severe tropical cyclone, Pam caused widespread devastation across much of Vanuatu. It resulted in 11 officially reported deaths (though some estimates were higher) and extensive damage to homes, infrastructure, and agriculture, impacting a significant portion of the population. Minister Ralph Regenvanu described it as the worst disaster to affect Vanuatu in known history.
• Cyclone Harold (April 2020): This powerful cyclone struck the northern islands, particularly Espiritu Santo and Pentecost, causing significant material damage in Luganville and surrounding areas. It compounded challenges already faced due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Earthquakes and Tsunamis: Vanuatu lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire and experiences frequent seismic activity.

• November 1999: A severe earthquake followed by a tsunami caused extensive damage to the northern island of Pentecost, leaving thousands homeless.
• January 2002: Another powerful earthquake caused significant damage in the capital, Port Vila, and surrounding areas, and was also followed by a tsunami.
• August 2007: A magnitude 7.2 earthquake struck the region.
• December 2024: A magnitude 7.3 earthquake near Port Vila caused at least 19 fatalities and widespread destruction on Efate. The UNOCHA estimated that 116,000 people, about a third of the nation's population, were directly affected.

Volcanic Activity: Several active volcanoes pose an ongoing threat.

• Mount Yasur on Tanna is one of the world's most accessible active volcanoes, with frequent small eruptions.
• Manaro Voui on Ambae: This volcano has experienced significant activity, notably in 2017 and 2018, leading to the temporary evacuation of the island's entire population. Ashfall and acid rain have contaminated water supplies and damaged crops, severely impacting livelihoods.
• Other active volcanoes include Lopevi and several underwater volcanoes. An eruption occurred in 1945, and a nearby undersea eruption of magnitude 6.4 occurred in November 2008 with no casualties.

The frequent occurrence of these natural disasters places immense strain on Vanuatu's resources and development efforts. Relief and recovery operations often require substantial international assistance. There is a growing emphasis on disaster risk reduction, climate change adaptation, and building community resilience, recognizing the disproportionate impact on impoverished and marginalized communities.

5.1. Government Structure

The government of Vanuatu is structured around three branches: the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary.

• The President: The President of Vanuatu is the head of state. The role is primarily ceremonial, symbolizing the unity of the nation. The President is elected for a five-year term by an electoral college consisting of members of Parliament and the presidents of the Regional Councils. A two-thirds vote is required for election. The President can be removed by the electoral college for gross misconduct or incapacity.

• The Prime Minister and Council of Ministers: The Prime Minister is the head of government and holds executive power. The Prime Minister is elected by a majority vote of a three-quarters quorum of the Parliament from among its members, typically following a general election. The Prime Minister then appoints the Council of Ministers (cabinet), whose number cannot exceed a quarter of the number of parliamentary representatives. The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers are responsible to the Parliament.

• The Parliament: The Parliament of Vanuatu (Parlement du Vanuatu_{Parlement of Vanuatu}^French) is unicameral, meaning it has a single chamber. It consists of 52 members who are elected by popular vote for a four-year term, unless Parliament is dissolved earlier. Forty-four MPs are elected through the Single non-transferable vote system, and eight are elected through single-member plurality in their constituencies. Parliament is the supreme law-making body.

• The Judiciary: The judiciary is independent. The Supreme Court is the highest court, headed by a Chief Justice and up to three other judges. Two or more members of this court can constitute a Court of Appeal. Magistrate courts handle most routine legal matters. The legal system is based on British common law and French civil law. The constitution also provides for the establishment of village or island courts presided over by chiefs to deal with questions of customary law (Kastom).

• The Malvatu Mauri (National Council of Chiefs): This body is composed of chiefs elected by district councils of chiefs. It advises the government on all matters concerning Ni-Vanuatu culture, tradition (Kastom), and language, ensuring that customary values are considered in national governance. Chiefs continue to be influential figures at the village level.

Squatting occurs, and the principle of adverse possession does not exist in Vanuatu law.

5.2. Major Political Parties

Vanuatu operates under a multi-party system, which has often led to coalition governments and political instability. No single party has consistently held an absolute majority in Parliament since the early post-independence years. Ideological stances can be fluid, and party affiliations often reflect linguistic (Anglophone vs. Francophone) and regional loyalties, as well as personal leadership. Some of the historically significant and currently active political parties include:

• Vanua'aku Pati (VP):** One of the oldest parties, instrumental in the independence movement, traditionally Anglophone-led. Founded by Walter Lini.
• Union of Moderate Parties (UMP):** Primarily Francophone-led, often a major coalition partner or opposition.
• National United Party (NUP):** Formed by Walter Lini after he split from the VP.
• Land and Justice Party (GJP, Graon mo Jastis Pati):** A newer party that has gained prominence, focusing on land rights and traditional values.
• Reunification Movement for Change (RMC):** Another significant party in recent coalition governments.
• Melanesian Progressive Party (MPP):** Formed from a split within the Vanua'aku Pati.
• Green Confederation (Greens):** Focuses on environmental issues and sustainable development.
• Nagriamel:** A movement with historical roots, particularly strong on Espiritu Santo, often advocating for customary rights.

The political scene is dynamic, with new parties emerging and alliances frequently shifting. Votes of no confidence have been a common feature, leading to frequent changes in government leadership. This instability poses challenges for long-term policy planning and implementation, affecting social and economic development.

5.3. Administrative Divisions

Vanuatu has been divided into six provinces since 1994. The names of the provinces are derived from the initial letters of their main constituent islands:

• Malampa**: Comprising the islands of Malakula, Ambrym, and Paama. It is known for its cultural diversity and volcanic landscapes on Ambrym.
• Penama**: Comprising Pentecost, Ambae, and Maewo. Pentecost is famous for land diving, while Ambae has faced significant disruption from volcanic activity.
• Sanma**: Comprising Santo (Espiritu Santo) and Malo. Espiritu Santo is the largest island and home to Luganville, the country's second-largest town.
• Shefa**: Comprising the Shepherds group of islands and Efate. Efate is home to the capital, Port Vila, and is the most populous province.
• Tafea**: Comprising Tanna, Aniwa, Futuna, Erromango, and Aneityum. Tanna is known for the active Mount Yasur volcano and strong Kastom traditions.
• Torba**: Comprising the Torres Islands and the Banks Islands. This is the northernmost and least populated province.

Provinces are autonomous units with their own popularly elected local parliaments, known officially as provincial councils. These councils have responsibilities for local governance and development. The provinces are further divided into municipalities, usually consisting of an individual island, headed by a council and a mayor elected from among the council members. This decentralized structure aims to provide more localized governance and address specific regional needs, although capacity and resource limitations can be challenging.

5.4. Environmental Policy

Vanuatu's government has become increasingly proactive in developing and implementing environmental policies, driven by the nation's extreme vulnerability to climate change and its commitment to sustainable development. These policies often intersect with social justice and human rights concerns, as environmental degradation disproportionately affects marginalized communities.

Key environmental policy areas include:

• Climate Change Action:** Vanuatu is a vocal advocate on the international stage for stronger global action on climate change. Domestically, it focuses on adaptation measures, such as building resilient infrastructure, promoting climate-resistant agriculture, and protecting coastal ecosystems. The government has also been a leading voice in calling for climate justice and exploring legal avenues to hold major polluting nations accountable. In 2023, Vanuatu, along with other Pacific island nations, launched the "Port Vila Call for a Just Transition to a Fossil Fuel Free Pacific", calling for the phase-out of fossil fuels, a rapid and just transition to renewable energy, and strengthening environmental law, including the criminalization of ecocide.
• Plastic Waste Regulation:** Recognizing the severe impact of plastic pollution on marine ecosystems and human health, Vanuatu has implemented some of the world's strictest bans on single-use plastics. In 2018, it banned plastic bags, straws, and polystyrene containers. In 2020, these bans were extended to include items like plastic cutlery, single-use plates, and artificial flowers. The country's plastic waste disposal rate was approximately 2,000 tonnes per year in 2019, with common items being soft plastic packaging, PET water bottles, and styrofoam. These measures reflect a commitment to protecting its pristine environment and reducing waste.
• Biodiversity Conservation:** Efforts are underway to protect Vanuatu's unique terrestrial and marine biodiversity. This includes establishing protected areas, promoting sustainable resource management, and combating invasive species. Traditional ecological knowledge (Kastom) often plays a role in conservation strategies.
• Sustainable Land Management:** Policies aim to address deforestation, soil erosion, and unsustainable agricultural practices. Promoting agroforestry and sustainable forestry is part of this effort.
• Renewable Energy:** Vanuatu has set ambitious targets for transitioning to renewable energy sources, primarily solar and wind power, to reduce its reliance on imported fossil fuels and decrease its carbon footprint.
• International Cooperation:** Vanuatu actively participates in regional and international environmental forums and collaborates with international partners on environmental initiatives and to secure funding for climate adaptation and mitigation projects.

Challenges in environmental policy implementation include limited financial and technical resources, the geographical dispersion of the islands, and the need to balance conservation with economic development pressures. However, the government's strong stance, particularly on climate change and plastic pollution, has garnered international recognition and highlights a commitment to safeguarding the nation's future and the well-being of its people from an environmental and human rights perspective.

6.1. Relations with Key Nations

Vanuatu has established diplomatic and economic relationships with several key nations and regional blocs:

• Australia and New Zealand**: These are Vanuatu's closest and most significant partners, providing the bulk of development aid, security assistance (including support for the police force), and disaster relief. Strong economic, cultural, and people-to-people ties exist.
• France**: As a former colonial power, France maintains a significant relationship with Vanuatu, particularly through its territories in the Pacific (New Caledonia, French Polynesia). Relations have sometimes been complex, especially concerning issues like French nuclear testing in the past and the status of New Caledonia, but cooperation exists in areas like education (Francophone schooling) and development.
• China**: The People's Republic of China has become an increasingly important partner, providing substantial development aid and loans, particularly for infrastructure projects like the Luganville Wharf and a new presidential palace (opened in 2024). This growing influence has drawn international attention and some concern regarding debt sustainability and geopolitical implications in the Pacific. Vanuatu adheres to the One-China policy.
• European Union**: The EU is a significant development partner, providing aid and supporting various projects related to sustainable development, governance, and climate action.
• United Kingdom**: As the other former colonial power, the UK has historical ties. After a period of reduced engagement, the UK reopened its High Commission in Port Vila in 2019 as part of its 'Pacific Uplift' strategy, signaling renewed interest in the region.
• United States**: The US provides development assistance, notably through the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA), which funded key infrastructure projects. Security cooperation also occurs.
• Other Pacific Island Nations**: Vanuatu plays an active role in regional solidarity and cooperation with fellow Pacific island countries, particularly through the Pacific Islands Forum and the Melanesian Spearhead Group.
• Indonesia**: Relations with Indonesia have been notable for Vanuatu's consistent advocacy for the human rights of West Papuans. Vanuatu has used international forums like the UN Human Rights Council and the UN General Assembly to raise concerns about alleged abuses in West Papua and to support the call for self-determination, a stance that Indonesia has rejected.

Vanuatu's foreign policy often emphasizes sovereignty and an independent path, reflecting its history and its unique position as a Melanesian nation with both Anglophone and Francophone influences.

6.2. Membership in International Organizations

Vanuatu is an active member of numerous international and regional organizations, using these platforms to advocate for its interests and those of other small island developing states. Key memberships include:

• United Nations (UN)**: Joined in 1981. Vanuatu participates in various UN agencies and has been a vocal advocate on climate change, decolonization, and human rights issues, including raising concerns about West Papua. Vanuatu signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in 2017.
• Commonwealth of Nations**: As a former British-administered territory, Vanuatu is a member, benefiting from technical assistance and shared democratic values.
• Organisation internationale de la Francophonie**: Reflecting its French colonial heritage and the significant Francophone population, Vanuatu is a full member, participating in cultural and linguistic cooperation.
• Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)**: The premier regional political organization, through which Vanuatu collaborates with other Pacific nations on regional security, economic development, and climate change.
• Melanesian Spearhead Group (MSG)**: A sub-regional grouping of Melanesian states (Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and the Kanak and Socialist National Liberation Front of New Caledonia) promoting economic cooperation, cultural exchange, and solidarity on issues of common concern.
• World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF)**: Membership provides access to financial and technical assistance for development.
• Asian Development Bank (ADB)**: A key partner for development financing and expertise.
• World Trade Organization (WTO)**: Joined in 2011, seeking to integrate further into the global economy.
• Forum of Small States (FOSS)**: A member since the group's founding in 1992, advocating for the specific interests of small states within the UN system.

Through these memberships, Vanuatu seeks to amplify its voice on the global stage, address its development challenges, and contribute to regional stability and cooperation, often emphasizing issues of social justice, environmental protection, and the rights of indigenous peoples.

8.1. Economic Structure and Key Indicators

Vanuatu's economy grew at an average rate of about 6% in the early 2000s, an improvement from the less than 3% average GDP growth in the 1990s. According to the Asian Development Bank, the economy grew at a 5.9% rate from 2003 to 2007. However, growth can be volatile due to factors like cyclones and global economic conditions.

Key economic indicators include:

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP)**: A measure of the total economic output.
• Per Capita Income**: Generally low, reflecting its status as a developing country.
• Main Exports**: Copra, kava, beef, cocoa, and timber.
• Main Imports**: Machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, fuels, and manufactured goods.
• Inflation**: Generally managed, but can be affected by import prices.
• Currency**: The official currency is the Vanuatu vatu (VUV).

The country was ranked the 173rd safest investment destination by Euromoney Country Risk rankings in March 2011. In 2015, The Heritage Foundation and The Wall Street Journal ranked Vanuatu as the 84th most economically free country. Vanuatu became the 185th member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) in December 2011.

Tax revenues come mainly from import duties and a 15% VAT on goods and services. There is no income tax, withholding tax, capital gains tax, or inheritance tax.

8.2. Major Industries

Vanuatu's economy is characterized by a few key sectors that drive its growth and employment. These include agriculture and fisheries, tourism, and financial services. Mining activity is very low, and a small light-industry sector caters to the local market.

8.2.1. Agriculture and Fisheries

Agriculture is the backbone of Vanuatu's economy, providing a livelihood for approximately 65% of the population, particularly in rural areas. It is a mix of subsistence farming and cash cropping for export.

• Key Agricultural Products**:
  • Copra**: Dried coconut flesh, traditionally a major export. In 2007, copra production was valued at 195.00 M VUV.
  • Kava**: A traditional crop with significant cultural and economic importance, used to produce a ceremonial and social drink. Kava exports generate substantial revenue (341.00 M VUV in 2007). Many farmers have shifted to kava cultivation due to its profitability, sometimes at the expense of food crops, raising concerns about food security.
  • Beef**: Raising cattle for beef production is an important export industry, valued at 135.00 M VUV in 2007. Cattle were first introduced by British planter James Paddon.
  • Cocoa**: Grown for export, valued at 59.00 M VUV in 2007.
  • Timber**: Forestry products contribute to exports (56.00 M VUV in 2007).
  • Other Crops**: A wide range of fruits and vegetables are grown for local consumption and some export, including bananas, garlic, cabbage, peanuts, pineapples, sugarcane, taro, yams, watermelons, leaf spices, carrots, radishes, eggplants, vanilla, black pepper, and cucumbers. Crop gardens were valued at 93.00 M VUV in 2007.
  • Coffee**: A smaller export crop, valued at 12.00 M VUV in 2007.
  • Livestock**: Besides cattle, pigs and chickens are important for subsistence agriculture and play a significant role in ceremonies and customs, especially pigs. On average, each household has 5 pigs and 16 chickens.
  • Fisheries**: Fishing is vital for local consumption, with 99% of the 15,758 households engaged in fishing in 2007 doing so mainly for their own food needs. The average number of fishing trips was 3 per week. Commercial fishing and the export of live fish, aquarium fish, shells, and buttons also contribute to the economy (24.00 M VUV in 2007). However, intense fishing pressure near villages has led to the depletion of near-shore fish species.

  The Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO) 2007 agricultural census indicated that agricultural exports make up about 73% of all exports, and 80% of the population lives in rural areas where agriculture is the main source of livelihood. Almost all (99%) of these households engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and forestry. The total annual household income from agriculture grown for own use was valued at 683.00 M VUV, while agriculture for sale was 561.00 M VUV.
  
  Challenges in the agricultural sector include vulnerability to natural disasters (cyclones, droughts), price volatility for commodity exports, limited access to markets, and the need for improved farming techniques and infrastructure. The social impact on rural livelihoods is significant, with many communities depending directly on these industries for their sustenance and income.

8.2.2. Tourism

Tourism is a vital and growing sector of Vanuatu's economy, contributing significantly to foreign exchange earnings and employment. The country's main attractions include its pristine natural landscapes (beaches, coral reefs, volcanoes), unique cultural experiences (Kastom villages, traditional ceremonies like land diving), and historical sites (World War II relics).

• Main Tourist Attractions**:
  • Natural Beauty**: Scuba diving and snorkeling are popular due to vibrant coral reefs and clear waters. The wreck of the SS President Coolidge off Espiritu Santo is a world-renowned dive site. Active volcanoes like Mount Yasur on Tanna also attract tourists.
  • Cultural Experiences**: Visitors can experience traditional Melanesian culture, including Kastom ceremonies, sand drawing, and local music and dance.
  • Adventure Tourism**: Activities like hiking, kayaking, and exploring remote islands are available.
  • Visitor Statistics**: Tourism increased by 17% from 2007 to 2008, reaching 196,134 arrivals. This was a sharp increase from 2000, when there were 57,000 visitors (primarily from Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Europe, North America, and Japan). The industry is, however, susceptible to global economic downturns, natural disasters, and, more recently, pandemics which can severely affect arrival numbers.
  • Economic and Social Impact**: Tourism provides employment in hotels, resorts, tour operations, and related services. It also supports local communities through the sale of handicrafts and local produce. However, there are concerns about the environmental impact of tourism and the need to ensure that benefits are distributed equitably and that development is sustainable. The government has focused on promoting eco-tourism and community-based tourism initiatives. The reliance on tourism also makes the economy vulnerable, highlighting the need for diversification.

  The development of tourism infrastructure, such as resorts, has sometimes led to issues regarding land tenure, as traditional customary land ownership can conflict with commercial development interests.

8.3. Transport and Communications

Vanuatu's geography, an archipelago of 83 islands spread over a considerable distance, presents significant challenges for transport and communications infrastructure. Developing and maintaining these networks is crucial for economic development, access to services, and social cohesion.

• Air Transport**:
  • International Airports**: The main international gateway is Bauerfield International Airport (VLI) in Port Vila on Efate. Santo-Pekoa International Airport (SON) on Espiritu Santo also handles some international flights.
  • Domestic Airports**: Numerous smaller airfields and airstrips are scattered throughout the islands, providing essential links for inter-island travel. Air Vanuatu, the national airline, operates both international and domestic services.
• Challenges include the high cost of air travel and the maintenance of remote airstrips.

• Sea Transport**:
  • Ports**: The main ports are in Port Vila and Luganville (on Espiritu Santo), handling international cargo and cruise ships. Inter-island shipping is vital for transporting goods and people between islands, though services can be irregular and sometimes unsafe.
  • Shipping Services**: Both commercial shipping lines and smaller, locally owned vessels operate. The government has worked to improve port facilities and maritime safety.
  • Road Transport**:
    • Road networks are most developed on Efate and Espiritu Santo, particularly around urban centers. Many roads on these islands, and especially on outer islands, are unsealed and can become impassable during heavy rain.
    • Limited public transport exists, primarily in the form of privately-owned minibuses and taxis in urban areas.
    • Telecommunications**:
      • Mobile Phones**: Mobile phone service coverage has expanded significantly, provided by companies like Vodafone (formerly TVL) and Digicel. Mobile phones are a key means of communication, even in rural areas.
      • Internet**: Internet access is available, particularly in urban areas, through providers like Vodafone, Telsat Broadband, Digicel, and Wantok, using various technologies including ADSL, Wi-Fi, and mobile data.
      • Submarine Cable**: A submarine fiber-optic cable connecting Vanuatu to Fiji (the ICN1 cable) was completed, significantly improving international bandwidth and reliability, though access and affordability in remote areas remain challenges. This aims to enhance connectivity for businesses, government services, and individuals.

      The development of transport and communications infrastructure is a priority for the Vanuatu government, often supported by international aid. These developments are crucial for economic growth, enabling access to markets for agricultural products, supporting the tourism industry, and improving access to education, healthcare, and government services for all citizens, especially those in remote outer islands. However, the high costs, logistical difficulties due to the archipelago nature, and vulnerability to natural disasters pose ongoing challenges.

9.1. Demographics

According to the 2020 national census, Vanuatu had a population of 300,019. This represents a significant increase from previous censuses, indicating ongoing population growth. In 2020, men outnumbered women, with 151,597 men and 148,422 women. The population is predominantly rural, though the urban centers of Port Vila (on Efate) and Luganville (on Espiritu Santo) have populations numbering in the tens of thousands and are experiencing continued growth due to internal migration.

The indigenous population, known as Ni-Vanuatu, are primarily of Melanesian descent. There are also smaller communities of Europeans, Asians (including a long-standing Vietnamese community and more recent Chinese migrants), and other Pacific Islanders. The Vietnamese community, initially brought as indentured laborers during the colonial era, has declined from about 10% of the population in 1929 to approximately 0.3% (around 1,000 individuals) in 2017.

Vanuatu's population growth rate was estimated at 2.4% annually in 2008. This relatively high growth rate places increasing pressure on land, resources, and social services such as education and healthcare. The age structure is youthful, with a large proportion of the population under the age of 15, which presents both a demographic dividend potential and a challenge for employment and service provision.

In 2006 and again in 2024, the New Economics Foundation and Friends of the Earth ranked Vanuatu as number one worldwide on the Happy Planet Index, which measures reported happiness, life expectancy, and ecological footprint. While such rankings offer a particular perspective, they do not fully capture the complex socio-economic challenges faced by many Ni-Vanuatu, including poverty and limited access to opportunities.

In recent years, Vanuatu has offered "citizenship by investment" programs, which have attracted foreign nationals, primarily from mainland China. While these programs generate revenue, they have also raised concerns regarding due diligence and potential social impacts.

9.2. Languages

Vanuatu is renowned for its extraordinary linguistic diversity, having one of the highest densities of languages per capita in the world. This linguistic richness is a key feature of its cultural heritage.

• Official Languages**: The official languages of Vanuatu are Bislama, English, and French.
  • Bislama**: An English-based creole language with Melanesian grammar and phonology. It serves as the primary lingua franca throughout the archipelago, used by the majority of the population as a second language and increasingly as a first language in urban areas. Its growth has, to some extent, encroached upon the use of indigenous languages.
  • English and French**: These languages are legacies of the Anglo-French Condominium era. They are the principal languages of education, government, and business. The choice between English and French schooling often aligns with historical political and community lines.
  • Indigenous Languages**: In addition to the official languages, there are over 100 distinct indigenous languages spoken across the islands. All of these vernacular languages belong to the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian language family, except for three outlier Polynesian languages spoken in isolated communities (Emae, Mele-Fila, Futuna-Aniwa). The average number of speakers per indigenous language is only around 2,000, and many are spoken by even smaller communities, making them vulnerable. Notable indigenous languages by speaker numbers include Lenakel, North Efate, and Uripiv.

  The high linguistic diversity is attributed to factors such as waves of migration, geographic isolation between islands and even within islands, a history of decentralized and self-sufficient communities, and past inter-group hostilities which limited widespread communication. Efforts are being made to document and preserve these indigenous languages, many of which are integral to local identity and Kastom (traditional customs). The use of indigenous languages receded from 73.1% to 63.2% of the population between 1999 and 2009, highlighting the challenges of language maintenance in the face of globalization and the spread of Bislama.

9.3. Religion

Christianity is the predominant religion in Vanuatu, with a variety of denominations present, largely a legacy of missionary activity during the colonial era. Religious affiliation often plays a significant role in community life.

• Christian Denominations**:
  • Presbyterian Church**: This is the largest single denomination, with about one-third of the population adhering to it. Presbyterian missionaries were among the earliest and most influential in certain parts of the archipelago.
  • Anglican Church**: Claims about 15% of the population.
  • Roman Catholic Church**: Also claims about 15% of the population.
  • Seventh-day Adventist Church**: A significant minority.
  • The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints**: Reported having over 11,000 members in 2022, constituting about 3.6% of the population.
  • Church of Christ**, Neil Thomas Ministries (NTM), Jehovah's Witnesses, and various other Pentecostal and evangelical groups are also active.
  • Indigenous Beliefs (Kastom)**: Traditional Melanesian beliefs and practices, collectively known as "Kastom," remain influential, particularly in rural areas. Kastom often coexists or is syncretized with Christian practices. It encompasses a wide range of customs related to social structure, land tenure, ceremonies, and spirituality.
  • Cargo Cults**: Several cargo cults emerged in Vanuatu, particularly after World War II, influenced by the sudden arrival and departure of vast quantities of Western goods ("cargo") brought by military forces. While many have faded, some persist:
    • The **John Frum movement** on Tanna is still prominent and has adherents, some of whom have even been elected to Parliament. Followers believe that John Frum, a messianic figure often depicted as an American serviceman, will one day return bringing wealth and prosperity. An annual John Frum Day is celebrated on Tanna.
    • The **Prince Philip Movement**, also on Tanna, venerated the late Prince Philip, consort of Queen Elizabeth II. Villagers of the Yaohnanen tribe believed an ancient prophecy about a pale-skinned son of a mountain spirit who would marry a powerful woman, a description they felt Prince Philip matched. Following his death, it was suggested that this veneration might transfer to his son, Charles III.
    • Other Religions**:
      • Baháʼí Faith**: As of 2010, about 1.4% of the population were Baháʼís, making Vanuatu one of the countries with the highest per capita Baháʼí populations.
      • Islam**: Estimated to have around 200 converts in 2007.

      Religious freedom is generally respected in Vanuatu. Religious institutions often play a role in providing social services, including education and healthcare, particularly in remote areas.

9.4. Education

The education system in Vanuatu faces significant challenges related to access, quality, and resources, particularly in ensuring equitable opportunities for children in rural and remote outer islands. The system reflects the dual Anglophone and Francophone colonial legacy.

• Structure**: Education is not compulsory. The system generally follows a structure of primary education, junior secondary education, and senior secondary education. Post-secondary options include vocational training and tertiary education.
• Languages of Instruction**: The principal languages of education are English and French. Parents often choose the language stream for their children based on historical community ties or perceived opportunities. This dual system can create complexities in curriculum development and resource allocation.
• Literacy Rate**: The estimated literacy rate for people aged 15-24 years was about 74% according to UNESCO figures around 2016. Efforts continue to improve literacy, especially adult literacy.
• Enrollment and Completion Rates**: Primary school enrollment rose from 74.5% in 1989 to 93.0% in 2004 but then fell to 85.4% in 2007. The proportion of pupils completing primary education fell from 90% in 1991 to 72% in 2004, though it reportedly increased to 78% by 2012. These fluctuations highlight challenges in retention and completion.
• Higher Education**:
  • University of the South Pacific (USP)**: Vanuatu is one of the twelve Pacific countries that co-own USP. It has a significant campus in Port Vila, known as the Emalus Campus, which notably houses the university's School of Law. USP also has smaller centers in other locations.
  • Vanuatu National University (VNU)**: Established more recently, aiming to provide national tertiary education options.
• Other institutions include teacher training colleges and vocational training centers.
• Challenges**:
  • Access and Equity**: Geographic remoteness, transportation difficulties, and school fees can be significant barriers to education, especially for children in outer islands and from low-income families.
  • Quality**: Ensuring qualified teachers, adequate learning materials, and appropriate curricula (relevant to local context and international standards) are ongoing challenges.
  • Resources**: The education sector often faces funding constraints.
  • Disaster Impact**: Schools are frequently damaged or disrupted by natural disasters, impacting continuity of education.

  The government and development partners are working to address these challenges through initiatives focused on improving school infrastructure, teacher training, curriculum development, and making education more affordable and accessible. Ensuring that education contributes to social development and provides pathways to employment for young Ni-Vanuatu is a key policy goal.

9.5. Health

Vanuatu's health system faces numerous challenges common to many developing island nations, including limited resources, a geographically dispersed population, and a high burden of both communicable and non-communicable diseases. Ensuring access to quality healthcare for all citizens, particularly those in remote areas and vulnerable groups, is a major focus.

• Key Health Indicators**:
  • Life Expectancy**: Life expectancy at birth has been improving but remains lower than in more developed countries.
  • Infant and Child Mortality**: These rates have seen reductions but continue to be a concern.
  • Maternal Health**: Access to quality maternal healthcare, especially in outer islands, is a challenge.
  • Healthcare Infrastructure and Services**:
    • Hospitals**: The main hospitals are located in Port Vila (Vila Central Hospital) and Luganville (Northern Provincial Hospital). These provide a broader range of services.
    • Health Centers and Dispensaries**: A network of smaller health centers and dispensaries exists throughout the islands, providing primary healthcare. However, many are under-resourced and may lack qualified staff or essential medicines.
    • Access to Services**: Geographic barriers, transportation costs, and shortages of healthcare professionals significantly impact access to care, particularly for specialized services. Medical evacuations to larger centers or overseas are sometimes necessary but costly.
    • Major Public Health Issues**:
      • Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)**: Diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease are increasingly prevalent, linked to lifestyle changes, diet, and tobacco use. NCDs are a leading cause of mortality.
      • Communicable Diseases**: Malaria, tuberculosis, diarrheal diseases, and respiratory infections remain significant public health concerns, particularly in areas with poor sanitation and limited access to clean water.
      • Malnutrition**: Both undernutrition (stunting in children) and overnutrition (obesity) are issues.
      • Mental Health**: Mental health services are underdeveloped.
      • Reproductive Health**: Access to family planning and reproductive health services can be limited. Vanuatu launched an initiative in 2023 to eliminate cervical cancer.
      • Government Initiatives and Challenges**:
        • The Ministry of Health leads public health efforts, often in collaboration with international partners like the World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF, and donor countries.
        • Initiatives focus on strengthening primary healthcare, improving maternal and child health, combating NCDs and communicable diseases, and improving health infrastructure and human resources.
        • Challenges include insufficient funding, a shortage of trained healthcare workers (doctors, nurses, specialists), logistical difficulties in delivering services and supplies to remote islands, and the impact of natural disasters on health facilities and services.

        The health of the Vanuatuan population is intrinsically linked to social determinants such as education, poverty, and environmental conditions. A focus on preventative care, community health programs, and strengthening the overall health system is crucial for improving health outcomes and reducing inequities.

10.1. Traditional Customs and Arts

"Kastom" is a Bislama term referring to traditional customs, beliefs, and practices that govern many aspects of Ni-Vanuatu life, including social organization, land tenure, ceremonies, and conflict resolution.

• Nakamal**: Most villages have a nakamal, or village clubhouse, which serves as a central meeting point for men. It is also the traditional place for preparing and drinking kava, a ceremonial beverage made from the roots of the kava plant, which has significant social and cultural importance.
• Social Structure**: Traditional societies often have complex kinship systems, chiefly hierarchies, and distinct roles for men and women. Villages may have male- and female-only sections or spaces with specific rules.
• Grade-Taking System (Nimangki)**: Particularly in northern Vanuatu, men can achieve higher social status and influence by progressing through a series of elaborate and costly "grade-taking" ceremonies. These involve feasting, exchanges of pigs (especially those with rounded tusks, which are highly prized symbols of wealth), and other valuables.
• Vanuatu Sand Drawing**: This unique art form, recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, involves creating intricate geometric patterns in sand, soil, or volcanic ash using a single finger in a continuous line. These drawings are not merely decorative but serve as mnemonic devices, recording rituals, myths, kinship systems, and local knowledge.
• Ceremonies and Rituals**: Various ceremonies mark important life events, such as birth, initiation (often including circumcision for young men), marriage, and death. These rituals vary significantly between islands and communities.
• Traditional Arts**: Include carving (masks, figures, slit drums), weaving (mats, baskets), pottery (in some areas), and personal adornment (body painting, jewelry).

10.2. Music and Literature

• Traditional Music**: The traditional music of Vanuatu is diverse and primarily functional, accompanying ceremonies, dances, and storytelling. Instruments are predominantly idiophones, such as:
  • Slit drums (tamtam)**: Large, elaborately carved wooden drums of various shapes and sizes, played by striking them with wood. They are used for communication and in ceremonies.
  • Stamping Tubes**: Bamboo tubes struck on the ground to create rhythmic sounds.
  • Rattles**: Made from gourds, shells, or seeds.
• Folk songs and chants are integral to oral traditions.
• Modern Music**:
  • String Band Music**: This genre became widely popular in the 20th century, combining guitars, ukuleles, and popular songs. It is a common feature at social gatherings.
  • Contemporary Music**: The music industry grew rapidly in the 1990s, with several bands emerging with a distinct Ni-Vanuatu identity. Popular genres include local adaptations of zouk and reggaeton.
• Literature**:
  • Oral Traditions**: A rich body of oral literature, including myths, legends, and historical accounts, has been passed down through generations.
  • Written Literature**: There are few prominent published Ni-Vanuatu authors in the Western sense. Women's rights activist Grace Mera Molisa (died 2002) was a notable descriptive poet, writing in English and Bislama, whose work often addressed social and political issues. Efforts are ongoing to document and promote both oral and written forms of Vanuatuan literature.

10.3. Cuisine

The cuisine of Vanuatu (aelan kakae in Bislama, meaning "island food") primarily incorporates fish, root vegetables such as taro and yams, fruits, and vegetables. Most island families grow food in their gardens, and food shortages are rare under normal circumstances.

• Main Ingredients**: Papayas, pineapples, mangoes, plantains, sweet potatoes, taro, yams, breadfruit, and coconuts are abundant. Coconut milk and coconut cream are widely used to flavor many dishes. Seafood is a staple, especially in coastal areas. Pork and chicken are also consumed, particularly during feasts.
• Cooking Methods**: Food is commonly cooked using hot stones in an earth oven (umu), or through boiling and steaming. Frying is less common in traditional cooking.
• National Dish**: The national dish of Vanuatu is laplap. It is a baked pudding made from grated yams, taro, or cassava, mixed with coconut milk, and often with greens or meat (chicken, pork, or fish) added. The mixture is wrapped in banana leaves or laplap leaves and cooked in an earth oven.
• Kava**: While not a food, kava is a significant traditional beverage prepared from the roots of the Piper methysticum plant. It has sedative and euphoric effects and is consumed in Nakamals and at social and ceremonial occasions.

Food plays an important role in social gatherings, ceremonies, and expressions of hospitality.

10.4. Sports

Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Vanuatu. The country has a national football team that competes in Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) tournaments. The top domestic league is the VFF National Super League, and the Port Vila Football League is another significant competition.

Cricket is also popular, introduced during the colonial era. Vanuatu has a national cricket team that participates in regional and international competitions organized by the International Cricket Council (ICC).

Other sports played include volleyball, basketball, rugby union, and athletics. Vanuatu has participated in the Olympic Games and the Commonwealth Games, primarily in athletics. Traditional sports and games also form part of the cultural landscape, though they are less formalized in a national sporting context.

10.5. Festivals and Public Holidays

Vanuatu celebrates a variety of traditional festivals and national public holidays, reflecting its cultural richness and historical milestones.

• Land diving (Naghol/Gol)**: This world-renowned traditional festival takes place on Pentecost Island between April and June. Men and boys dive from tall wooden towers (around 66 ft ^{(20 m)} to 98 ft ^{(30 m)} high) with tree vines tied to their ankles, as a ritual to ensure a bountiful yam harvest and as a demonstration of courage. It is considered an inspiration for the modern sport of bungee jumping.
• Yam and Taro Festivals**: Many communities hold festivals to celebrate the harvest of yams and taro, which are staple crops. These often involve feasting, dancing, and traditional ceremonies.
• Kastom Ceremonies**: Various islands and villages have unique Kastom ceremonies related to initiations, grade-taking, marriages, and other significant events, often involving elaborate rituals, pig killings, and dances.
• John Frum Day**: Celebrated on February 15th on Tanna Island, this event is part of the John Frum cargo cult.
• National Public Holidays**:
  • January 1: New Year's Day
  • February 21: Father Walter Lini Day (commemorating the first Prime Minister)
  • March 5: Custom Chiefs Day
  • Good Friday and Easter Monday (movable Christian holidays)
  • May 1: Labour Day
  • Ascension Day (movable Christian holiday)
  • July (late): Children's Day
  • July 30: Independence Day (the most important national holiday, celebrating independence in 1980)
  • August 15: Assumption Day (Christian holiday)
  • October 5: Constitution Day
  • November 29: National Unity Day
  • December 25 & 26: Christmas Days

  These festivals and holidays are important occasions for community gathering, cultural expression, and national identity.

10.6. Media

The media landscape in Vanuatu is relatively small and faces challenges related to resources, infrastructure, and reach across the geographically dispersed islands. However, it plays a role in information dissemination, public discourse, and cultural expression.

• Newspapers**: Several newspapers are published, primarily in Port Vila. These include the Vanuatu Daily Post (English), and other publications that may appear in Bislama or French. Distribution to outer islands can be limited.
• Radio**: Radio is the most widespread and accessible medium, particularly in rural areas. The Vanuatu Broadcasting and Television Corporation (VBTC) operates state-run radio services (Radio Vanuatu) broadcasting in English, French, and Bislama, as well as in some local languages. There are also privately owned and community radio stations.
• Television**: VBTC also operates a television service (TBV - Televisen Blong Vanuatu). Access to television is largely limited to urban areas and those with satellite reception. Foreign channels are also available via satellite.
• Internet**: Internet access has been growing, especially with improved mobile connectivity and the submarine fiber-optic cable. Online news sources, blogs, and social media are becoming increasingly important platforms for information and discussion, particularly among the urban and younger population. However, the digital divide persists, with significant disparities in access between urban and rural areas.
• Information Accessibility**: Challenges to information accessibility include literacy levels, linguistic diversity (requiring content in multiple languages), the cost of internet access, and the logistical difficulties of distributing print media and maintaining broadcast infrastructure across the archipelago.

The media operates with a degree of freedom, but issues such as media training, financial sustainability, and ensuring balanced and diverse content remain ongoing considerations.