Costa Rica

3.1. Pre-Columbian period

Before European arrival, the land now known as Costa Rica was inhabited by various indigenous groups. Historians classify these peoples as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped. More recently, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also been described as part of the Isthmo-Colombian Area. Societies like the Chibcha, Diquis, Boruca, and Cabécar populated the region. These groups had distinct social structures, languages, and cultural practices, often organized into chiefdoms. Evidence suggests advanced skills in agriculture, pottery, and goldsmithing. The oldest evidence of human occupation, stone tools, dates back to around 10,000 to 7,000 years BCE, associated with hunter-gatherer groups in the Turrialba Valley. The presence of Clovis culture spearheads and arrows from South America suggests the coexistence of different cultures. Agriculture became evident around 5,000 years ago, with the cultivation of tubers and roots. By the first and second millennia BCE, settled farming communities existed, though small and scattered. The earliest use of pottery dates to 2,000 to 3,000 BCE. Unlike some neighboring regions, Costa Rica did not host large, centralized empires like the Aztec or Inca. The influence of indigenous peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been relatively small compared to other nations, as much of the native population was absorbed into the Spanish-speaking colonial society through inter-marriage, or decimated by disease and conflict. However, some indigenous communities, such as the Bribri and Boruca, persist today, primarily in the mountainous Cordillera de Talamanca region. The famous stone spheres, created by the Diquis culture, remain a significant archaeological enigma and a symbol of the country's pre-Columbian heritage.

3.2. Spanish colonization

Christopher Columbus reached the eastern coast of Costa Rica in 1502 during his fourth voyage to the Americas. The Spanish conquest and colonization process began in earnest in 1524 with expeditions led by figures like Gil González Dávila and Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. The Spanish encountered resistance from indigenous populations, but diseases introduced by Europeans, such as smallpox and influenza, drastically reduced native numbers.

During most of the colonial period, Costa Rica was the southernmost province of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, nominally part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. However, its distance from the capital in Guatemala City, its legal prohibition under mercantilist Spanish law from trading with its southern neighbor Panama (then part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada), and a lack of significant mineral wealth like gold and silver, made Costa Rica a poor, isolated, and sparsely inhabited region within the Spanish Empire. A Spanish governor in 1719 described it as "the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America."
The scarcity of a large indigenous labor force available for the encomienda system (forced labor) meant that many Spanish settlers had to work their own land. This prevented the establishment of large haciendas (plantations) to the same extent as in other colonies and is believed to have contributed to the development of a more egalitarian society with smaller landholdings compared to its neighbors. Costa Rica became a "rural democracy" with no significantly oppressed mestizo or indigenous class on a large scale. Spanish settlers eventually moved towards the Central Valley, where they found rich volcanic soil and a milder climate. Cartago, founded in 1564 in the Central Valley, served as the capital for much of the colonial period. The economy was largely based on subsistence agriculture, with some cultivation of cacao and tobacco for export.

3.3. Independence

Like much of Central America, Costa Rica gained independence from Spain without a major war on its own soil. On September 15, 1821, following the final Spanish defeat in the Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821), the authorities in Guatemala City declared the independence of all of Central America. This date is still celebrated as Independence Day in Costa Rica.
Upon independence, Costa Rica briefly became part of the First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide. However, when the Mexican Empire collapsed in 1823, Costa Rica, along with Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, formed the Federal Republic of Central America. Internal divisions arose within Costa Rica regarding its future: the Imperialists, supported by the cities of Cartago and Heredia, favored joining the Mexican Empire, while the Republicans, represented by San José and Alajuela, advocated for full independence. This disagreement led to the Battle of Ochomogo in 1823, a brief civil war won by the Republicans. As a consequence, San José replaced Cartago as the capital.
The Federal Republic of Central America was plagued by internal conflicts and instability. Costa Rica, geographically distant from the federal capital in Guatemala City and historically self-reliant, formally withdrew from the federation in 1838 and proclaimed itself a sovereign nation. Full sovereignty was formally declared in 1847 under the leadership of José María Castro Madriz.
In 1824, the region of Nicoya, which today forms part of Guanacaste Province, voluntarily decided to annex itself to Costa Rica through a plebiscite. This decision was influenced by existing trade links and the relative political stability of Costa Rica compared to Nicaragua at the time. The annexation of Guanacaste is celebrated annually on July 25th. Until 1849, when it became part of Panama, Chiriquí was part of Costa Rica.

3.4. 19th-century economic and social development

The 19th century was a period of significant economic and social transformation for Costa Rica, largely driven by the cultivation of coffee as a major export crop. Coffee was first planted in Costa Rica in 1808, and by the 1820s, it surpassed tobacco, sugar, and cacao as the primary export. The government actively promoted coffee cultivation, offering land grants to those willing to grow it. This led to the rise of a wealthy class of coffee growers, often referred to as the "Coffee Barons," and the revenue generated from coffee exports helped modernize the country, funding infrastructure projects such as roads and public buildings. Most coffee was grown in the fertile Central Valley and initially transported by oxcart to the Pacific port of Puntarenas. By the mid-1850s, Great Britain became the main market for Costa Rican coffee.
The need for a more efficient transportation route to the Atlantic coast for coffee exports led to the construction of a railway from San José to the Caribbean port of Limón. In the 1870s, the Costa Rican government contracted U.S. businessman Minor C. Keith to build this railway. The project faced enormous difficulties, including challenging terrain, tropical diseases, and financial problems, but was completed in 1890. To finance the railway and as part of the agreement, Keith was granted large tracts of land along the railway line, which he used to cultivate bananas for export to the United States. This marked the beginning of the banana industry in Costa Rica, which soon rivaled coffee in economic importance.
The banana industry brought significant foreign investment, primarily from American companies like Keith's United Fruit Company. While this investment contributed to economic growth, it also led to the concentration of land and economic power in the hands of foreign corporations and raised concerns about exploitative labor practices and foreign influence over the national economy. The construction of the railway and the development of banana plantations also led to the arrival of immigrant laborers, notably Afro-Caribbean workers from Jamaica, as well as some Chinese and Italians. This immigration contributed to the cultural diversity of the Caribbean coastal region.
Socially, the 19th century saw the gradual development of educational institutions and a growing emphasis on literacy. Early labor movements began to emerge towards the end of the century, particularly in response to conditions in the banana plantations. Land distribution patterns, initially characterized by small and medium-sized holdings, began to shift with the expansion of large-scale coffee and banana cultivation.

3.5. 20th century to present

The 20th century in Costa Rica was marked by continued democratic development, significant social reforms, and a pivotal decision to abolish its military. While generally peaceful compared to its neighbors, Costa Rica experienced two notable periods of political upheaval. From 1917 to 1919, General Federico Tinoco Granados ruled as a military dictator until he was overthrown. His unpopular regime led to a decline in the military's influence.
The most significant event was the Costa Rican Civil War of 1948. The 44-day conflict erupted after a disputed presidential election between Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia and Otilio Ulate Blanco. José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising against the government, which he accused of electoral fraud and of attempting to remain in power. With over 2,000 deaths, it was the bloodiest event in 20th-century Costa Rican history.
The victorious rebels, led by Figueres, formed a founding junta. This junta undertook radical reforms, most notably the abolition of the standing army in 1949, a decision enshrined in the new Constitution of 1949. The rationale was to prevent future military coups and redirect military spending towards education, healthcare, and social welfare. This act became a defining feature of modern Costa Rican identity and its commitment to peace. The junta also oversaw the drafting of the new constitution, extended suffrage to women and Afro-Costa Ricans, and nationalized the banking system.
After enacting these reforms, the junta transferred power to Otilio Ulate Blanco, the recognized winner of the 1948 election. Figueres himself later served as president three times (1953-1958, 1970-1974) and founded the National Liberation Party (PLN), which became a dominant force in Costa Rican politics for decades.
Since 1949, Costa Rica has maintained a stable democratic system, holding regular free and fair elections. The country has focused on developing a strong welfare state, investing heavily in public education and universal healthcare. This has resulted in high literacy rates and good public health indicators.
In the latter half of the 20th century, Costa Rica played an active role in regional peace efforts, particularly during the Central American crises of the 1980s. President Óscar Arias Sánchez was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987 for his efforts to broker peace agreements in the region.
Economically, Costa Rica began to diversify away from its dependence on coffee and bananas, promoting tourism (especially ecotourism), and attracting foreign investment in sectors like technology and medical devices. The country also became a pioneer in environmental conservation and sustainable development, establishing a vast network of national parks and protected areas.
In recent decades, Costa Rica has continued to grapple with challenges such as public debt, income inequality, and drug trafficking, but its commitment to democracy, human rights, and environmental sustainability remains strong. The country joined the OECD in 2021, reflecting its ongoing efforts to meet international standards of governance and economic development.

4.1. Topography

Costa Rica's topography is diverse and characterized by rugged mountain ranges that run the length of the country, separating the coastal plains. These ranges are part of the American Cordillera.

There are three main mountain ranges: the Cordillera de Guanacaste in the north, the Cordillera Central in the middle, and the Cordillera de Talamanca in the south. The Cordillera Central and Cordillera de Talamanca are home to numerous volcanoes, several of which are active or dormant. Notable volcanoes include Irazú Volcano (11 K ft ^{(3.43 K m)}), the country's highest volcano; Poás Volcano, known for its large crater lake; and Arenal Volcano, once one of the most active volcanoes in the world and now a popular tourist destination. The highest peak in Costa Rica is Cerro Chirripó (13 K ft ^{(3.82 K m)}), located in the Cordillera de Talamanca.
Between these mountain ranges lies the Central Valley (Valle Central), a large, fertile plateau where the majority of the population lives and where the capital city, San José, is located, along with other major cities like Alajuela, Cartago, and Heredia.
Coastal lowlands stretch along both the Pacific and Caribbean coasts. The Pacific coast is more irregular, featuring peninsulas like the Nicoya Peninsula and the Osa Peninsula, as well as gulfs and bays. The Caribbean coast is more uniform, characterized by long sandy beaches and swampy lowlands in some areas, particularly in the northeast.
Costa Rica also possesses several islands, the most famous of which is Cocos Island (Isla del Coco), located about 342 mile ^{(550 km)} off the Pacific coast. Cocos Island is a UNESCO World Heritage Site renowned for its unique marine biodiversity. The largest island by land area is Isla Calero (59 mile^{2 (151.6 km2)}), situated at the mouth of the San Juan River. Lake Arenal is the largest lake in Costa Rica.

4.2. Climate

Costa Rica experiences a tropical climate and subtropical climate, characterized by warm temperatures year-round and distinct wet and dry seasons. However, the country's diverse topography, with its mountain ranges and varying altitudes, creates a variety of microclimates.
Generally, the dry season (known locally as verano, or summer) runs from December to April. During this period, particularly on the Pacific side and in the Central Valley, there is abundant sunshine and lower humidity. The rainy season (invierno, or winter) typically lasts from May to November. Mornings during the rainy season are often sunny, with rain usually occurring in the afternoons and evenings.
The Caribbean coast and the northern plains experience a different pattern, with rain possible throughout the year, though it tends to be drier in February, March, September, and October. These areas are generally more humid than the Pacific side.
Temperatures vary more by altitude than by season. Coastal lowlands on both the Pacific and Caribbean sides are hot and humid, with average temperatures around 80.6 °F ^{(27 °C)}. The Central Valley, where most of the population resides, enjoys a milder climate, often described as "eternal spring," with average temperatures around 68 °F ^{(20 °C)} to 71.6 °F ^{(22 °C)}. Higher mountainous regions can be significantly cooler, with temperatures dropping below 50 °F ^{(10 °C)} at the highest elevations, such as Cerro Chirripó, where frost can occur.
Precipitation also varies significantly. The Caribbean slopes of the Cordillera Central are among the wettest regions, receiving over 0.2 K in ^{(5.00 K mm)} of rain annually. The northwestern Pacific coast (Guanacaste) is considerably drier, experiencing a more pronounced dry season. March and April are generally the hottest months nationwide, while December and January tend to be the coolest.

4.3. Biodiversity and conservation

• Pérez Zeledón (San Isidro de El General):** A significant urban center in the southern region, with a cantonal population of 156,917.

Urban growth has brought challenges such as traffic congestion, housing shortages, and environmental pressures in metropolitan areas. Government efforts focus on urban planning, improving public transportation, and promoting sustainable urban development.

10.1. System and access

The Costa Rican education system is largely state-funded and overseen by the Ministry of Public Education (Ministerio de Educación Pública - MEP). The Constitution guarantees the right to public education, and primary education is compulsory and free.
The structure generally includes:

• Preschool Education (Educación Preescolar):** Available for children typically aged 4-6, with the final year often being mandatory.
• Primary Education (Educación Primaria or Educación General Básica I y II Ciclos):** Compulsory, typically lasting six years (grades 1-6).
• Secondary Education (Educación Secundaria or Educación General Básica III Ciclo y Educación Diversificada):** Divided into two cycles:
  • A basic cycle of three years (grades 7-9).
  • A diversified cycle (Educación Diversificada) of two to three years (grades 10-11 or 10-12), offering academic, technical, or artistic tracks. Students who successfully complete the academic track (usually 11th grade) receive the Costa Rican Bachillerato Diploma, which is required for university admission.
• Higher Education (Educación Superior):** Costa Rica has a robust system of higher education with both public and private universities.
  • Public Universities:** There are five main public universities: the University of Costa Rica (UCR), the Costa Rica Institute of Technology (TEC or ITCR), the National University (UNA), the State University for Distance Learning (UNED), and the National Technical University (UTN). These institutions are highly regarded and receive significant state funding, making tuition relatively affordable. UCR is the largest and oldest, often ranked among the top universities in Latin America.
  • Private Universities:** Numerous private universities offer a wide range of programs.
• Technical and Vocational Education:** Besides the technical tracks in secondary schools, there are dedicated technical institutes like the National Training Institute (INA - Instituto Nacional de Aprendizaje) offering vocational training.

Access to education is generally widespread, even in rural areas, though quality and resources can vary. The state's commitment to education has resulted in a well-educated workforce, which has been a key factor in attracting foreign investment. English is widely taught as a second language.

10.2. Challenges and reforms

Despite its successes, the Costa Rican education system faces several challenges:

• Dropout Rates:** While primary school enrollment is high, dropout rates, particularly at the secondary level, have been a concern. Factors contributing to this include socio-economic issues, lack of student engagement, and perceived relevance of the curriculum.
• Quality and Equity:** Ensuring consistent quality of education across all regions and socio-economic groups remains a challenge. Disparities in resources and teacher quality can exist between urban and rural schools, and between public and private institutions.
• Skills for the 21st Century:** There is an ongoing need to adapt the curriculum and teaching methods to develop skills relevant to the modern economy, such as proficiency in STEM fields (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics), advanced foreign language skills (beyond English, including Portuguese, Mandarin, and French), critical thinking, and digital literacy.
• Infrastructure and Resources:** While investment is significant, some schools, particularly in disadvantaged areas, may lack adequate infrastructure, technology, and learning materials.
• Teacher Training and Professional Development:** Continuous improvement in teacher training and professional development programs is essential to enhance teaching quality.
• Impact of Socio-economic Factors:** Poverty and social inequality can impact students' ability to access and succeed in education.

The government and educational institutions are engaged in ongoing reforms to address these challenges. Initiatives often focus on improving curriculum relevance, strengthening technical education, reducing dropout rates through targeted programs, enhancing teacher training, integrating technology in the classroom, and promoting inclusive education. Costa Rica was ranked 70th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. The country's long-term commitment to education continues to be a priority for its development.

11.1. Healthcare system

Costa Rica's healthcare system is characterized by universal health care coverage, primarily managed and provided by the state.

• Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social (CCSS):** The Costa Rican Social Security Fund (CCSS), established in 1941, is the cornerstone of the healthcare system. It is a semi-autonomous public institution responsible for providing health services and administering the national pension system. The CCSS operates a vast network of hospitals, clinics (known as EBAIS - Equipos Básicos de Atención Integral en Salud), and specialized medical centers throughout the country.
• Universal Coverage:** The CCSS aims to provide universal coverage to all citizens and legal residents. Funding comes from contributions from employees, employers, and the state.
• Structure of Services:**
  • Primary Care:** The system emphasizes primary care through the EBAIS clinics. These teams, typically consisting of a doctor, nurse, pharmacy assistant, and health technician, provide basic medical attention, preventive care, and health education to local communities.
  • Secondary and Tertiary Care:** Patients are referred from EBAIS clinics to larger regional or national hospitals for specialized care and surgical procedures. There are five specialty national hospitals, three general national hospitals, seven regional hospitals, and thirteen peripheral hospitals.
• Public vs. Private Healthcare:** While the public system is dominant, a private healthcare sector also exists, offering services to those who can afford them or have private insurance. Many doctors work in both public and private sectors. Private healthcare often provides quicker access to specialists and elective procedures. Around 14.4% of national total health expenditure is on private, for-profit services.
• Focus on Prevention:** The system places a strong emphasis on preventive medicine, public health campaigns, and mother-and-child care programs.

The CCSS system, despite its successes, faces challenges such as waiting lists for certain procedures, financial sustainability concerns, and the need to adapt to an aging population and changing disease patterns. About 7% of GDP is allocated to the health sector, with over 70% being government-funded.

11.2. Health indicators

Costa Rica boasts some of the best health indicators in Latin America, often comparable to those of more developed nations:

• Life Expectancy:** Life expectancy at birth is high. In 2010, the UNDP reported it as 79.3 years. This is one of the highest in the Americas.
• Nicoya Peninsula Blue Zone:** The Nicoya Peninsula is recognized as one of the world's five "Blue Zones," regions where people commonly live active lives past the age of 100. This longevity is attributed to factors like diet, strong social networks, physical activity, and a sense of purpose (plan de vida).
• Infant and Maternal Mortality:** Infant and maternal mortality rates are low, reflecting good access to prenatal and postnatal care. The perinatal mortality rate dropped from 12.0 per 1,000 in 1972 to 5.4 per 1,000 in 2001.
• Disease Control:** The country has high immunization coverage (above 95% for all antigens in 2020) and has successfully controlled many infectious diseases. Malaria incidence is very low (48 per 100,000 in 2000), and there were no reported cases of measles in 2002.
• Healthcare Access:** In 2002, there were 0.58 new general practitioner consultations and 0.33 new specialist consultations per capita. Preventive healthcare is successful, with 96% of Costa Rican women using some form of contraception in 2002, and antenatal care services provided to 87% of all pregnant women.
• Happiness and Wellbeing Indices:** Costa Rica consistently ranks highly in global indices like the Happy Planet Index (ranked first in 2009 and 2012 by the New Economics Foundation) and the World Happiness Report. These rankings often cite the country's healthcare system and overall well-being as contributing factors.
• Global Hunger Index:** In the 2024 Global Hunger Index, Costa Rica is one of 22 countries with a GHI score of less than 5, indicating a very low level of hunger.

These strong health outcomes are largely attributed to the universal healthcare system, high levels of education, and investments in public health and sanitation.

11.3. Medical tourism

Costa Rica has become a popular destination for medical tourism, attracting foreigners who seek high-quality medical and dental care at costs often significantly lower than in their home countries, particularly the United States and Canada. In 2006, Costa Rica received 150,000 foreigners for medical treatment.
Key factors contributing to the growth of medical tourism include:

• Affordability:** Medical procedures, dental work, and cosmetic surgery can be substantially less expensive than in North America or Europe.
• Quality of Care:** Many Costa Rican doctors and dentists are trained in the U.S. or Europe, and private hospitals and clinics often have modern facilities and equipment, meeting international standards.
• Range of Services:** Popular procedures include dental implants and cosmetic dentistry, cosmetic surgery, orthopedic surgery, and bariatric surgery.
• Recovery Environment:** The country's pleasant climate, natural beauty, and tourist infrastructure offer an attractive environment for post-procedure recovery.
• Proximity:** For North American patients, Costa Rica is relatively easy to reach.

The medical tourism industry contributes to the national economy, but it also raises discussions about its potential impact on the public healthcare system, such as the allocation of medical resources and personnel.

12.1. Cultural influences and identity

The cultural tapestry of Costa Rica has been woven from several distinct threads:

• Indigenous Heritage:** Costa Rica was a meeting point for Mesoamerican cultures from the north (like the Nahuatl) and South American cultures (like the Chibcha) from the south. While the indigenous population was significantly reduced and assimilated during colonization, their influence persists in some traditions, foods (especially corn-based dishes), place names, and the genetic makeup of the population. The northwest, particularly the Nicoya peninsula, was the southernmost point of Nahuatl cultural influence.
• Spanish Colonial Influence:** The dominant cultural influence comes from Spain, which colonized Costa Rica for nearly 300 years. This is evident in the Spanish language, the prevalence of Roman Catholicism, family structures, legal systems, and many social customs and traditions.
• Afro-Caribbean Influence:** The Atlantic coast, particularly Limón Province, has a distinct Afro-Caribbean culture, brought by Jamaican and other Caribbean immigrants who arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, primarily to work on railway construction and banana plantations. This influence is notable in the local Mekatelyu language (Limonese Creole), music (such as calypso), cuisine, and religious practices.
• Other Immigrant Groups:** Smaller groups of immigrants from Europe (Italians, Germans), Asia (Chinese), and other parts of Latin America have also contributed to the cultural mix.

Costa Ricans often refer to themselves as "Ticos" (masculine) or "Ticas" (feminine). This nickname originates from the local custom of using the diminutive suffix "-ico" or "-ica" (e.g., momentico instead of the more common momentito for "a little moment"). This linguistic trait reflects a tendency towards politeness and warmth. National identity is strong, often associated with pride in the country's democracy, peace, and natural beauty.

12.2. Values and "Pura Vida"

The phrase "Pura Vida" (literally "Pure Life") is more than just a saying in Costa Rica; it is a pervasive cultural philosophy that reflects the national outlook on life. It embodies optimism, simplicity, gratitude, and a relaxed, easy-going approach. "Pura Vida" can be used as a greeting, a farewell, an expression of thanks, or to signify that everything is alright or going well. It suggests an appreciation for life's simple pleasures, strong family and community bonds, and a deep connection with nature and peace. This mindset is often cited as a contributing factor to Costa Rica's high rankings in global happiness indices. National Geographic magazine named Costa Rica the happiest country in the world in November 2017, noting that "Costa Ricans enjoy the pleasure of living daily life to the fullest in a place that mitigates stress and maximizes joy."

12.3. Cuisine

Costa Rican cuisine is a blend of indigenous, Spanish, and Afro-Caribbean influences, emphasizing fresh, locally sourced ingredients. It is generally mild rather than spicy.

• Staples:** Rice and black beans are fundamental to most meals. Gallo pinto (rice and beans stir-fried together, often with onions, sweet peppers, and cilantro) is the traditional breakfast, typically served with eggs, tortillas, and sour cream (natilla). Casado (meaning "married man") is a typical lunch plate, consisting of rice, black beans, a choice of meat (chicken, beef, pork, or fish), salad, fried plantains, and often tortillas.
• Fruits and Vegetables:** Costa Rica boasts an abundance of fresh tropical fruits like pineapples, mangoes, papayas, passion fruit, and bananas, as well as a wide variety of vegetables.
• Traditional Dishes:**
  • Tamales: A traditional Mesoamerican dish made of masa (corn dough) filled with meat, vegetables, and rice, wrapped in plantain leaves and steamed. They are especially popular during Christmas.
  • Sopa Negra: A simple black bean soup.
  • Olla de carne: A hearty beef stew with vegetables like cassava, plantains, corn, and potatoes.
  • Ceviche: Raw fish marinated in lime juice with onions, peppers, and cilantro.
• Beverages:** Coffee is a national pride. Fresh fruit juices (frescos or naturales) are very popular. Agua dulce (sweet water, made from sugarcane juice) is a traditional drink.
• Caribbean Cuisine:** The cuisine in Limón province has distinct Caribbean flavors, featuring coconut milk, ginger, curry, and seafood, with dishes like rice and beans (cooked in coconut milk), and pan bon (a sweet, spiced bread).

12.4. Music and dance

Costa Rican music encompasses a variety of genres. Traditional folk music often features instruments like the marimba (considered the national instrument), guitar, accordion, and quijongo (a stringed bow instrument). Folk dances, such as the punto guanacasteco, are performed during festivals and cultural events.
Popular Latin American dance genres like salsa, merengue, cumbia, and bachata are widely enjoyed, particularly by older generations, and are common at social gatherings and dance halls. "Costa Rican swing" is a local dance style.
The Caribbean coast has its own distinct musical traditions, including calypso, with witty and topical lyrics often sung in Mekatelyu.
Modern international music genres, including rock, pop, and electronic music, are also popular among younger Costa Ricans. The Department of Culture, Youth, and Sports promotes cultural life, supporting institutions like the National Symphony Orchestra of Costa Rica and the Youth Symphony Orchestra.

12.5. Sports

Football (soccer) is by far the most popular sport in Costa Rica. The national team ("La Sele") enjoys passionate support and has achieved notable success on the international stage.

• FIFA World Cup:** Costa Rica has qualified for multiple FIFA World Cup tournaments. Their most memorable performance was at the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, where they reached the quarter-finals, defeating traditional powerhouses like Uruguay and Italy, and drawing with England in the group stage, before being eliminated by the Netherlands on penalties. They also reached the knockout stage in their first appearance in 1990.
• Domestic League:** The Primera División is the top professional football league in Costa Rica. Prominent clubs include Deportivo Saprissa, LD Alajuelense, and CS Herediano.
• CONCACAF Gold Cup:** Costa Rica is a regular participant and has been runner-up in the CONCACAF Gold Cup (e.g., 2002).
• Notable Players:** Paulo Wanchope and Keylor Navas are among Costa Rica's most internationally recognized footballers.

Other popular sports include:

• Surfing:** With long coastlines on both the Pacific and Caribbean, Costa Rica is a world-class surfing destination.
• Adventure Sports:** Activities like whitewater rafting, zip-lining, and hiking are popular due to the country's natural terrain.
• Swimming:** Costa Rica has achieved Olympic success in swimming, with sisters Silvia and Claudia Poll winning all four of the country's Olympic medals (one gold, one silver, two bronze).
• Volleyball:** The women's national volleyball team has been a top team in Central America. Beach volleyball is also played.

Costa Rica first entered the Summer Olympics in 1936. The country hosted the 2022 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup.

12.6. Arts and literature

Costa Rican arts and literature reflect its cultural heritage and contemporary concerns.

• Visual Arts:** Traditional art often includes brightly painted oxcarts (carretas pintadas), which are a national symbol and UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. Modern and contemporary art is showcased in galleries and museums, particularly in San José. Notable painters include Francisco Amighetti, Teodorico Quirós, and Max Jiménez. Sculpture and photography are also active fields.
• Literature:** Costa Rican literature encompasses poetry, novels, short stories, and essays. Key literary figures include Joaquín García Monge (a prominent early 20th-century writer and editor), Carmen Lyra (known for children's literature), Carlos Luis Fallas (social realist novelist), and contemporary writers like Alfonso Chase and Anacristina Rossi. Themes often explore national identity, social issues, history, and the relationship with nature.
• Performing Arts:** Theatre is active, with both national and international plays performed. The National Theatre in San José, an opulent late 19th-century building, is a major cultural landmark and venue for theatre, opera, and classical music. Dance, including traditional folk dance and modern dance, is also part of the performing arts scene.
• Cultural Institutions:** The Ministry of Culture and Youth supports various cultural programs and institutions. Museums like the National Museum of Costa Rica, the Gold Museum, and the Jade Museum preserve and exhibit the country's historical and artistic heritage.

12.7. Media and press freedom

Costa Rica has a strong tradition of press freedom and a diverse media landscape, which is considered a pillar of its democratic society. The country consistently ranks highly in international indices of press freedom.

• Newspapers:** Several daily newspapers circulate, including La Nación, La República, and Diario Extra. There are also online news outlets.
• Television and Radio:** Multiple national and local television channels and radio stations operate, offering a mix of news, entertainment, and cultural programming. Both public and private broadcasters exist.
• Online Media:** Digital media and social media platforms play an increasingly important role in news dissemination and public discourse.

While press freedom is generally respected, challenges such as media concentration in the hands of a few conglomerates, occasional political pressure, and issues related to access to public information have been noted by media watchdogs. Overall, the media environment allows for a wide range of opinions and critical reporting.

12.8. World Heritage Sites

Costa Rica is home to four UNESCO World Heritage Sites, recognized for their outstanding natural and cultural value:

• Talamanca Range-La Amistad Reserves / La Amistad National Park** (Natural, 1983, extended 1990): A vast protected area shared with Panama, encompassing diverse ecosystems from lowland rainforests to high-altitude cloud forests and páramo. It is exceptionally rich in biodiversity.

• Cocos Island National Park** (Natural, 1997, extended 2002): A remote Pacific island renowned for its unique marine ecosystems, attracting divers from around the world to see sharks, rays, and other pelagic species.

• Area de Conservación Guanacaste** (Natural, 1999, extended 2004): A large conservation area in northwestern Costa Rica, protecting diverse habitats from dry tropical forest to cloud forest and marine areas. It is recognized for its biodiversity and large-scale ecological restoration efforts.

• Precolumbian Chiefdom Settlements with Stone Spheres of the Diquís** (Cultural, 2014): This site includes four archaeological locations in southern Costa Rica that contain a collection of enigmatic stone spheres, remnants of pre-Columbian chiefdom societies of the Diquís culture. The spheres are remarkable for their perfection, number, size, and density.

These sites highlight Costa Rica's commitment to preserving both its natural wonders and its rich cultural past.

12.9. Public holidays

Costa Rica observes a number of national and religious public holidays. Some of the main ones include:

• January 1:** New Year's Day (Año Nuevo)
• March/April (movable):** Holy Week (Semana Santa), including Maundy Thursday (Jueves Santo) and Good Friday (Viernes Santo). Easter Sunday (Domingo de Resurrección) is also observed.
• April 11:** Juan Santamaría Day (Día de Juan Santamaría) - Commemorates the national hero of the 1856 Battle of Rivas.
• May 1:** Labor Day (Día de los Trabajadores)
• July 25:** Annexation of Guanacaste Day (Anexión del Partido de Nicoya a Costa Rica) - Celebrates the Guanacaste region's decision to join Costa Rica in 1824.
• August 2:** Virgin of the Angels Day (Día de la Virgen de los Ángeles) - Honors Costa Rica's patron saint, with a large pilgrimage to Cartago.
• August 15:** Mother's Day (Día de la Madre) - Also coincides with the Assumption of Mary.
• September 15:** Independence Day (Día de la Independencia) - Celebrates independence from Spain in 1821.
• October 12 (historical, now often shifted):** Cultures Day (Día de las Culturas, formerly Columbus Day) - Acknowledges the country's multicultural heritage.
• December 1:** Army Abolition Day (Día de la Abolición del Ejército) - Celebrates the abolition of the military in 1948. (This has become an official holiday more recently).
• December 25:** Christmas Day (Navidad or Día de la Familia)

Religious holidays generally follow the Catholic calendar. Many businesses close on major holidays, and cultural celebrations often take place.