Nicaragua

3.1. Pre-Columbian history

The land now known as Nicaragua was inhabited by Paleo-Indians as early as 12,000 BCE. In later pre-Columbian times, its indigenous peoples were part of the Intermediate Area, situated between the major cultural spheres of Mesoamerica to the north and the Andean civilizations to the south, and also fell within the influence of the Isthmo-Colombian Area.

The central region and the Caribbean coast were home to various Macro-Chibchan language ethnic groups, including the ancestors of the contemporary Miskito, Rama, Mayangna, and Matagalpas. These groups had coalesced in Central America and had migratory links with present-day northern Colombia and adjacent areas. Their subsistence was based primarily on hunting and gathering, fishing, and slash-and-burn agriculture.

By the late 15th century, western Nicaragua was inhabited by several indigenous peoples culturally and linguistically related to Mesoamerican civilizations like the Aztec and Maya. The Chorotegas, a Mangue-speaking group, arrived from what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas around 800 CE. The Nicarao people, a branch of the Nahuas who spoke the Nawat dialect, also migrated from Chiapas around 1200 CE, having previously been associated with the Toltec civilization. Both the Chorotegas and Nicaraos are believed to have originated in Mexico's Cholula valley. A third group, the Subtiabas, an Oto-Manguean people, migrated from the Mexican state of Guerrero around 1200 CE. Additionally, Aztec trading colonies were established in Nicaragua from the 14th century. These groups developed sophisticated societies with structured agriculture, complex social hierarchies, and distinct artistic traditions, including elaborate pottery and stone carvings, particularly evident on islands like Ometepe.

3.2. Spanish colonial era (1523-1821)

European contact with Nicaragua began in 1502 when Christopher Columbus, on his fourth voyage, reached its Caribbean coast. However, permanent Spanish presence and conquest started two decades later. In 1522, Gil González Dávila led an expedition into southwestern Nicaragua, encountering indigenous groups, including the Nahua tribe led by a chief whose name is often cited as Nicarao (though modern scholarship suggests Macuilmiquiztli). While González Dávila initially engaged in some peaceful interactions and collected gold, his forces were later attacked and driven off by the Chorotega, led by chief Diriangén, who fiercely resisted Spanish attempts at conversion and subjugation.

The systematic conquest and colonization began in 1524 with Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, who founded two of Nicaragua's principal colonial cities: Granada on Lake Nicaragua and León, west of Lake Managua. These cities became centers of Spanish power and intense rivals. Córdoba himself was later executed for defying his superior, Pedro Arias Dávila, who became the first governor of the colony, establishing León as its capital in 1527.

The Spanish colonial period had a devastating impact on the indigenous populations. They suffered massive depopulation due to infectious diseases introduced by the Europeans, to which they had no immunity. Furthermore, they were subjected to forced labor in mines and on plantations, brutal violence, and the transatlantic slave trade, with many being shipped to Panama and Peru. The Spanish imposed their political, economic, and religious systems, leading to the destruction of indigenous social structures and cultural practices. The intermingling of Spanish settlers with indigenous women (often through force or coercion) led to the emergence of the Mestizo population, which became the demographic majority in western Nicaragua.

Economically, the colony focused on agriculture, including cacao and indigo, and cattle ranching, primarily for export. Western Nicaragua also served as a port and shipbuilding facility for galleons in the trans-Pacific trade. However, Nicaragua remained a relatively peripheral part of the Spanish Empire compared to richer colonies like Mexico or Peru. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, destroying the original site of León, which was subsequently rebuilt nearby (the ruins are now known as León Viejo).

The eastern Mosquito Coast followed a different trajectory. It was largely beyond Spanish control and became a refuge for indigenous groups and, later, a sphere of British influence. English privateers and settlers established presence there from the 17th century, allying with the Miskito people. During the American Revolutionary War, Central America saw conflict between Britain and Spain, with British admiral Horatio Nelson leading expeditions, including one on the San Juan River in 1780.

Colonial society was rigidly hierarchical, with Spanish-born peninsulares at the top, followed by American-born Spaniards (criollos), mestizos, indigenous peoples, and enslaved Africans. This structure bred resentment among the criollos, who, despite their wealth and land ownership, were excluded from the highest positions of power, contributing to the growing desire for independence in the early 19th century.

3.3. Independent Nicaragua from 1821 to 1909

Nicaragua gained independence from Spain in September 1821 as part of the broader Act of Independence of Central America, which dissolved the Captaincy General of Guatemala. Shortly thereafter, it was briefly incorporated into the First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide. Following the collapse of the Mexican Empire in March 1823, Nicaragua joined the newly formed United Provinces of Central America (later the Federal Republic of Central America). However, this federation was plagued by internal divisions and conflicts between Liberal and Conservative factions. Nicaragua formally declared itself an independent republic in 1838 after the federation's dissolution.

The early years of independent Nicaragua were marked by intense rivalry between the Liberal elite based in León and the Conservative elite based in Granada. This rivalry frequently erupted into civil war, particularly during the 1840s and 1850s, hindering national development and stability. To mitigate this conflict, Managua was chosen as the nation's capital in 1852, located geographically between the two feuding cities.

The discovery of gold in California in 1848 brought Nicaragua into prominence as a transit route for travelers from the eastern United States heading to California. They utilized the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua as part of this interoceanic passage. This strategic importance attracted foreign interests and intervention.

A defining and tumultuous episode of this period was the National War (1856-1857). In 1855, invited by the Liberals to aid in their struggle against the Conservatives, the American filibuster William Walker arrived with a band of mercenaries. He quickly seized power, had himself "elected" president in a farcical election in 1856, and instituted policies such as re-establishing slavery (which had been abolished) and making English an official language, with ambitions of creating a slaveholding empire in Central America. His actions provoked a united military response from Costa Rica, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaraguan patriots from both Liberal and Conservative factions. Walker was defeated and expelled in 1857. This conflict had a profound impact, fostering a sense of Central American unity against foreign intervention and leaving a legacy of suspicion towards U.S. intentions in the region. The war also severely weakened the Liberal party for inviting Walker, leading to three decades of Conservative rule.

The Mosquito Coast on the Caribbean side, which Britain had claimed as a protectorate since 1655, was gradually integrated into Nicaragua. Britain delegated the area to Honduras in 1859 before transferring it to Nicaragua in 1860. It remained an autonomous territory until 1894 when President José Santos Zelaya, a Liberal who came to power in 1893, formally incorporated it into Nicaragua, naming the region Zelaya Department in his honor. Zelaya's presidency (1893-1909) was characterized by modernization efforts, such as railway construction, and attempts to assert Nicaraguan sovereignty and reduce foreign influence. However, his nationalistic policies and efforts to control foreign access to Nicaraguan natural resources, along with his attempts to exert influence over neighboring countries, eventually brought him into conflict with the United States, leading to his ousting in 1909 with U.S. backing. Throughout the late 19th century, the idea of a Nicaragua Canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans remained a significant international interest, with both the United States and European powers considering various schemes.

3.4. United States occupation (1909-1933)

Following the ousting of President José Santos Zelaya in 1909, which the United States supported due to concerns over his nationalist policies, regional influence, and disputes regarding a potential Nicaragua Canal, Nicaragua entered a period of intense political instability and direct U.S. military and political intervention. The U.S. motives included protecting its economic interests, ensuring regional stability conducive to these interests (particularly concerning the future Panama Canal), and preventing other foreign powers from gaining influence.

U.S. Marines occupied Nicaragua for most of the period between 1912 and 1933. The initial intervention in 1912 was at the request of President Adolfo Díaz, who faced a rebellion led by General Luis Mena. Díaz claimed he could not protect U.S. lives and property, prompting the U.S. to land Marines. This occupation aimed to stabilize the country, protect U.S. assets, and ensure pro-U.S. governments remained in power.

In 1914, the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed between Nicaragua and the United States. This controversial treaty granted the U.S. exclusive rights in perpetuity to build an interoceanic canal across Nicaragua, the right to lease the Corn Islands, and the right to establish a naval base in the Gulf of Fonseca. While the U.S. paid Nicaragua 3.00 M USD, the treaty was widely seen as a violation of Nicaraguan sovereignty and an instrument of U.S. imperial control, and it caused resentment among many Nicaraguans and concern among neighboring Central American countries whose own rights were affected.

The U.S. Marines briefly withdrew in 1925, but returned in 1926 after another civil war erupted between Liberals and Conservatives. It was during this second phase of occupation that a significant resistance movement emerged, led by General Augusto César Sandino. Sandino, a Liberal nationalist, refused to accept the U.S.-brokered peace settlement (the Pact of Espino Negro) and waged a guerrilla war against the U.S. Marines and the Nicaraguan government forces from 1927 to 1933. Sandino's struggle, framed as a defense of national sovereignty against foreign domination, gained him popular support within Nicaragua and sympathy across Latin America, making him an iconic figure of anti-imperialist resistance.

Before withdrawing its forces in 1933, the United States oversaw the creation and training of the Guardia Nacional (National Guard). This new military force was intended to maintain order and protect U.S. interests after the Marines' departure. However, it became a highly politicized institution. After the U.S. withdrawal, Sandino negotiated a peace agreement with President Juan Bautista Sacasa. But in February 1934, Sandino was assassinated on the orders of the National Guard's ambitious director, Anastasio Somoza García. This act paved the way for the Somoza family's rise to power, marking the beginning of a long and oppressive dictatorship that would profoundly shape Nicaragua's 20th-century history. The U.S. occupation, while ostensibly aimed at promoting stability, ultimately fostered deep-seated anti-American sentiment and contributed to the conditions that allowed the Somoza dictatorship to take root.

3.5. Somoza dynasty (1936-1979)

The Somoza dynasty established a repressive and corrupt dictatorship that dominated Nicaragua for 43 years, from 1936 to 1979. The dynasty was founded by Anastasio Somoza García ("Tacho"), who rose to power through his leadership of the U.S.-trained National Guard. After orchestrating the assassination of the nationalist hero Augusto César Sandino in 1934, Somoza García consolidated his control, forced President Juan Bautista Sacasa out of office, and officially became president in 1937 through a rigged election.

The Somoza family's rule was characterized by:
1. Political Control and Repression: The Somozas maintained power through the manipulation of elections, suppression of political opposition, censorship of the press, and the brutal force of the National Guard, which acted as their personal army. Democratic institutions were hollowed out, and civil liberties were severely curtailed. Opponents faced imprisonment, torture, exile, or death.
2. Economic Exploitation and Corruption: The family amassed a vast personal fortune by treating Nicaragua as their private estate. They controlled large segments of the economy, including agriculture (coffee, sugar, cattle), industry, and finance, often through monopolies, expropriation of land, and corrupt dealings. By the time the dynasty fell, their wealth was estimated to be between 500.00 M USD and 1.50 B USD. While the country experienced some economic growth during certain periods, the benefits were largely concentrated in the hands of the Somoza family and their cronies, exacerbating social inequality and poverty for the majority of the population.
3. U.S. Support: The Somoza regime largely enjoyed the support of the United States, which viewed them as a bulwark against communism in Central America during the Cold War. This support, including military and economic aid, was crucial for the dynasty's longevity, despite their undemocratic nature and human rights abuses. Anastasio Somoza García famously remarked, "He's a son of a bitch, but he's our son of a bitch," a quote often attributed to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt referring to him or similar dictators.

Anastasio Somoza García ruled until his assassination in 1956 by the poet Rigoberto López Pérez. His eldest son, Luis Somoza Debayle, succeeded him. Luis adopted a somewhat more moderate façade, allowing limited political activity, but the family's grip on power remained firm. After Luis's death from a heart attack in 1967, his brother, Anastasio Somoza Debayle ("Tachito"), who had been head of the National Guard, became president. Tachito's rule was even more overtly repressive and corrupt than his predecessors'.

A turning point was the devastating Managua earthquake in 1972, which destroyed much of the capital city. The Somoza regime's blatant misappropriation of international relief funds, siphoning them off for personal enrichment while neglecting the suffering population, fueled widespread outrage and significantly eroded what little legitimacy the regime had left, even among some segments of the elite. The mishandling of aid also famously prompted baseball star Roberto Clemente to personally attempt to deliver supplies, leading to his tragic death in a plane crash.

This growing discontent, coupled with worsening social and economic conditions for the majority, created fertile ground for armed opposition. The Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN), a Marxist-inspired guerrilla group founded in 1961 and named after Augusto César Sandino, gained increasing popular support throughout the 1970s, eventually leading the revolution that would topple the dynasty. The Somoza regime's impact on Nicaragua was profoundly negative, characterized by decades of stunted democratic development, systematic human rights violations, entrenched corruption, and deep social divides, which ultimately culminated in a bloody civil war.

3.6. Nicaraguan Revolution (1960s-1990)

The Nicaraguan Revolution refers to the period of opposition and insurgency against the Somoza dictatorship, primarily led by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN), and the subsequent period of Sandinista rule. Founded in 1961 by figures like Carlos Fonseca Amador, who drew inspiration from Augusto César Sandino, the FSLN initially engaged in small-scale guerrilla activities.

The movement gained significant momentum in the 1970s, fueled by widespread popular discontent with the Somoza regime's corruption, repression, and extreme social inequality. The regime's mishandling of the aftermath of the 1972 Managua earthquake and the assassination in January 1978 of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal, a prominent opposition newspaper editor, galvanized broad opposition, uniting students, peasants, workers, business sectors, and even factions of the Catholic Church against the dictatorship.

After years of escalating armed conflict, the FSLN, leading a popular insurrection, triumphed on July 19, 1979, forcing Anastasio Somoza Debayle to flee the country. This victory marked the end of the 43-year Somoza dynasty and ushered in a period of profound transformation in Nicaragua. The revolution initially enjoyed widespread popular support and international sympathy due to its success in overthrowing a brutal and long-standing dictatorship. The Carter administration in the U.S. initially provided some aid to the new government.

3.7. Post-war era (1990-present)

The 1990 general election marked a significant turning point for Nicaragua, signaling the end of the Contra War and the FSLN's first period in power. Violeta Chamorro, widow of the assassinated newspaper editor Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal and leader of a broad 14-party coalition called the National Opposition Union (UNO), defeated Daniel Ortega and the FSLN. Chamorro's victory, with a 55% majority, surprised many, including the Sandinistas. Her presidency (1990-1997) focused on national reconciliation, demobilizing the Contras and significantly reducing the size of the Sandinista-controlled army (renamed the Nicaraguan Army). Her government implemented neoliberal economic reforms, including privatization and austerity measures, aimed at stabilizing the war-torn economy and securing international aid. These policies, while achieving some macroeconomic stability, also led to increased unemployment and social hardship for many.

In the 1996 general election, Arnoldo Alemán of the Constitutionalist Liberal Party (PLC) defeated Daniel Ortega. Alemán's presidency (1997-2002) was marred by widespread corruption. He was later convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison for embezzlement, money laundering, and other charges. This period saw the consolidation of a political pact (El Pacto) between Alemán's PLC and Ortega's FSLN, which critics argued was designed to divide power and exclude smaller parties, undermining democratic institutions.

Enrique Bolaños, Alemán's vice president, won the 2001 presidential election for the PLC. Bolaños (2002-2007) made anti-corruption a central theme of his presidency, pursuing charges against his predecessor Alemán. However, his efforts were often stymied by the PLC-FSLN alliance in the National Assembly, which sought to curtail his powers. Nicaragua briefly participated in the Iraq War in 2004 as part of the Plus Ultra Brigade. Before the 2006 general elections, the National Assembly passed a highly restrictive law banning all abortions, even in cases of rape or to save the mother's life, making Nicaragua one of the few countries in the world with such a total ban.

3.7.2. 2018 protests and political crisis

In April 2018, Nicaragua was convulsed by widespread anti-government protests, marking the most significant political crisis in the country since the end of the Contra War. The immediate trigger for the demonstrations was a government decree announcing reforms to the social security system, which included increasing taxes and reducing pension benefits. These reforms, implemented without broad consultation, sparked initial protests led by students and retirees.

The government's response to these early demonstrations was swift and brutal, involving the National Police and pro-government paramilitary groups (often referred to as turbas or parapoliciales). The violent repression of protesters, resulting in deaths and injuries, quickly inflamed public anger and transformed the protests from a specific grievance over social security into a broader movement demanding President Daniel Ortega's resignation, an end to repression, justice for victims, and democratic reforms.

Key aspects of the 2018 protests and ensuing crisis include:

• Widespread Mobilization:** Protests spread rapidly across the country, involving diverse sectors of society, including students, peasants, business groups, and ordinary citizens. Roadblocks (tranques) were erected in many areas, paralyzing the country for weeks.
• Government Repression:** The government's response was characterized by excessive use of force. Human rights organizations, including the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) and the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), documented hundreds of deaths (mostly protesters), thousands of injuries, arbitrary detentions, torture, enforced disappearances, and attacks on universities, churches, and media outlets. Medical personnel who treated injured protesters faced reprisals.
• Human Rights Violations:** Reports from human rights groups detailed systematic violations, including extrajudicial killings, the use of live ammunition against unarmed protesters, and the denial of due process for detainees. The IACHR identified a pattern of state-sponsored violence and impunity.
• Impact on Victims and Civil Society:** The crisis had a devastating impact on victims and their families. Many were forced into exile to escape persecution. Civil society organizations and human rights defenders faced intense harassment and criminalization. Independent media played a crucial role in documenting abuses despite facing severe pressure.
• Failed Dialogue Attempts:** Attempts at a national dialogue, mediated by the Catholic Church, failed to resolve the crisis due to the government's unwillingness to address core demands for justice and democratic reform.
• Economic Consequences:** The political instability and repression led to a sharp economic downturn, with significant impacts on tourism, investment, and overall economic activity, exacerbating poverty and unemployment.
• International Condemnation:** The Nicaraguan government's actions drew widespread international condemnation from human rights organizations, foreign governments, and international bodies like the OAS and the UN, leading to sanctions against key officials and entities.

The 2018 protests and the government's violent response marked a turning point, deepening the country's authoritarian slide and resulting in a protracted political, social, and human rights crisis with long-lasting consequences for Nicaragua.

4.1. Pacific lowlands

The Pacific lowlands, situated in the western part of the country, consist of a broad, hot, and remarkably fertile plain. This region was the primary area of Spanish colonial settlement and remains the most densely populated and economically significant part of Nicaragua, housing over half the nation's population. The landscape is punctuated by a chain of volcanoes, many of which are active, belonging to the Cordillera Los Maribios mountain range. Notable volcanoes include Mombacho near Granada and Momotombo near León. The volcanic ash from past eruptions has greatly enriched the soil, making it highly suitable for agriculture.

This region is home to Central America's two largest freshwater lakes: Lake Managua (also known as Lake Xolotlán) to the north and the much larger Lake Nicaragua (also known as Cocibolca) to the south. Lake Nicaragua is the largest lake in Central America and is unique for being home to freshwater sharks (Nicaraguan shark) and sawfish, as well as numerous islands, including the twin-volcano island of Ometepe. The lowlands extend from the Gulf of Fonseca in the northwest, along a rift valley that encompasses the lakes, down to the border with Costa Rica.

The Pacific zone is classified as tierra caliente (hot land), with elevations generally under 2001 ft ^{(610 m)}. Temperatures are consistently high throughout the year, typically ranging between 84.2 °F ^{(29 °C)} and 89.6 °F ^{(32 °C)}. The region experiences a distinct dry season from November to April and a rainy season from May to October, receiving 0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)} to 0.1 K in ^{(1.50 K mm)} of precipitation annually. The fertile soils and favorable climate make this area the demographic and economic heartland of Nicaragua, supporting extensive agriculture and major urban centers like Managua, León, and Granada. The region's geological activity also results in frequent tremors and occasional devastating earthquakes, which have historically impacted cities like Managua.

4.2. North central highlands

The North-central highlands, also known as the Amerrisque Mountains, form a triangular area in the interior of Nicaragua, extending from the northwest towards the southeast, separating the Pacific lowlands from the Caribbean lowlands. This region is characterized by rugged mountain ranges, plateaus, and valleys, with elevations generally ranging from 2001 ft ^{(610 m)} to 5.0 K ft ^{(1.52 K m)}, creating a more temperate climate (tierra templada) than the coastal plains. Daily high temperatures are milder, typically between 75.2 °F ^{(24 °C)} and 80.6 °F ^{(27 °C)}.

This mountainous interior is significantly less populated and economically developed than the Pacific region, though certain valleys are fertile and support agriculture. The highlands are crucial for coffee production, which is a major export crop for Nicaragua, typically grown on the higher slopes. Other agricultural products include grains, vegetables, and cattle.

The North-central highlands are rich in biodiversity, featuring various ecosystems, including cloud forests at higher elevations. These forests are home to a variety of plant species such as oaks, pines, mosses, ferns, and numerous orchids. The region also supports diverse wildlife, including birds like the resplendent quetzal, goldfinches, hummingbirds, jays, and toucanets. The rugged terrain and extensive forests make this area suitable for ecotourism. While some areas suffer from soil erosion on steep slopes due to a longer and wetter rainy season, the region also contains mineral resources, including gold. Major towns in this region include Estelí, Jinotega, and Matagalpa.

4.3. Caribbean lowlands

The Caribbean lowlands, also known as the Atlantic lowlands or Mosquito Coast (La Mosquitia), constitute the largest geographical region of Nicaragua, covering roughly 57% of the country's territory. This vast, sparsely populated area extends along the entire eastern coast, from the Honduran border in the north to the Costa Rican border in the south. The plains can be up to 60 mile ^{(97 km)} wide in some areas.

Characterized by extensive rainforests, large rivers, and a hot, humid tropical climate with high rainfall throughout most of the year, this region is distinct from the rest of the country both geographically and culturally. Major rivers, including the Río Coco (which forms part of the border with Honduras and is the longest river in Central America), Río Grande de Matagalpa, Escondido, and San Juan, flow through these lowlands, creating vast floodplains and deltas as they empty into the Caribbean Sea. The coastline is sinuous, featuring numerous lagoons, estuaries, and offshore cays, such as the Corn Islands (Islas del Maíz).

The Caribbean lowlands are home to significant natural resources, including timber and minerals (such as gold in the "Mining Triangle" municipalities of Siuna, Rosita, and Bonanza). The region also boasts immense biodiversity and contains the Bosawás Biosphere Reserve, the second-largest rainforest in the Americas, covering nearly 7% of Nicaragua's land area and protecting a vast expanse of La Mosquitia forest.

The population is sparse and culturally diverse, with a significant presence of indigenous groups like the Miskito, Mayangna (Sumo), and Rama, as well as Afro-Nicaraguan communities, including English-speaking Creoles and the Garifuna. Historically, this region had strong British influence, and English or English-based creoles are still widely spoken alongside Spanish and indigenous languages. The principal city is Bluefields. Access to this region has historically been challenging, though infrastructure is gradually improving. The area faces environmental pressures from deforestation, agricultural expansion, and resource extraction.

4.4. Climate

Nicaragua has a predominantly tropical climate, but it varies significantly by region and altitude. Generally, the country experiences two main seasons: a dry season (verano or summer) from approximately November to April, and a rainy season (invierno or winter) from May to October.

• Pacific Lowlands:** This region has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw). It is characterized by consistently high temperatures, typically ranging from 71.6 °F ^{(22 °C)} at night to 89.6 °F ^{(32 °C)} during the day, with little seasonal variation in temperature. Humidity is high, especially during the rainy season. The dry season is marked by less rainfall and often strong offshore winds (Papagayo winds). Annual rainfall ranges from 0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)} to 0.1 K in ^{(1.50 K mm)}.

• North-Central Highlands:** This region experiences a more temperate climate (tierra templada) due to its higher altitudes (generally 1969 ft ^{(600 m)} to 4.9 K ft ^{(1.50 K m)}). Temperatures are cooler than in the lowlands, with average daily highs between 75.2 °F ^{(24 °C)} and 80.6 °F ^{(27 °C)}. This area receives more rainfall than the Pacific lowlands, and the rainy season can be longer and more intense, contributing to lush vegetation but also to soil erosion on steep slopes. Higher elevations can experience cloud forests.

• Caribbean Lowlands:** This region has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af) or a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen Am) in some parts. It is characterized by high temperatures and high humidity year-round. Rainfall is abundant and more evenly distributed throughout the year compared to the Pacific side, though there might be a slightly drier period from February to April. Annual rainfall can exceed 0.1 K in ^{(2.50 K mm)} and in some areas reach up to 0.2 K in ^{(5.00 K mm)} or more, making it one of the wettest regions in Central America. This region is also susceptible to hurricanes and tropical storms approaching from the Caribbean Sea, particularly from June to November.

Nicaragua's location makes it vulnerable to extreme weather events like hurricanes (such as Hurricane Felix in 2007 and Hurricanes Eta and Iota in 2020) and tropical storms, which can cause significant flooding and damage, especially in the Caribbean lowlands and along major rivers. The country is also affected by El Niño and La Niña phenomena, which can lead to droughts or excessive rainfall, respectively.

4.5. Flora and fauna

Nicaragua boasts remarkable biodiversity, a result of its geographical position as a land bridge between North and South America and its varied ecosystems, which range from tropical rainforests and cloud forests to tropical dry forests, mangroves, and freshwater and marine environments. The country is part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, one of the most biologically rich yet threatened regions on Earth.

• Flora:**

Nicaragua is home to an estimated 12,000 species of plants, with many still unclassified. The Caribbean lowlands feature vast expanses of tropical rainforest, characterized by towering trees, lianas, epiphytes (like orchids and bromeliads), and a dense understory. The Bosawás Biosphere Reserve, the largest protected area in Nicaragua and Central America, is a critical reservoir of this biodiversity. The North-central highlands harbor cloud forests with oak, pine, and unique montane vegetation, as well as areas of pine-oak forest. The Pacific lowlands were once covered by tropical dry forests, though much of this has been converted to agriculture; remnants still exist, showcasing species adapted to seasonal drought, such as the Guanacaste tree (Nicaragua's national tree). Coastal areas feature mangrove forests, important for marine life and coastal protection.

• Fauna:**

Nicaragua's fauna is equally diverse. The country is home to approximately 183 species of mammals, 705 bird species, 248 species of amphibians and reptiles, and 640 fish species.

• Mammals:** Notable mammals include several species of monkeys (howler, spider, capuchin), jaguars, pumas, ocelots, tapirs (Baird's tapir), giant anteaters, sloths, and a variety of bats.
• Birds:** Avian diversity is spectacular, featuring the Guardabarranco (Turquoise-browed Motmot, the national bird), toucans, macaws (including the scarlet macaw), parrots, quetzals (in cloud forests), eagles, and numerous migratory species.
• Reptiles and Amphibians:** The country has a rich herpetofauna, including crocodiles, caimans, various snakes (boas, pit vipers), iguanas, and numerous frog species, some of which are endemic.
• Fish:** Lake Nicaragua is famous for its unique freshwater fauna, including the Nicaraguan shark (a population of bull sharks adapted to freshwater) and the sawfish, though populations of both have declined significantly. The lake and rivers also support numerous cichlid species and other freshwater fish. Marine biodiversity is rich on both the Pacific and Caribbean coasts, with coral reefs found around the Corn Islands.

• Protected Areas and Conservation:**

Nearly one-fifth of Nicaragua's territory is designated as protected areas, including national parks, biological reserves, and nature reserves. The Indio Maíz Biological Reserve in the southeast and the Bosawás Biosphere Reserve in the north are two of the largest and most important. Despite these efforts, Nicaragua faces significant environmental challenges, including:

• Deforestation:** This is a major issue, driven by agricultural expansion (especially cattle ranching and subsistence farming), logging (both legal and illegal), and settlement. The agricultural frontier is rapidly advancing into forested areas, particularly in the Caribbean lowlands and Bosawás.
• Soil Erosion and Water Pollution:** Unsustainable agricultural practices, deforestation, and mining activities contribute to soil erosion and contamination of water sources with pesticides and heavy metals.
• Threats to Wildlife:** Habitat loss, poaching, and the illegal wildlife trade threaten many species.
• Climate Change:** Nicaragua is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including more intense storms, altered rainfall patterns, and sea-level rise.

Conservation efforts involve governmental agencies, NGOs, and local communities, focusing on sustainable resource management, reforestation, and the protection of endangered species and critical habitats. However, these efforts often face challenges due to limited resources, institutional weaknesses, and competing economic pressures.

5.1. Government structure

The Constitution establishes three main branches of government:

• Executive Branch:** Headed by the President of Nicaragua, who is both the head of state and head of government. The President and Vice President are elected by popular vote for a five-year term (a 2024 constitutional reform extended this to six years and established a co-presidency where the Vice President can share presidential functions). The President appoints the Council of Ministers. Constitutional changes in 2014 removed presidential term limits, allowing for indefinite re-election.
• Legislative Branch:** Vested in the unicameral National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional). It consists of 92 members: 90 deputies elected through a system of proportional representation (20 national deputies and 70 departmental/regional deputies) for five-year terms, plus the outgoing President and the presidential candidate who finishes second with a significant vote share in the presidential election. The FSLN has maintained a strong majority in the Assembly, enabling it to pass legislation and constitutional reforms with little effective opposition.
• Judicial Branch:** Headed by the Supreme Court of Justice. The judiciary also includes appellate courts and lower courts. However, the independence of the judiciary has been severely compromised, with appointments and decisions widely seen as politically influenced by the executive branch.

The Supreme Electoral Council (Consejo Supremo Electoral - CSE) is responsible for organizing and overseeing elections, but its impartiality has also been a major point of contention, with accusations of manipulation in favor of the ruling party.

5.2. Political developments and human rights

Since Daniel Ortega's return to the presidency in 2007, Nicaragua has undergone a significant political transformation marked by the consolidation of power by Ortega, his wife Vice President Rosario Murillo, and the ruling Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). This period has been characterized by:

• Democratic Backsliding:** There has been a systematic weakening of democratic institutions, including the legislature, judiciary, and electoral authorities. Checks and balances have been eroded, and power has become increasingly centralized in the executive.
• Restrictions on Political Opposition:** Opposition parties and leaders have faced increasing harassment, disqualification from elections, and persecution. Ahead of the 2021 general election, numerous presidential candidates and prominent opposition figures were arrested and detained on charges widely viewed as politically motivated, effectively eliminating meaningful competition.
• Suppression of Dissent and Media:** Freedom of expression, assembly, and the press have been severely curtailed. Independent media outlets have faced censorship, closure, seizure of assets, and attacks. Journalists, activists, and human rights defenders critical of the government have been subjected to intimidation, arbitrary detention, and criminalization. Numerous NGOs have been stripped of their legal status and forced to close.
• Human Rights Violations:** The government's response to the widespread anti-government protests in 2018 was particularly brutal, resulting in hundreds of deaths, thousands of injuries, and widespread arrests. Human rights organizations documented extrajudicial killings, torture, and other severe abuses by state forces and pro-government paramilitary groups. Impunity for these violations remains a significant concern.
• Constitutional Changes:** Constitutional reforms have been implemented to remove presidential term limits and further entrench the FSLN's power. A 2024 reform, among other changes, reportedly established a co-presidency, extended the presidential term, and introduced provisions that could further restrict fundamental freedoms under the guise of national security and stability.

These developments have led to Nicaragua being widely described as an authoritarian state by international observers and human rights organizations. The situation has resulted in international condemnation, sanctions from countries like the United States and the European Union, and a significant exodus of Nicaraguans seeking refuge abroad. The government typically denies these accusations, attributing criticism to foreign interference and attempts to destabilize the country. The human rights situation remains dire, with ongoing reports of repression against any form of dissent.

5.3. Foreign relations

Nicaragua's foreign policy under the Daniel Ortega administration has been characterized by a strong anti-imperialist rhetoric, particularly critical of the United States, and a deepening of alliances with countries that share similar ideological stances or offer alternative partnerships.

Key aspects of Nicaragua's foreign relations include:

• Relations with the United States:** Historically complex, relations with the U.S. have become increasingly strained due to concerns over democratic backsliding and human rights abuses in Nicaragua. The U.S. has imposed sanctions on Nicaraguan officials and entities and has been a vocal critic of the Ortega government.
• Relations with Russia:** Nicaragua has cultivated closer ties with Russia, including military cooperation, economic agreements, and diplomatic support. Russia has provided military equipment and training to Nicaragua and has supported the Ortega government in international forums. In 2022, Nicaragua authorized the temporary stationing of Russian troops, ships, and aircraft for training and humanitarian purposes, a move viewed with concern by some regional actors.
• Relations with China:** In December 2021, Nicaragua switched diplomatic recognition from Taiwan (Republic of China) to the People's Republic of China, aligning with Beijing's "One China" policy. This move was seen as an effort to secure new economic and political partnerships.
• ALBA Alliance:** Nicaragua is a member of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA), a leftist political and economic alliance founded by Venezuela and Cuba. Through ALBA, Nicaragua received significant economic assistance from Venezuela, particularly during the Chávez era, though this aid has diminished with Venezuela's own economic crisis.
• Relations with Cuba and Venezuela:** Nicaragua maintains close political and ideological ties with Cuba and Venezuela, forming part of a bloc critical of U.S. foreign policy in Latin America.
• Central American Relations:** Relations with neighboring Central American countries are generally functional, though occasional tensions arise, particularly with Costa Rica over border issues and migration. Nicaragua participates in regional integration efforts like the Central American Integration System (SICA).
• International Organizations:** Nicaragua is a member of the United Nations and other international bodies. However, its relationship with the Organization of American States (OAS) deteriorated significantly following the 2018 crisis. In November 2021, Nicaragua announced its withdrawal from the OAS, a process that formally concluded in November 2023, after the OAS repeatedly condemned human rights violations and the erosion of democracy in the country.
• Territorial Disputes:** Nicaragua has had historical territorial disputes with Colombia over maritime boundaries and islands in the Caribbean Sea (such as the San Andrés archipelago and Quita Sueño Bank). The International Court of Justice (ICJ) has issued rulings on these disputes, some of which have redefined maritime borders. There have also been disputes with Costa Rica concerning navigation rights on the San Juan River, which forms part of their border, and maritime delimitation in both the Pacific and Caribbean.
• International Stance on Global Issues:** Nicaragua has often aligned itself with countries critical of Western foreign policy. For instance, it voted against UN resolutions condemning Russia's invasion of Ukraine. It recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia in 2008.

Nicaragua's foreign policy choices reflect a strategy of seeking diverse international partnerships while navigating criticism and pressure regarding its domestic political situation.

5.4. Military

The Nicaraguan Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas de Nicaragua) are responsible for the national defense of Nicaragua. The current military was established after the Nicaraguan Revolution in 1979, evolving from the Sandinista Popular Army (EPS).

The main branches of the Nicaraguan Armed Forces are:

• The Army (Ejército de Nicaragua):** This is the largest branch, responsible for land-based operations, border security, and internal defense.
• The Navy (Fuerza Naval):** Responsible for maritime security in Nicaragua's territorial waters in both the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, including combating drug trafficking and illegal fishing.
• The Air Force (Fuerza Aérea):** Provides air support, reconnaissance, and transport capabilities.

The President of Nicaragua is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The military's role is defined by the constitution and national laws, primarily focusing on defending national sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity.

• Historical Context and Evolution:**

The Nicaraguan military has undergone significant transformations throughout its history. The U.S.-trained National Guard under the Somoza dynasty was dismantled after the 1979 revolution. The Sandinista Popular Army (EPS) was a large, conscript-based force heavily involved in the Contra War of the 1980s. Following the end of the war and the change of government in 1990, the military was significantly downsized, professionalized, and depoliticized, with conscription abolished. It was renamed the Nicaraguan Army and later the Nicaraguan Armed Forces.

• Current Size and Capabilities:**

Compared to the revolutionary era, the current Nicaraguan military is relatively small, with an active duty personnel estimated to be around 12,000 to 14,000. Its equipment is largely of Soviet-era origin, a legacy of support during the 1980s, though there have been some efforts to modernize and acquire new equipment, including from Russia in recent years. The defense budget is modest.

• Roles and Engagements:**

Beyond traditional defense roles, the Nicaraguan military is involved in:

• Combating drug trafficking and organized crime, often in coordination with other Central American nations and international partners.
• Disaster relief and humanitarian assistance operations.
• Environmental protection, including efforts against illegal logging and poaching in protected areas.
• Border security, particularly along the borders with Honduras and Costa Rica.

In recent years, there has been increased military cooperation with Russia, including training, technical assistance, and the acquisition of Russian military hardware. In 2017, Nicaragua signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. The role and influence of the military in domestic politics remain a subject of observation, particularly given the country's recent political developments.

5.5. Law enforcement

Law enforcement in Nicaragua is primarily the responsibility of the National Police of Nicaragua (Policía Nacional de Nicaragua). Established in its modern form after the 1979 Nicaraguan Revolution, it replaced the Somoza-era National Guard in civilian policing functions, with the National Guard's military functions transitioning to the new army.

• Structure and Functions:**

The National Police is a centralized force under the Ministry of Interior (Ministerio de Gobernación). Its responsibilities include:

• Maintaining public order and safety.
• Preventing and investigating crimes.
• Traffic control and enforcement.
• Border policing functions in some areas, often in coordination with the military.
• Combating organized crime, including drug trafficking and gang activity.

Historically, the Nicaraguan National Police had a reputation, particularly in the 1990s and early 2000s, for a community policing model that contributed to relatively low homicide rates compared to some neighboring Central American countries. For example, in 2021, the intentional homicide rate was reported at 11 per 100,000 inhabitants.

• Challenges and Concerns:**

However, in recent years, particularly since the 2018 anti-government protests, the National Police has faced severe criticism from national and international human rights organizations for:

• Excessive Use of Force:** Allegations of widespread and disproportionate use of force against protesters, including the use of live ammunition, resulting in numerous deaths and injuries.
• Arbitrary Arrests and Detentions:** Reports of mass arbitrary arrests of protesters, opposition figures, journalists, and human rights defenders.
• Torture and Ill-Treatment:** Numerous testimonies and reports of torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment of detainees in police custody.
• Politicization and Lack of Independence:** The police force is widely perceived as being heavily politicized and acting in the interests of the ruling FSLN party and the Ortega government, rather than as an impartial enforcer of the law. Its leadership is closely aligned with the executive.
• Impunity:** A lack of accountability for human rights violations committed by police officers. Investigations into abuses are rare, and prosecutions even rarer.
• Corruption:** Like many institutions in the region, the police force has faced issues of corruption, although this has been overshadowed by the more severe human rights concerns in recent years.
• Cooperation with Paramilitary Groups:** During the 2018 crackdown, the police were observed operating alongside and, in some cases, directing pro-government armed civilian groups (paramilitaries or turbas) in suppressing protests.

These issues have led to a significant loss of public trust in the National Police and have resulted in sanctions being imposed by countries like the United States and the European Union against high-ranking police officials. The transformation of the police from an institution once lauded for community engagement to one accused of systematic repression represents a major challenge for public security and the rule of law in Nicaragua. A 2024 constitutional reform also established a voluntary civilian police as "an auxiliary body in support of the National Police," raising further concerns about the militarization of public security and potential for abuse.

5.6. Administrative divisions

Nicaragua is a unitary republic, and for administrative purposes, it is divided into 15 departments (departamentos_departments^Spanish) and two autonomous regions (regiones autónomas_{autonomous regions}^Spanish). This structure is based on the Spanish model. The departments are further subdivided into 153 municipalities (municipios_{municipalities}^Spanish).

The two autonomous regions, located on the Caribbean coast, were established in 1987 to grant a degree of self-governance to the indigenous and Afro-descendant populations in that historically distinct part of the country. They are:

• North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region (Región Autónoma de la Costa Caribe Norte - RACCN), formerly known as Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte (RAAN). Its capital is Bilwi (Puerto Cabezas).
• South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region (Región Autónoma de la Costa Caribe Sur - RACCS), formerly known as Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur (RAAS). Its capital is Bluefields.

The 15 departments are:

Each department and autonomous region has its own local government structure, though the degree of autonomy is most significant in the RACCN and RACCS, which have their own regional councils and coordinators with specific mandates related to cultural preservation, resource management, and local governance for their diverse ethnic populations.

6.1. Economic overview and structure

Nicaragua has the second-lowest GDP per capita (nominal) and third-lowest GDP per capita (PPP) among Latin American and Caribbean countries. In 2008, its GDP (PPP) was estimated at 17.37 B USD. The economy is characterized by its reliance on a few key sectors:

• Agriculture:** This sector remains a cornerstone of the Nicaraguan economy, contributing significantly to GDP (around 15.5%, the highest in Central America) and employment. Key agricultural exports include coffee, beef, sugar, peanuts, and seafood.
• Services:** The services sector, including commerce, tourism, and finance, is the largest contributor to GDP.
• Industry:** Manufacturing, particularly in the maquila (assembly plant) sector producing textiles and apparel for export, plays an important role, though it faces competition from Asian markets. Mining (gold) also contributes to exports.

• Key Economic Indicators and Challenges:**
  • Poverty and Inequality:** High levels of poverty and income inequality persist. According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), in the past, nearly half the population lived below the poverty line, with a significant portion living on less than $2 per day. Indigenous populations often face even more severe poverty.
  • Unemployment and Underemployment:** Formal unemployment rates can be misleading, as underemployment and participation in the informal sector are widespread.
  • Remittances:** Remittances from Nicaraguans living abroad (primarily in Costa Rica, the United States, and Spain) are a crucial source of income for many families and a significant contributor to the national economy, accounting for over 15% of GDP.
  • Foreign Debt:** Historically, Nicaragua has struggled with high levels of foreign debt, though it has benefited from debt relief initiatives like the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) program.
  • Political Instability:** Periods of political instability, such as the crisis following the 2018 protests, have had severe negative impacts on the economy, deterring investment, disrupting tourism, and leading to economic contraction. Restrictive tax measures and civil conflict further impacted public spending and investor confidence. The COVID-19 pandemic also negatively affected the economy.
  • Inflation:** While hyperinflation was a major problem in the 1980s, it has generally been brought under control, though it can still be a concern.
  • Corruption:** Nicaragua ranks poorly on international corruption indices. In 2024, it was ranked as the second most corrupt country in Latin America by the Corruption Perceptions Index.
  • Dependence on International Aid and Commodity Prices:** The economy is vulnerable to fluctuations in international commodity prices and has historically relied on international aid and preferential trade agreements.

  The government has pursued various economic strategies, including attracting foreign investment, promoting exports, and seeking alternative economic partnerships, such as through the ALBA alliance. However, structural challenges and the prevailing political climate continue to pose significant obstacles to sustainable and equitable economic development. Nicaragua was ranked 124th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

6.2. Main sectors

Nicaragua's economy is primarily based on agriculture, with growing contributions from manufacturing, mining, and services, including tourism.

• Agriculture:** This sector is a mainstay of the Nicaraguan economy, employing a significant portion of the labor force and accounting for a large share of export earnings (around 60% historically).
  • Coffee:** One of the most important export crops, primarily grown in the northern highlands (departments like Jinotega, Matagalpa, Nueva Segovia, Estelí). Nicaraguan coffee is recognized for its quality and is purchased by international companies like Nestlé and Starbucks.
  • Beef:** Cattle ranching is a major activity, and beef is a significant export.
  • Sugar:** Sugarcane cultivation is prominent, particularly in the western regions, for sugar production and export.
  • Other Crops:** Other important agricultural products include beans, corn (staple food crops), rice, bananas, peanuts, sesame, melons, onions, and tobacco. Tobacco, especially for cigars, has become an increasingly valuable export.
  • Fisheries and Aquaculture:** Shrimp and lobster from the Caribbean coast are important exports. Aquaculture, particularly shrimp farming, is also present.
  • Challenges:** The agricultural sector faces challenges such as vulnerability to climate change (droughts, hurricanes), price volatility for export commodities, soil erosion, and pollution from pesticide use.
  • Manufacturing (Maquila Sector):** The maquila or Free Trade Zone (FTZ) sector focuses on the assembly of goods for export, primarily textiles and apparel. This sector has been an important source of employment, particularly for women, but it faces competition from lower-cost manufacturing centers in Asia and is sensitive to international trade conditions and labor standards concerns.
  • Mining:** Mining, particularly for gold, has become an increasingly significant industry, contributing to export revenues. The "Mining Triangle" (Siuna, Rosita, Bonanza) in the North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region is a key gold-producing area. However, mining activities also raise environmental and social concerns regarding deforestation, water pollution, and impacts on indigenous communities.
  • Services:** This is the largest sector of the economy.
    • Commerce:** Wholesale and retail trade are vital.
    • Tourism:** This sector grew significantly prior to the 2018 political crisis and remains a potential area for economic recovery (covered in a separate section).
    • Finance:** Banking and financial services are established, though access to credit can be limited, especially for small businesses and rural populations.

    The Nicaraguan economy's structure reflects its status as a developing country, with a heavy reliance on primary commodity exports and a need for diversification and value addition to achieve more resilient and equitable growth.

6.3. Tourism

Tourism grew to become a significant industry in Nicaragua, at one point becoming the second-largest source of foreign exchange, before being severely impacted by the political crisis that began in 2018. Prior to this, the sector had experienced substantial growth for over a decade, with annual growth rates often exceeding 10%. In 2010, Nicaragua welcomed over one million tourists for the first time. The government has historically viewed tourism as a key tool for economic development and poverty reduction.

• Major Attractions:**

Nicaragua offers a diverse range of attractions:

• Colonial Cities:** León and Granada are prime destinations, renowned for their well-preserved Spanish colonial architecture, historic churches, and vibrant cultural scenes. Granada, founded in 1524, is one of the oldest colonial cities in the Americas.
• Volcanoes:** Known as "the land of lakes and volcanoes," Nicaragua has numerous volcanoes, many of which are accessible for hiking, climbing, and even sandboarding (e.g., Cerro Negro near León). Popular volcanoes include Mombacho (with cloud forests and coffee plantations), Masaya Volcano (with an active lava lake), Momotombo, and the twin volcanoes Concepción and Maderas on Ometepe Island.
• Lakes and Islands:** Lake Nicaragua is a major attraction, offering boat tours, fishing, and visits to islands like Ometepe (known for its volcanoes, pre-Columbian petroglyphs, and diverse ecosystems) and the Solentiname Islands (famous for their primitivist art and birdlife). Apoyo Lagoon, a pristine crater lake, is popular for swimming, kayaking, and ecotourism.
• Beaches and Surfing:** The Pacific coast boasts numerous beaches, with San Juan del Sur being a well-known hub for surfing, nightlife, and tourism. Other surfing spots have also gained international recognition. The Corn Islands (Big Corn and Little Corn) in the Caribbean offer white-sand beaches, turquoise waters, snorkeling, and diving.
• Ecotourism and Nature Reserves:** Nicaragua's rich biodiversity and extensive protected areas, such as the Bosawás Biosphere Reserve and the Indio Maíz Biological Reserve, provide opportunities for ecotourism, birdwatching, wildlife viewing, and exploring rainforests. The Somoto Canyon is another popular natural attraction.
• Cultural Tourism:** Experiences include visiting local markets (e.g., Masaya market), learning about indigenous cultures, and witnessing traditional festivals and dances like El Güegüense.

The growth of tourism positively impacted various sectors, including agriculture, commerce, finance, and construction, and created employment opportunities. The majority of tourists historically came from the United States, Central and South America, and Europe. Around 60,000 U.S. citizens visited annually for tourism, business, or family visits, and a community of U.S. expatriates resided in the country.

However, the political crisis of 2018 led to a drastic decline in tourist arrivals due to safety concerns and international travel advisories. The recovery of the tourism sector is heavily dependent on the country's political stability and international image. Efforts to promote sustainable and community-based tourism are considered crucial for ensuring that the benefits of tourism are distributed equitably and that natural and cultural heritage is preserved.

6.4. Infrastructure

Nicaragua's infrastructure, while having seen improvements in some areas, faces significant challenges that hinder economic development and social progress. These challenges are often exacerbated by the country's poverty, geographical complexities, and vulnerability to natural disasters.

• Transportation Networks:**
  • Roads:** Road infrastructure is more developed in the Pacific region and central highlands than in the vast and sparsely populated Caribbean lowlands. Many roads, especially in rural areas, are unpaved and can become impassable during the rainy season. Efforts have been made to improve major highways and connect previously isolated regions. A significant achievement was the completion in 2019 of an all-weather road connecting Managua to Bluefields on the Caribbean coast, a project long sought after. However, maintenance and expansion of the road network remain ongoing needs.
  • Ports:** Nicaragua has ports on both the Pacific and Caribbean coasts. Corinto is the main commercial port on the Pacific. On the Caribbean side, Bluefields and Bilwi (Puerto Cabezas) are important, though their capacity and infrastructure are more limited. Efficient port operations are crucial for international trade.
  • Airports:** Augusto C. Sandino International Airport (MGA) in Managua is the country's primary international airport. There are smaller domestic airports and airstrips, particularly serving the Caribbean coast and tourist destinations like the Corn Islands.
  • Railways:** Nicaragua currently has no operational railway system. The country's railways were largely dismantled in the 1990s and early 2000s due to economic and operational issues.
  • Energy:**
    • Nicaragua has historically relied heavily on imported fossil fuels for electricity generation, making it vulnerable to price fluctuations. However, in recent years, there has been a significant push towards renewable energy sources. The country has made substantial progress in increasing the share of renewables (geothermal, wind, hydroelectric, and solar) in its energy matrix, aiming to reach high percentages of renewable generation. The Momotombo geothermal plant is a key facility. The Centroamérica power plant on the Tuma River and other hydroelectric projects contribute to electricity supply. Despite progress, ensuring reliable and affordable electricity access, particularly in rural areas, remains a challenge.
    • Telecommunications:**
      • The telecommunications sector has seen growth, with increasing mobile phone penetration and internet access. However, disparities exist between urban and rural areas in terms of connectivity and service quality. Fiber optic networks are expanding, but broadband access is not yet universal.
      • Water and Sanitation:**
        • Access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation facilities is a persistent challenge, especially in rural communities and impoverished urban areas. Investments are needed to improve and expand these services to meet public health needs.
        • Proposed Nicaragua Canal:**
          • The idea of constructing a transoceanic Nicaragua Canal to rival the Panama Canal has been a recurring theme in Nicaraguan history. In 2013, the Nicaraguan government granted a concession to a Hong Kong-based company (HKND Group) to build and operate such a canal. The project was touted as a transformative development that would bring massive economic benefits and create numerous jobs.
          • However, the canal project has been highly controversial and has faced significant skepticism and opposition due to:
            • Environmental Concerns:** Scientists and environmental groups raised alarms about the potentially devastating impact on Lake Nicaragua (the proposed route's main water source), sensitive ecosystems, biodiversity, and water resources.
            • Social Impact:** Concerns were raised about the displacement of communities, land expropriation, and the rights of indigenous peoples along the proposed route.
            • Economic Viability and Transparency:** Doubts were expressed about the project's financial feasibility, the lack of transparency in the concession process, and the long-term economic benefits versus costs.
          • While some initial preparatory work was reported, major construction never commenced, and the project has largely stalled, with its future highly uncertain. The social and environmental implications of such a massive undertaking remain a critical point of discussion, particularly from a perspective focused on sustainable development and community rights.

          Overall, improving and expanding infrastructure is critical for Nicaragua's economic growth, poverty reduction, and social development, requiring sustained investment and sound planning, especially in a way that addresses social and environmental sustainability.

6.5. Labor and social equity

Labor conditions and social equity are critical issues in Nicaragua, a country marked by high levels of poverty, significant income inequality, and a large informal economy. The social impact of economic policies and the protection of workers' rights are central concerns from a center-left/social liberalism perspective.

• Employment and Labor Market:**
  • The labor market is characterized by a large informal sector, where workers often lack job security, social protection (like pensions and health insurance), and adherence to labor laws. Many Nicaraguans, particularly in urban areas, are self-employed or work in small, unregistered enterprises.
  • Formal employment is concentrated in sectors like manufacturing (maquilas), agriculture, services, and the public sector.
  • Unemployment and underemployment are persistent problems. Official unemployment rates may not fully capture the extent of precarious work and insufficient income.
  • Rural workers often depend on seasonal agricultural labor, especially for coffee, sugar, and cotton harvests, facing periods of unemployment during the off-season.
  • Minimum Wage and Working Conditions:**
    • Nicaragua has a legally mandated minimum wage, which varies by economic sector. However, it is among the lowest in the Americas, and often insufficient to cover basic living costs for a family.
    • Working conditions, particularly in some maquila factories and agricultural settings, have been a subject of concern regarding long hours, low pay, health and safety standards, and restrictions on unionization.
    • Child labor remains a problem, especially in agriculture and the informal sector, despite legal prohibitions.
    • Poverty and Social Inequality:**
      • Nicaragua is one ofthe poorest countries in Latin America. A significant portion of the population lives below the national poverty line, and extreme poverty is also prevalent, particularly in rural areas and among indigenous communities.
      • Income inequality is high, with wealth concentrated in the hands of a small elite. Access to opportunities, resources, and basic services like education, healthcare, and sanitation is often unequal, depending on geographic location, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity.
      • Land ownership remains unequal, with a history of land concentration. While land reforms were implemented during the Sandinista era in the 1980s, access to productive land remains a challenge for many small farmers.
      • Social Programs and Protection:**
        • The government has implemented various social programs aimed at poverty reduction, food security, and improving access to education and healthcare. The effectiveness and sustainability of these programs, as well as their reach to the most vulnerable populations, are ongoing areas of assessment and concern.
        • Social security coverage (pensions, health) is limited, primarily benefiting those in the formal sector. The 2018 protests were initially triggered by controversial reforms to the social security system.
        • Labor Rights and Unionization:**
          • The right to organize and collectively bargain is legally recognized, but in practice, independent trade unions often face challenges, including restrictions on their activities, harassment, and pro-government union dominance in some sectors.
          • The political climate since 2018 has further constrained space for independent labor activism and advocacy for workers' rights.

          Addressing these issues requires comprehensive policies focused on promoting decent work, strengthening labor rights, investing in education and skills development, expanding social protection, tackling corruption, and implementing economic strategies that foster inclusive growth and reduce inequality. The social impacts of any economic policy must be carefully considered to ensure they benefit the broader population, particularly the most marginalized groups.

7.1. Population

As of 2024, Nicaragua's population was estimated at around 7.14 million people. It is the third-most populous country in Central America, after Guatemala and Honduras, despite being the largest by land area, resulting in a relatively low population density overall. The population growth rate has been moderate, around 1.5% annually in the past, influenced by one of the higher birth rates in the Western Hemisphere (around 17.7 per 1,000 in 2017) and a death rate of about 4.7 per 1,000.

A significant characteristic of Nicaragua's population is its youthfulness, with a large percentage of the population under the age of 18. Urbanization is a continuing trend, with about 58% of the population living in urban areas as of 2013. The capital city, Managua, is the largest urban center, with an estimated population exceeding 1 million. The majority of the population (over 5 million in 2005) resides in the Pacific, Central, and North regions, while the Caribbean region is more sparsely populated (around 700,000 in 2005).

7.2. Ethnic groups

Nicaragua is a multiethnic country. The main ethnic groups are:

• Mestizos:** This is the largest group, comprising approximately 69% of the population. Mestizos are people of mixed European (primarily Spanish) and indigenous ancestry. They are predominant in the Pacific and central regions.
• White Nicaraguans:** Constituting about 17% of the population, this group is primarily of Spanish descent, but also includes descendants of German, Italian, French, English, Danish, and other European immigrants who arrived mainly in the 19th and 20th centuries. They are also concentrated in the Pacific and central regions.
• Afro-Nicaraguans:** Making up about 9% of the population, Afro-Nicaraguans predominantly reside on the Caribbean coast. This group includes:
  • Creoles:** English-speaking descendants of enslaved Africans (some shipwrecked or escaped) and European settlers (often British or Scottish, hence names like Campbell, Gordon, Hodgson). Many Creoles initially supported the Somoza regime due to its U.S. ties but later experienced complex relations with the Sandinista government over issues of autonomy and cultural identity.
  • Garifuna:** A smaller community of mixed West African, Carib, and Arawak descent, primarily located on the Caribbean coast.
• Indigenous Peoples:** Comprising about 5% of the population, these are descendants of the country's original inhabitants.
  • In the western region, the Nahua-speaking Nicarao and the Chorotega were historically significant but have largely been assimilated into the Mestizo population. The Subtiaba people also inhabited this area.
  • The Caribbean coast and central highlands are home to distinct indigenous groups who have largely maintained their cultural identities and languages. These include the Miskito (the largest indigenous group), Mayangna (Sumo), Rama, and Matagalpas. These groups primarily speak Macro-Chibchan languages and have historical migratory links with South America.
  • Social and Economic Conditions of Minority and Indigenous Groups:**

  Minority and indigenous groups, particularly those on the Caribbean coast and in remote rural areas, often face significant social and economic disadvantages. These include:

  • Poverty:** Higher rates of poverty and extreme poverty compared to the national average. UN figures have indicated that a large percentage of indigenous people live on less than $1 per day.
  • Limited Access to Services:** Reduced access to quality education, healthcare, sanitation, and infrastructure.
  • Land Rights:** Ongoing struggles over land rights and control of natural resources in their ancestral territories, often facing encroachment from settlers, logging, and mining interests. While the Caribbean coast has autonomous regions, the implementation of true autonomy and protection of communal lands remains a challenge.
  • Discrimination:** Experiences of racial and cultural discrimination.
  • Political Representation:** Challenges in achieving effective political representation and participation in national decision-making processes that affect their lives.

  The government has formally recognized the autonomy of the Caribbean coastal regions and the rights of indigenous peoples, but the practical realization of these rights and the improvement of their socio-economic conditions continue to be major challenges requiring focused attention and resources.

7.3. Languages

The official language of Nicaragua is **Spanish**. Nicaraguan Spanish is the predominant form spoken throughout the country and has its own distinct accent, vocabulary, and idiomatic expressions, with some regional variations and indigenous influences. For example, some Nicaraguans tend to replace /s/ with /h/ in their speech.

Beyond Spanish, Nicaragua has a rich linguistic diversity, particularly on the Caribbean coast and among indigenous communities:

• Indigenous Languages:**
  • Miskito:** The most widely spoken indigenous language, used by the Miskito people as a first language and by some other indigenous and Afro-descendant individuals as a second or third language.
  • Mayangna (Sumo/Ulwa):** Misumalpan languages spoken by the Mayangna and Ulwa peoples.
  • Rama:** A Chibchan language spoken by the Rama people. It is critically endangered, with very few fluent speakers remaining, though revitalization efforts have been underway. Most Rama now speak Rama Cay Creole or Spanish.
• Other historical indigenous languages of the Pacific coast, like Chorotega and Subtiaba, are largely extinct, though some linguistic influences remain in local Spanish.

• English-based Creoles:**
  • Miskito Coast Creole (Kriol):** An English-based creole language is widely spoken on the Caribbean coast, particularly by the Creole population (Afro-Nicaraguans of West Indian descent) and also by many Miskito, Mayangna, and Garifuna people as a first or second language. Its historical roots lie in the British colonial influence in the region.
  • Rama Cay Creole:** Spoken by the Rama people on Rama Cay.
  • Garifuna Language:** An Arawakan language spoken by the Garifuna community, though many also speak Miskito Coast Creole and Spanish. There are efforts to revitalize it.
  • Nicaraguan Sign Language (ISN - Idioma de Señas de Nicaragua):** This is a unique sign language that emerged spontaneously among deaf children in schools in western Nicaragua in the 1970s and 1980s. Its development has been of significant interest to linguists as a case study in the birth of a new language.

  The government officially recognizes the linguistic rights of the Caribbean coast communities, and education in indigenous languages and English-based creoles is provided in these autonomous regions. However, the preservation and promotion of these minority languages face ongoing challenges. Immigrant communities may also speak languages such as Chinese, Arabic, German, and Italian, though on a much smaller scale.

7.4. Religion

Religion plays a significant role in Nicaraguan society and culture. The constitution guarantees freedom of religion, and religious tolerance is officially promoted by the government.

• Roman Catholicism:** Historically, Roman Catholicism has been the dominant religion in Nicaragua, introduced during the Spanish colonial era in the 16th century. It was the established state faith until 1939. While still the largest single denomination, the percentage of Nicaraguans identifying as Catholic has declined in recent decades. According to the 2005 census, 58.5% of the population identified as Catholic. Catholic bishops and the Church hierarchy often play an influential role in national discourse and have historically been involved in mediating political crises. Popular Catholicism is vibrant, with strong devotion to saints, patron saint festivals (fiestas patronales), and traditions like La Purísima (a week of festivities in early December dedicated to the Immaculate Conception of Mary), which is a major religious and cultural event.

• Protestantism:** There has been a rapid growth of evangelical Protestant denominations since the late 20th century. In the 2005 census, 23.2% of the population identified as evangelical or other Protestant. This growth is part of a broader trend seen across Latin America.

• Moravian Church:** The Moravian Church has a strong presence on the Caribbean coast, a legacy of German and British missionary work that began in the 19th century. Approximately 1.5% identified as Moravian in 2005.

• Other Christian Denominations:** Other Christian groups, including Anglicans (also prominent on the Caribbean coast) and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), are present. The LDS Church reported over 95,000 members in Nicaragua as of 2017 (around 1.54% of the population).

• Irreligion/Other:** About 15.7% of the population reported having no religion or did not specify in the 2005 census. There are also very small communities practicing other faiths, such as Buddhism (mainly among immigrant communities) and Islam (practiced by a small number of residents, often of Palestinian, Libyan, or Iranian descent or recent converts). The Jewish community is also very small, numbering less than 200 people in 2017, including recent converts claiming Sephardic ancestry.

• Recent Tensions between Religious Institutions and the Government:**

In recent years, particularly since the 2018 protests, the relationship between the Ortega government and the Catholic Church has become highly conflictual. The Catholic Church was critical of the government's human rights record and attempted to mediate the 2018 crisis. Subsequently, the government has accused Church leaders of supporting "terrorism" and attempting to destabilize the country. This has led to:

• Harassment and persecution of clergy, including bishops and priests.
• Expulsion of religious orders (e.g., the Missionaries of Charity).
• Closure of Catholic-affiliated media outlets and educational institutions.
• Arrests and imprisonment of clergy, most notably Bishop Rolando Álvarez of Matagalpa, who was sentenced to a long prison term and later exiled.
• Restrictions on religious processions and public expressions of faith.

These actions have drawn widespread international condemnation and have significantly impacted religious freedom in the country, particularly for the Catholic Church.

7.5. Education

Nicaragua's education system has faced significant challenges throughout its history, including periods of underfunding, political upheaval, and disparities in access and quality, particularly between urban and rural areas. However, there have also been notable efforts to improve literacy and expand educational opportunities.

• Literacy:**
  • The adult literacy rate in 2005 was 78.0%, among the lowest in Central America at the time. This figure has likely improved since then.
  • A significant historical achievement was the **National Literacy Crusade (Cruzada Nacional de Alfabetización)** launched by the Sandinista government in 1980. This massive campaign mobilized tens of thousands of volunteer teachers (students and educators) and is credited with dramatically reducing the illiteracy rate from over 50% to around 13% in just five months. The campaign received international recognition, including a UNESCO award.
  • Structure of the Education System:**
    • Preschool Education:** Available but not universally accessed.
    • Primary Education (Educación Primaria):** Typically six years, and it is officially free and compulsory.
    • Secondary Education (Educación Secundaria):** Generally five years, divided into a basic cycle and a diversified cycle (bachillerato).
    • Higher Education (Educación Superior):** Includes universities, technical institutes, and teacher training colleges. Major public universities include the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua (UNAN), which has campuses in Managua and León (UNAN-León is the oldest, founded in 1812). There are also private universities.
    • Technical and Vocational Education:** Efforts exist to provide technical and vocational training, but capacity and resources can be limited.
    • Access and Quality:**
      • While primary education is officially free, families may still face costs related to uniforms, supplies, and transportation, which can be a barrier for impoverished households.
      • Access to secondary and higher education is more limited, especially in rural areas and for marginalized groups.
      • The quality of education can vary significantly. Challenges include inadequately trained teachers, insufficient learning materials, overcrowded classrooms, and dilapidated infrastructure.
      • Curriculum content has sometimes been subject to political influence. The Sandinista government in the 1980s introduced ideological content, which was later removed after 1990. Recent concerns have arisen again about political content in education under the current Ortega administration.
      • Challenges:**
        • Funding:** The education sector often faces insufficient public investment.
        • Teacher Training and Salaries:** Low salaries and inadequate training for teachers can affect morale and teaching quality.
        • Dropout Rates:** Dropout rates, particularly at the secondary level and in rural areas, are a concern, often linked to poverty and the need for children to work.
        • Regional Disparities:** Significant disparities in educational access and quality persist between the more developed Pacific region and the historically neglected Caribbean coast, as well as between urban and rural areas. However, communities on the Caribbean coast have the right to education in their native languages.
        • Impact of Political Crises:** Political instability and economic crises can disrupt the education system and divert resources. In recent years, universities have been sites of protest and have faced government repression, including closures and loss of autonomy for some private institutions.

        Improving the education system remains a critical priority for Nicaragua's long-term development, requiring sustained investment, focus on quality and equity, and protection of academic freedom.

7.6. Healthcare

Nicaragua's healthcare system faces the challenge of providing adequate services to its population amidst conditions of poverty and resource limitations. While there have been improvements in some health indicators over past decades, significant disparities and challenges persist, particularly in ensuring equitable access to quality care.

• System Structure:**
  • The Nicaraguan government officially guarantees universal free healthcare for its citizens through the Ministry of Health (MINSA). The system includes public hospitals, health centers, and health posts.
  • There is also a private healthcare sector, primarily serving those who can afford it, and a social security system (INSS) that provides healthcare services to affiliated workers and their families.
  • The government has historically emphasized a decentralized model focused on community-based preventive and primary medical care, particularly following the Sandinista revolution which expanded primary healthcare access.
  • Access and Disparities:**
    • A major challenge is the unequal distribution of healthcare resources and medical personnel. Urban areas, particularly Managua, generally have better access to specialized care and hospital facilities compared to rural and remote areas, especially on the Caribbean coast.
    • Indigenous populations and impoverished communities often face the greatest barriers to accessing healthcare due to geographical isolation, lack of transportation, cultural factors, and economic constraints.
    • While public healthcare is officially free, patients may sometimes need to pay for medicines or supplies if they are not available in public facilities.
    • Public Health Challenges:**
      • Nicaragua deals with a range of public health issues common to developing countries, including infectious diseases (such as dengue, chikungunya, Zika, and respiratory illnesses), maternal and child mortality (though rates have declined), malnutrition, and, increasingly, chronic non-communicable diseases (like diabetes and cardiovascular conditions).
      • Access to clean water and sanitation, while improved, remains a concern in some areas, contributing to waterborne diseases.
      • Health Indicators:**
        • Life expectancy and infant mortality rates have generally improved over time. However, Nicaragua's health indicators often lag behind those of wealthier countries in the region.
        • Historical public health campaigns, such as vaccination drives and literacy programs (which indirectly impact health), have had positive effects.
        • Resources and Personnel:**
          • The healthcare system often operates with limited financial resources, affecting the availability of medicines, medical equipment, and infrastructure maintenance.
          • There can be shortages of specialized medical personnel, particularly in rural areas. Efforts to train and retain health workers are ongoing.
          • Recent Issues:**
            • The political crisis beginning in 2018 impacted the healthcare system, with reports of denial of care to injured protesters in some public facilities and reprisals against medical personnel who provided treatment.
            • The COVID-19 pandemic placed additional strain on the healthcare system, with concerns raised about the government's transparency and response.

            Improving healthcare in Nicaragua requires sustained investment in infrastructure, human resources, and essential medicines, as well as targeted efforts to reduce disparities and ensure equitable access for all segments of the population, particularly the most vulnerable.

7.7. Gender equality

Nicaragua has a complex record on gender equality, with some notable advancements in certain areas, particularly in political representation, alongside persistent challenges related to women's rights, discrimination, and gender-based violence.

• Political Participation:**

• Women's Rights and Legal Framework:**

• LGBTQ+ Rights:**

• Challenges:**
  • Machismo Culture:** A deeply entrenched "machismo" culture contributes to gender inequality and violence against women.
  • Access to Justice:** Victims of gender-based violence and discrimination often face significant barriers in accessing justice and effective remedies.
  • Impact of Political Crisis:** The broader human rights crisis since 2018 has had a disproportionate impact on women and marginalized groups, including activists and human rights defenders. The closure of numerous NGOs, including women's rights organizations, has further weakened support systems.

  While Nicaragua has made strides in women's political representation, ensuring comprehensive gender equality and protecting the rights of women and LGBTQ+ individuals requires addressing deep-seated cultural norms, strengthening legal protections and enforcement mechanisms, and ensuring a safe and enabling environment for civil society and advocacy groups. The Human Development Report ranked Nicaragua 106 out of 160 countries in the Gender Inequality Index (GII) in 2017, reflecting ongoing disparities in reproductive health, empowerment, and economic activity.

7.8. Immigration and diaspora

Nicaragua has experienced significant emigration throughout its modern history, particularly during periods of political instability and economic hardship. This has resulted in a substantial Nicaraguan diaspora, primarily concentrated in a few key countries. Immigration to Nicaragua, relative to its population, has been less extensive.

• Nicaraguan Diaspora:**
  • Main Destinations:**
    • Costa Rica:** This is the primary destination for Nicaraguan migrants, both historically and currently. Proximity, cultural similarities, and economic opportunities (often in agriculture, construction, and domestic service) have driven this migration. Estimates suggest hundreds of thousands of Nicaraguans reside in Costa Rica, forming a significant part of its workforce. The political crisis since 2018 led to a new wave of Nicaraguans seeking refuge and asylum in Costa Rica.
    • United States:** The U.S. is another major destination. Significant waves of Nicaraguan emigration to the U.S. occurred during the Somoza era, the Nicaraguan Revolution and Contra War in the 1980s, and more recently due to economic reasons and the post-2018 crisis. Nicaraguan communities are established in cities like Miami, Los Angeles, and San Francisco.
    • Spain:** Spain has also become an increasingly important destination for Nicaraguan migrants, particularly women working in domestic service and caregiving roles.
    • Other Countries:** Smaller Nicaraguan communities exist in other Central American countries (like El Salvador and Honduras, though some Nicaraguans also work in El Salvador due to its dollarized economy), Canada, Mexico, and some Western European nations (e.g., France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, UK). Small communities are also found in Australia and Japan.
    • Reasons for Emigration:**
      • Economic Hardship:** Lack of employment opportunities, low wages, and poverty are major drivers.
      • Political Instability and Conflict:** Periods of dictatorship, revolution, civil war, and political repression have triggered significant outflows of refugees and asylum seekers. The post-2018 crisis is the most recent example.
      • Natural Disasters:** Events like hurricanes have also caused displacement and emigration.
      • Socio-Economic Impact:**
        • Remittances:** The diaspora plays a crucial role in Nicaragua's economy through remittances sent back to families. These funds are vital for household income, poverty reduction, and foreign exchange earnings for the country (estimated at over 15% of GDP).
        • Brain Drain:** Emigration can lead to a "brain drain" of skilled professionals, impacting the domestic workforce and development capacity.
        • Social and Cultural Links:** The diaspora maintains social, cultural, and often political connections with Nicaragua.
        • Immigration to Nicaragua:**

The patterns of migration are dynamic and closely linked to Nicaragua's political and economic conditions, as well as regional and global factors.

7.9. Largest cities

Nicaragua is a country with a significant portion of its population residing in urban areas. The capital, Managua, is by far the largest city and the primary economic, political, and cultural center. Other major cities serve as important regional hubs. The populations listed are based on 2016 projections from the Nicaraguan National Institute of Information Development (INIDE).

The following table lists the largest municipalities in Nicaragua:

Rank	City	Department	Population (2016 est.)	Image
1	Managua	Managua	1,042,641
2	León	León	206,264
3	Masaya	Masaya	176,344
4	Matagalpa	Matagalpa	158,095
5	Tipitapa	Managua	140,569
6	Chinandega	Chinandega	135,154
7	Jinotega	Jinotega	133,705
8	Granada	Granada	127,892
9	Estelí	Estelí	126,290
10	Puerto Cabezas (Bilwi)	North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region	113,534

• Significance of these cities:**
  • Managua:** The capital and largest city, it is the administrative, commercial, and industrial heart of the country. It has been rebuilt multiple times after devastating earthquakes.
  • León:** A historic colonial city, former capital, and a major intellectual and cultural center, home to the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua (UNAN-León) and the impressive León Cathedral (a UNESCO World Heritage site).
  • Masaya:** Known as the "City of Flowers" and the "Cradle of Nicaraguan Folklore," famous for its artisan markets, the Masaya Volcano National Park, and vibrant cultural traditions.
  • Matagalpa:** An important city in the northern highlands, a center for coffee production and commerce in the region.
  • Tipitapa:** Located near Managua, it is an industrial and commercial center, part of the wider Managua metropolitan area.
  • Chinandega:** A significant agricultural and commercial city in the fertile western plains, close to the port of Corinto.
  • Jinotega:** Another key city in the northern coffee-growing highlands, known for its mountainous scenery.
  • Granada:** One of the oldest colonial cities in the Americas, renowned for its well-preserved architecture, located on the shores of Lake Nicaragua, and a major tourist destination.
  • Estelí:** A major city in the northern highlands, important for tobacco (cigar) production and commerce.
  • Puerto Cabezas (Bilwi):** The capital of the North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region, an important port and center for the Miskito indigenous population.

  These urban centers reflect the demographic concentration in the Pacific and northern highland regions, with Managua's dominance being a key feature of Nicaragua's urban landscape.

8.1. Music and dance

Nicaraguan music is a rich fusion of indigenous and Spanish sounds. Traditional instruments include the marimba, which in Nicaragua is uniquely played by a sitting performer holding it on their knees, often accompanied by a bass fiddle, guitar, and guitarrilla (a small guitar-like mandolin). This ensemble commonly provides background music at social functions.

The Caribbean coast boasts its own distinct musical and dance traditions. Palo de Mayo is a lively, sensual dance music genre that is particularly popular and celebrated during the Palo de Mayo festival in May. It reflects the region's Afro-Caribbean heritage. The Garifuna community is known for its unique music called Punta.

Internationally popular Latin genres such as Bachata, Merengue, Salsa, and Cumbia have gained significant prominence in cultural centers like Managua, León, and Granada. Cumbia dancing has become popular, with notable Nicaraguan artists contributing to the genre. Salsa dancing is a staple in Managua's nightclubs, with influences from New York style and Cuban Salsa (Salsa Casino) being evident.

Dance in Nicaragua varies regionally. Rural areas often emphasize hip movements and turns, while urban dance styles may focus more on intricate footwork. The influence of dance styles from the Dominican Republic and the United States can be observed, and Tango has also found a place in some cultural cities and ballroom dance events.

8.2. Literature

The origins of Nicaraguan literature can be traced to pre-Columbian myths and oral traditions that shaped the worldview of indigenous peoples, some of which are still known today. However, Spanish colonization had the most profound impact.

Nicaragua holds a significant place in Spanish-language poetry, largely due to Rubén Darío (1867-1916). He is considered Nicaragua's most important literary figure and one of the greatest poets in the Spanish language. Darío is hailed as the "Father of Modernismo," a literary movement that revolutionized poetry and prose at the end of the 19th century, influencing writers across Latin America and Spain.

El Güegüense (also known as "Macho Ratón") is considered the first literary work of post-Columbian Nicaragua. This satirical drama, blending music, dance, and theatre, was written in a mix of Nahuatl (Nicarao dialect) and Spanish. Originating in the 16th century, it is one of the oldest indigenous theatrical works of the Western Hemisphere and is regarded as a masterpiece of Nicaraguan folklore, representing resistance to Spanish colonialism. In 2005, UNESCO recognized El Güegüense as a "Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity."

Other notable Nicaraguan literary figures include poets Carlos Martinez Rivas, Pablo Antonio Cuadra, Ernesto Cardenal (also a priest and liberation theologian), and Gioconda Belli (also a novelist), and prose writers like Sergio Ramírez Mercado (novelist and former Vice President). Claribel Alegría and José Coronel Urtecho are also important contributors to the country's rich literary tradition.

8.3. Cuisine

Nicaraguan cuisine is a flavorful blend of indigenous (Mesoamerican) culinary traditions and Spanish influences, with regional variations between the Pacific and Caribbean coasts.

• Staple Ingredients:** Maize (corn) is a fundamental staple, used in numerous dishes and drinks. Beans (frijoles) and rice (arroz) are also central to the diet. Local fruits and vegetables like jocote, mango, papaya, tamarindo, pipian (a type of squash), bananas (including plantains), avocado, and cassava (yuca) are widely used. Common herbs and spices include cilantro, oregano, and achiote (annatto).

• Iconic Dishes:**
  • Gallo pinto**: Considered the national dish, gallo pinto (literally "spotted rooster") is a mixture of fried rice and red beans, often seasoned with onions, sweet peppers, and garlic. It is commonly eaten for breakfast, often served with eggs, fried cheese, plantains, or carne asada (grilled meat). On the Caribbean coast, coconut milk is sometimes added.
  • Nacatamal**: Similar to a Mexican tamale but larger, a nacatamal consists of maize dough (masa) filled with pork or chicken, rice, potatoes, tomatoes, onions, peppers, and olives, seasoned with achiote and other spices, wrapped in plantain leaves, and boiled or steamed for several hours.
  • Indio Viejo**: A hearty, thick stew made with shredded beef or chicken, corn dough, onions, garlic, sweet peppers, tomatoes, and sour orange juice (naranja agria), seasoned with achiote and mint.
  • Vigorón**: A popular dish, especially in Granada, consisting of boiled cassava, chicharrones (crispy fried pork rinds or pork belly), and a curtido (a tangy cabbage slaw with tomatoes, onions, and chili, dressed with vinegar).
  • Quesillo**: A common street food and snack, featuring a thick corn tortilla wrapped around soft white cheese (quesillo), pickled onions, and a generous dollop of crema (sour cream), often served in a plastic bag.
  • Sopa de Albóndigas**: A meatball soup, often made with beef meatballs, vegetables like yuca, quequisque (taro-like root), chayote, corn, and herbs.
  • Beverages and Desserts:**
    • Pinolillo** and **Tiste**: Traditional corn-based drinks, often flavored with cacao and spices.
    • Chicha**: A fermented or unfermented beverage, typically made from corn.
    • Fresco**: Fresh fruit juices, such as tamarind, hibiscus (flor de Jamaica), passion fruit (calala), and pitahaya (dragon fruit).

• Regional Variations:**

The Pacific coast cuisine heavily features corn, local fruits, and beef. The Caribbean coast cuisine makes greater use of seafood (fish, shrimp, lobster), coconut milk (as in "rondón," a seafood and root vegetable stew), plantains, and breadfruit, reflecting its Afro-Caribbean influences. Some traditional diets also include wild game such as guinea pigs (cuy), tapirs, iguanas, turtle eggs, armadillos, and boas, though efforts are made to curb consumption of endangered species.

Traditional street food snacks include "tajadas" (deep-fried plantain chips) and "maduros" (sautéed ripe plantains).

8.4. Media

The media landscape in Nicaragua has been significantly impacted by the country's political developments, particularly since 2018. While a variety of media outlets exist, concerns about freedom of the press and government influence are widespread.

• Broadcast Media:**
  • Television:** Several national television networks operate, some of which are state-controlled or closely aligned with the government. Cable television is available in most urban areas, offering a range of domestic and international channels.
  • Radio:** Radio is a major source of news and entertainment for many Nicaraguans, with numerous national and local radio stations. As with television, ownership and editorial lines can be politically influenced.
  • Print Media:**
    • Nicaragua has a history of influential newspapers. However, the space for independent print media has shrunk considerably.
    • La Prensa, one of the oldest and most prominent newspapers, has historically been critical of various governments and has faced intense pressure, including withholding of newsprint, financial audits, and legal harassment of its staff. It eventually ceased its print edition and operates primarily online.
    • El Nuevo Diario was another major newspaper that ceased publication in 2019 due to economic pressures and government restrictions.
    • Other publications like Hoy (a popular tabloid) exist, often with varying degrees of political alignment.
    • Online Media:**
      • Online news platforms and digital media have become increasingly important, especially for independent journalism and critical voices. Outlets like Confidencial, Artículo 66, and Divergentes provide investigative reporting and analysis, often operating under difficult circumstances, with many journalists forced into exile.
      • Social media is widely used for news consumption and public discourse, but it has also been a space for disinformation and harassment.
      • Freedom of the Press and Government Influence:**

International press freedom organizations consistently rank Nicaragua poorly in terms of media freedom, highlighting the challenging environment for independent journalism and the risks faced by those who seek to provide critical coverage of the government.

8.5. Sports

Sports play an important role in Nicaraguan culture and recreation.

• Baseball (Béisbol):** This is by far the most popular sport in Nicaragua and is considered the national sport. Introduced in the late 19th century, baseball has a strong tradition, particularly in the Pacific region and cities like Managua, León, Masaya, and Granada. Nicaragua has a professional baseball league, the Nicaraguan Professional Baseball League (LBPN), and has produced several players who have reached Major League Baseball (MLB) in the United States. The most notable is Dennis Martínez, a pitcher who had a long and successful MLB career, famously throwing a perfect game in 1991. Other MLB players from Nicaragua include Everth Cabrera and Vicente Padilla. The Nicaraguan national baseball team has competed in international tournaments, including the Baseball World Cup (where it has won multiple silver medals) and the World Baseball Classic (making its debut in the main tournament in 2023). The Dennis Martínez National Stadium in Managua is the country's premier baseball venue.

• Boxing (Boxeo):** Boxing is the second most popular sport and has a rich history in Nicaragua. The country has produced several world champion boxers who have achieved international fame. Notable figures include Alexis Argüello, a three-division world champion and a national hero, considered one of the greatest boxers of all time. Ricardo Mayorga, a two-division world champion known for his flamboyant style, and Román González ("Chocolatito"), a multi-division world champion also regarded as one of the best pound-for-pound boxers of his era, have continued this legacy.

• Football (Soccer - Fútbol):** While historically less popular than baseball, football (soccer) has been gaining popularity, especially among the youth. Nicaragua has a national football league, the Primera División de Nicaragua, and the Nicaraguan national football team competes in CONCACAF tournaments. The Nicaragua National Football Stadium in Managua, completed in 2011, is the primary venue for national team matches.

• Other Sports:**
  • Basketball:** Has a following, and Nicaragua has competed in regional Central American tournaments, winning a silver medal at the 2017 Central American Games. The country is set to host the 2025 FIBA AmeriCup.
  • Volleyball:** Including beach volleyball, where national teams compete in regional events.
  • Surfing:** The Pacific coast offers excellent surfing conditions, attracting both local and international surfers.
  • Athletics, Swimming, and other Olympic sports:** Nicaraguan athletes participate in various other sports at regional and international levels, including the Olympic Games. Nicaragua first participated in the Olympics in 1968 but has yet to win an Olympic medal.

  Sports provide an important avenue for recreation, national pride, and community engagement in Nicaragua.

8.6. Public holidays

Nicaragua observes a number of national and religious holidays. These often involve public celebrations, religious services, and family gatherings. Some of the main public holidays include:

• January 1:** New Year's Day (Año Nuevo_{New Year}^Spanish)
• Varies (March/April):** Holy Week (Semana Santa_{Holy Week}^Spanish) - Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and sometimes Holy Saturday are public holidays. This is a major religious observance with processions and traditional activities.
• May 1:** Labor Day (Día de los Trabajadores_{Workers' Day}^Spanish)
• July 19:** Revolution Day (Día de la Revolución_{Revolution Day}^Spanish) - Commemorates the triumph of the Sandinista Revolution in 1979. This holiday's observance has become politically charged in recent years.
• August 1 & 10 (Managua only):** Fiestas de Santo Domingo de Guzmán - Patron saint festivities for Managua, involving large, colorful processions.
• September 14:** Battle of San Jacinto (Batalla de San Jacinto_{Battle of San Jacinto}^Spanish) - Commemorates the 1856 victory over William Walker's filibusters.
• September 15:** Independence Day (Día de la Independencia_{Independence Day}^Spanish) - Celebrates independence from Spain in 1821.
• October 12:** Indigenous Resistance Day (Día de la Resistencia Indígena_{Indigenous Resistance Day}^Spanish) - Formerly Columbus Day, re-framed to recognize indigenous heritage and resistance. (Observance and official status can vary).
• November 2 (Often observed):** All Souls' Day / Day of the Dead (Día de los Difuntos_{Day of the Dead}^Spanish) - While not always an official public holiday, it is widely observed with visits to cemeteries.
• December 8:** Immaculate Conception (La Purísima / Inmaculada Concepción_{The Purest / Immaculate Conception}^Spanish) - This is a major religious holiday, the culmination of La Gritería on December 7th, where people shout " ¿Quién causa tanta alegría?" (Who causes so much joy?) and respond "¡La Concepción de María!" (The Conception of Mary!), accompanied by fireworks and distribution of traditional gifts.
• December 25:** Christmas Day (Navidad_Christmas^Spanish)

Local municipalities also celebrate their own patron saint festivals (fiestas patronales) throughout the year, which can be important local holidays. The exact list of official public holidays can be subject to government decrees each year.