Mexico

3.1. Pre-Columbian civilizations

Human presence in the region of present-day Mexico dates back at least 20,000 years, with the earliest stone tool artifacts found near campfire remains in the Valley of Mexico radiocarbon-dated to circa 10,000 years ago. The region is recognized as one of the world's six independent cradles of civilization. The domestication of maize (corn), tomato, and beans around 5000 BC led to an agricultural surplus, enabling the transition from Paleo-Indian hunter-gatherer societies to sedentary agricultural villages. This formative period in Mesoamerica saw the emergence of distinct cultural traits, including complex religious and symbolic traditions, advanced artistic and architectural styles, and a vigesimal (base-20) numeral system, which spread throughout the Mesoamerican cultural area. Villages grew denser and socially stratified, developing into chiefdoms where rulers held both religious and political power, often organizing the construction of large ceremonial centers.

The earliest complex civilization in Mexico was the Olmec culture, which flourished on the Gulf Coast from around 1500 BC. Known for their colossal stone heads, believed to depict rulers, the Olmecs exerted significant cultural influence that diffused to other formative-era cultures in Chiapas, Oaxaca, and the Valley of Mexico. During the subsequent pre-classical period, the Maya and Zapotec civilizations developed major centers at sites like Calakmul and Monte Albán, respectively. This era also saw the development of the first true Mesoamerican writing systems by the Epi-Olmec and Zapotec peoples. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its peak with the Classic Maya hieroglyphic script, which recorded the earliest written histories of the region.

In Central Mexico, the Classic period (c. 200-900 AD) was dominated by the city of Teotihuacan, which grew to be one of the largest cities in the world, with a population exceeding 150,000. Teotihuacan featured enormous pyramidal structures, such as the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon, and its influence extended through military and commercial networks. After Teotihuacan's decline around 600 AD, various political centers like Xochicalco and Cholula competed for dominance. During this Epi-Classic period, Nahua peoples began migrating south into Mesoamerica, eventually becoming culturally and politically dominant in central Mexico.

The Post-Classic period (c. 900-1519 AD) saw the rise of the Toltec culture in Central Mexico, the Mixtec in Oaxaca, and important Maya centers like Chichen Itza and Mayapan in the Yucatán lowlands. By the late 15th century, the Aztecs (or Mexica) established a powerful political and economic empire centered on their magnificent capital city of Tenochtitlan, built on an island in Lake Texcoco (the site of modern Mexico City). The Aztec Empire, a Triple Alliance of city-states, dominated much of central Mexico and extended its influence as far south as Guatemala through tribute and military might. Their society was highly stratified, with complex religious practices that included human sacrifice, and a sophisticated understanding of agriculture, engineering, and astronomy, as evidenced by the Templo Mayor, their great temple in Tenochtitlan.

3.2. Spanish colonial era (1519-1821)

Although the Spanish Empire had established colonies in the Caribbean starting in 1493, the Spanish first learned of Mexico during the Juan de Grijalva expedition of 1518. The Spanish conquest began in February 1519 when Hernán Cortés landed and founded the Spanish city of Veracruz. Leveraging internal dissent within the Aztec Empire, forming alliances with subjugated Indigenous groups like the Tlaxcalans, and benefiting from the devastating impact of European diseases (like smallpox) on Indigenous populations, Cortés's forces, after a brutal siege, captured Tenochtitlan in August 1521. The destruction of the Aztec capital and the subsequent founding of Mexico City on its ruins marked the beginning of a 300-year colonial era during which Mexico was known as the Viceroyalty of New Spain (Nueva España_{New Spain}^Spanish).

New Spain became a cornerstone of the Spanish Empire due to two primary factors: the existence of large, hierarchically organized Mesoamerican populations who could be compelled to provide tribute and labor, and the discovery of vast silver deposits, particularly in northern Mexico (e.g., Zacatecas, Guanajuato). The colonial economy was largely extractive, based on silver mining using forced Indigenous labor under systems like the encomienda and later the repartimiento, as well as the enslavement of Africans in some regions. This system created a rigidly stratified colonial society based on race and origin, with Peninsular Spaniards (born in Spain) at the top, followed by Creoles (Spaniards born in the Americas), Mestizos (of mixed Spanish and Indigenous ancestry), Indigenous peoples, and enslaved Africans.

The two pillars of Spanish rule were the State and the Roman Catholic Church, both under the authority of the Spanish crown. Under the Patronato Real, the Spanish monarchy was granted extensive powers over Church affairs in the Americas in exchange for promoting Christianity. The Council of the Indies, based in Spain, oversaw colonial administration, while in New Spain, the highest royal official was the Viceroy, supported by the Real Audiencia_{Royal Audience}^Spanish (high court) in Mexico City. The Catholic Church played a pervasive role in colonial life, not only in religious matters but also in education, social welfare, and as a major landowner and economic power. The Mexican Inquisition, established in 1571, aimed to enforce religious orthodoxy, primarily among non-Indigenous populations.

Indigenous populations suffered catastrophic demographic decline due to disease, warfare, and exploitation. While Spanish law theoretically offered some protections, in practice, Indigenous communities were largely dispossessed of their lands and subjected to forced labor and cultural suppression. Despite this, Indigenous cultures often survived by adapting and syncretizing with Spanish traditions. Resistance to colonial rule took various forms, including numerous Indigenous revolts such as the Chichimeca War (1576-1606), the Tepehuán Revolt (1616-1620), the Pueblo Revolt (1680) in the north, and the Tzeltal Rebellion of 1712 in Chiapas. These uprisings, though often brutally suppressed, demonstrated ongoing resistance to colonial oppression. Urban unrest also occurred, notably the 1692 riot in Mexico City, where the urban poor protested against maize prices and attacked symbols of colonial power.

To protect its lucrative colony and trade routes from rivals like England, France, and the Netherlands, Spain restricted trade to only two main ports: Veracruz on the Atlantic (connecting to Spain) and Acapulco on the Pacific (connecting to the Philippines via the Manila galleons). Coastal fortifications were built, and a standing military was eventually established, particularly in response to threats like the British capture of Havana and Manila during the Seven Years' War.

3.3. War of Independence and First Mexican Empire (1810-1823)

The Mexican War of Independence was ignited by a confluence of factors, including resentment among Creoles against Peninsular Spanish dominance, the influence of Enlightenment ideas, the examples of the American and French Revolutions, and the political crisis in Spain caused by Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion in 1808, which deposed King Ferdinand VII.

On September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Creole priest in the small town of Dolores, Guanajuato, issued the "Cry of Dolores" (Grito de Dolores_{Cry of Dolores}^Spanish), a call to arms against "bad government." This event is commemorated annually as Mexico's Independence Day. Hidalgo's initial uprising, largely composed of Indigenous and Mestizo peasants, was marked by early victories but also by widespread violence and a lack of clear political objectives beyond ending Peninsular rule. Hidalgo's forces were eventually defeated, and he was captured, defrocked, and executed by firing squad on July 31, 1811.

The leadership of the insurgency passed to another priest, José María Morelos, also of humble origins, who was a more skilled military strategist and had clearer political goals, including independence, an end to slavery, and social reforms. Morelos convened the Congress of Chilpancingo in 1813, which formally declared independence and drafted a constitution. However, Morelos too was eventually defeated and executed by royalist forces in 1815. After Morelos's death, the independence movement fragmented into guerrilla warfare led by figures like Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria.

The character of the independence struggle shifted when, in 1820, a liberal revolt in Spain (the Trienio Liberal) forced Ferdinand VII to restore the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812. This alarmed conservative elites in New Spain, including high-ranking clergy and military officers, who feared losing their traditional privileges. This led to an unlikely alliance between conservative Creoles and the remaining insurgents. Agustín de Iturbide, a royalist Creole officer who had previously fought against the insurgents, switched sides and negotiated the Plan of Iguala with Vicente Guerrero in 1821. This plan called for an independent Mexico as a constitutional monarchy, the equality of Peninsulares and Creoles, and the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church.

With widespread support, Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees triumphantly entered Mexico City on September 27, 1821, effectively ending Spanish rule. The Treaty of Córdoba, signed by Iturbide and the last Spanish viceroy (though later repudiated by Spain), recognized Mexican independence.

Following independence, the First Mexican Empire was established. The Plan of Iguala had envisioned inviting a European monarch to rule, but when no suitable candidate was found, Iturbide himself was proclaimed Emperor Agustín I in May 1822. His reign was short-lived and fraught with problems, including economic instability, internal political divisions, and opposition from republicans. In December 1822, military commanders, including Antonio López de Santa Anna, revolted under the Plan of Casa Mata. Facing mounting opposition, Iturbide abdicated in March 1823 and went into exile (he was later executed upon returning to Mexico in 1824). The collapse of the empire led to the secession of the Central American provinces, which formed the Federal Republic of Central America, and paved the way for the establishment of a republic in Mexico.

3.4. Early Republic and territorial losses (1824-1855)

The period following the fall of the First Mexican Empire was marked by profound political instability, economic stagnation, and significant territorial losses, primarily to the United States. The First Mexican Republic was established under the Constitution of 1824, which created a federal system. Guadalupe Victoria, a former insurgent leader, became the first president. However, the early republic was plagued by struggles between Centralists (often Conservatives, favoring a strong central government and the privileges of the Church and military) and Federalists (often Liberals, advocating for states' rights and limitations on Church/military power). Military coups (pronunciamientos_{pronouncements (military coups)}^Spanish) were frequent, and the presidency changed hands numerous times.

General Antonio López de Santa Anna emerged as a dominant and often controversial figure, holding the presidency on multiple occasions during this era, which is sometimes called the "Age of Santa Anna." His political opportunism and military actions significantly shaped Mexico's fortunes. In 1829, President Vicente Guerrero, an Afro-Mestizo hero of the independence war, formally abolished slavery, but he was soon overthrown and judicially murdered. Spain attempted to reconquer Mexico in 1829 but was repelled, with Santa Anna gaining national hero status. France also intervened briefly in the Pastry War (1838-1839) over financial claims, a conflict where Santa Anna again played a prominent military role.

A major challenge for the young republic was governing its vast northern territories, which were sparsely populated by Mexicans but inhabited by powerful Indigenous groups like the Comanche and Apache. To populate and develop Tejas (Texas), the Mexican government encouraged immigration from the United States. These Anglo-American settlers, primarily Protestant and many bringing enslaved people (despite Mexico's abolition of slavery), soon outnumbered Mexicans in the region and grew restive under Mexican rule.

In 1835, Santa Anna, then president, sought to centralize power by abrogating the 1824 Constitution and promulgating the Siete Leyes (Seven Laws), which established a centralist republic. This sparked widespread revolts, including the Texas Revolution. Texan forces, after initial setbacks like the Battle of the Alamo, defeated Santa Anna's army at the Battle of San Jacinto in 1836, securing de facto independence for the Republic of Texas. Other regions, like the Republic of the Rio Grande and the Republic of Yucatán, also declared independence, though they were eventually reincorporated into Mexico.

The annexation of Texas by the United States in 1845 led directly to the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). The U.S., driven by Manifest Destiny, invaded Mexico. Despite some resistance, Mexican forces were outmatched. U.S. troops occupied Mexico City, and the war concluded with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. Under this treaty, Mexico was forced to cede nearly half of its territory to the United States, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming, in exchange for 15.00 M USD. This devastating loss exacerbated Mexico's internal problems. Santa Anna returned to power again but was finally ousted and exiled in 1855 by the liberal Revolution of Ayutla, which ushered in a new era of reform.

3.5. Liberal Reform, French intervention, and Restored Republic (1855-1876)

The Revolution of Ayutla (1854-1855) successfully overthrew the dictatorship of Antonio López de Santa Anna and brought a new generation of Liberals to power. This marked the beginning of La Reforma (The Reform), a period aimed at modernizing Mexico's economy and institutions along liberal principles, reducing the power of the Roman Catholic Church and the military, and establishing a secular state with individual rights. Key figures of La Reforma included Benito Juárez, Melchor Ocampo, and Miguel Lerdo de Tejada.

The Liberals promulgated a new constitution, the Constitution of 1857, which enshrined principles such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and the separation of church and state. It also included controversial provisions like the Ley Juárez (abolishing special courts or fueros for clergy and military) and the Ley Lerdo (mandating the sale of Church-owned property and Indigenous communal lands, aiming to create a class of small landholders but often leading to land concentration in the hands of speculators). These reforms were met with fierce opposition from Conservatives, who saw them as an attack on tradition and religion.

The conflict between Liberals and Conservatives escalated into the Reform War (Guerra de Reforma_{War of the Reform}^Spanish; 1858-1861), a brutal civil war. Benito Juárez, as president of the Supreme Court, became the constitutional president of the Liberal government, which was initially forced out of Mexico City. After three years of fighting, the Liberals emerged victorious, with Juárez re-establishing his government in the capital.

However, Mexico's financial troubles, exacerbated by the civil war, led Juárez's government to suspend payments on foreign debts in 1861. This provided a pretext for European powers - Britain, Spain, and France - to intervene. While Britain and Spain eventually withdrew after negotiations, Napoleon III of France had broader imperial ambitions. He sought to establish a European-backed monarchy in Mexico that would serve French interests and counter U.S. influence in the Americas (especially as the U.S. was preoccupied with its own Civil War, 1861-1865).

French forces invaded Mexico in 1862. Despite an initial Mexican victory at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862 (now celebrated as Cinco de Mayo), the French army, reinforced, eventually occupied Mexico City in 1863. A French-backed Assembly of Notables declared the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire and offered the crown to Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg, a younger brother of the Austrian emperor. Maximilian and his wife, Carlota, arrived in Mexico in 1864.

Maximilian, though a well-intentioned liberal monarch, found himself dependent on French military support and alienated both Mexican Conservatives (who found him too liberal) and Liberals (who rejected foreign imposition). Benito Juárez and the Liberal government maintained a government-in-exile and continued armed resistance. With the end of the U.S. Civil War in 1865, the United States government exerted diplomatic pressure on France to withdraw and provided aid to Juárez's forces. Facing increasing Mexican resistance and pressure from the U.S. and Prussia, Napoleon III withdrew French troops in 1866-1867. Maximilian, refusing to abdicate, was captured by Republican forces, court-martialed, and executed by firing squad in Querétaro on June 19, 1867.

The collapse of the Second Mexican Empire led to the "Restored Republic" (1867-1876). Benito Juárez returned to the presidency, a symbol of national sovereignty and resistance. His government focused on reconstruction, secular education, and infrastructure development. The Conservatives were largely discredited by their collaboration with the French. Juárez was re-elected but died in office in July 1872. He was succeeded by Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, president of the Supreme Court. Lerdo continued Juárez's liberal policies but faced challenges, including economic difficulties and political opposition. When Lerdo sought re-election, General Porfirio Díaz, a hero of the war against the French, rebelled under the Plan of Tuxtepec, accusing Lerdo of violating no-re-election principles. Díaz's rebellion gained support, and Lerdo was forced into exile in 1876, paving the way for Díaz's long rule.

3.6. Porfiriato and Mexican Revolution (1876-1920)

The period from 1876 to 1911, known as the Porfiriato, was dominated by General Porfirio Díaz, who ruled Mexico as a dictator. While his regime brought political stability (paz porfiriana) and significant economic modernization under the motto "Order and Progress," it came at a high cost of political repression, social inequality, and the concentration of land and wealth in the hands of a few, including foreign investors. Díaz encouraged foreign investment, particularly from the United States and Britain, which fueled the development of railroads, mining, oil, and export agriculture. A group of technocratic advisors known as the Científicos, influenced by Positivism, guided economic policy. However, the benefits of this modernization largely bypassed the rural peasantry and urban working class. Indigenous communities lost vast amounts of communal land (ejidos) to large estates (haciendas), leading to widespread rural poverty and discontent. Labor movements were suppressed, as seen in the violent repression of strikes like the Cananea strike (1906) and the Río Blanco strike (1907). The long-standing Yaqui Wars also continued, culminating in the forced relocation of thousands of Yaqui people.

As Díaz aged and the 1910 centennial of independence approached, political tensions grew. In a 1908 interview with American journalist James Creelman, Díaz stated he would not seek re-election in 1910, seemingly opening the door for political change. This sparked political activity, including the candidacy of Francisco I. Madero, a wealthy landowner from Coahuila, who advocated for democracy and effective suffrage. However, Díaz reneged on his statement, ran for re-election, and had Madero imprisoned. The fraudulent 1910 election, declaring Díaz the winner, became the catalyst for the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920).

Madero, having escaped from prison, issued the Plan of San Luis Potosí, calling for an armed uprising against Díaz. The revolution quickly spread, with diverse regional leaders and movements emerging. In the north, figures like Pancho Villa (Doroteo Arango) and Pascual Orozco led popular armies, while in the south, Emiliano Zapata championed the cause of land reform for peasants with the slogan "Land and Liberty" (Tierra y Libertad_{Land and Liberty}^Spanish). Facing widespread rebellion, Díaz resigned in May 1911 and went into exile.

Madero was democratically elected president in late 1911. However, his moderate reformist government struggled to satisfy the diverse demands of the revolutionaries and faced opposition from both entrenched Porfirian interests and more radical revolutionary factions. In February 1913, during a period known as the Ten Tragic Days (Decena Trágica_{Ten Tragic Days}^Spanish), a military coup led by General Victoriano Huerta, with the clandestine support of the U.S. ambassador Henry Lane Wilson, overthrew Madero's government. Madero and his vice president were subsequently murdered.

Huerta's counter-revolutionary regime was opposed by a broad coalition of revolutionary forces known as the Constitutionalists, led by Venustiano Carranza, governor of Coahuila, along with Álvaro Obregón and Pancho Villa in the north, and Zapata in the south. The U.S. administration under President Woodrow Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's government and allowed arms sales to the Constitutionalists, even briefly occupying the port of Veracruz in 1914. The Federal Army was defeated in mid-1914, and Huerta fled into exile.

The victorious revolutionary coalition soon fractured. At the Convention of Aguascalientes, disagreements over the future direction of the country led to a split between Carranza and the more radical Conventionists, Villa and Zapata. This plunged Mexico back into civil war. Obregón, Carranza's most capable general, decisively defeated Villa's forces in a series of battles, notably the Battle of Celaya in 1915. With Villa marginalized and Zapata confined to guerrilla warfare in Morelos, Carranza became the de facto leader of Mexico and gained U.S. recognition. In 1916, Villa's raid on Columbus, New Mexico, prompted the U.S. to send the Punitive Expedition under General John J. Pershing into northern Mexico to capture Villa, an unsuccessful endeavor that further strained U.S.-Mexican relations. During World War I, Germany attempted to draw Mexico into an alliance against the U.S. via the Zimmermann Telegram (1917), promising the return of lost territories, but Mexico remained neutral.

Carranza convened a constitutional convention in 1916, which drafted the Constitution of 1917. This document, still in effect today (though heavily amended), was progressive for its time. It included provisions for land reform (Article 27, empowering the state to expropriate land and subsoil resources), labor rights (Article 123, establishing an eight-hour workday, minimum wage, and the right to organize and strike), and strengthened anticlerical measures from the 1857 Constitution. The revolution resulted in an estimated 900,000 to 2 million deaths and profound social and economic upheaval.

Consolidating power, Carranza had Zapata assassinated in 1919. When Carranza attempted to impose a civilian successor, Obregón and other Sonoran generals issued the Plan of Agua Prieta in 1920, leading to Carranza's overthrow and death while fleeing Mexico City. Adolfo de la Huerta served as interim president before Obregón was elected, marking the end of the most violent phase of the revolution and the beginning of a period of political consolidation under Sonoran leadership.

3.7. Political consolidation and PRI rule (1920-2000)

The period from 1920 to 2000 was largely dominated by a single political party, which eventually became known as the Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional_{Institutional Revolutionary Party}^Spanish, PRI). The initial decades (1920-1940s) saw revolutionary generals, primarily from Sonora, serving as presidents, including Álvaro Obregón (1920-1924), Plutarco Elías Calles (1924-1928), and Lázaro Cárdenas (1934-1940). Their administrations focused on consolidating state power, implementing some revolutionary reforms, and managing relations with various social sectors and foreign powers.

Obregón initiated limited land reform and strengthened organized labor. He also secured U.S. recognition for his government. Calles, his successor, enforced anticlerical provisions of the 1917 Constitution more strictly, leading to the Cristero War (1926-1929), a violent conflict between the government and Catholic rebels. Although the constitution initially forbade presidential re-election, it was amended to allow Obregón to run again in 1928. He won but was assassinated by a Catholic militant before taking office, creating a political crisis.

Calles, unable to serve as president again, established the National Revolutionary Party (Partido Nacional Revolucionario_{National Revolutionary Party}^Spanish, PNR) in 1929. This party, later renamed the Party of the Mexican Revolution (Partido de la Revolución Mexicana_{Party of the Mexican Revolution}^Spanish, PRM) in 1938 and finally the PRI in 1946, aimed to institutionalize political succession and incorporate various interest groups (workers, peasants, the popular sector, and initially, the military) under a single umbrella. Calles remained the de facto power behind the presidency during the Maximato (1929-1934), a period of puppet presidents.

Lázaro Cárdenas's presidency (1934-1940) marked a significant shift. He asserted his independence by exiling Calles, accelerated land reform (distributing more land than all his predecessors combined), strengthened labor unions, and, most notably, nationalized the foreign-owned oil industry in 1938, creating the state-owned company Pemex. This act was immensely popular and became a symbol of Mexican economic sovereignty. Cárdenas's successor, Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940-1946), adopted more moderate policies and aligned Mexico with the Allies during World War II, even sending the Escuadrón 201 to fight in the Pacific.

From 1946, with the election of Miguel Alemán Valdés, the first civilian president of the post-revolutionary era, Mexico embarked on a period of rapid industrialization and economic growth known as the Mexican Miracle (roughly 1940s-1970s). This era saw significant urbanization, infrastructure development, and improvements in education and healthcare. However, this growth was often accompanied by increasing social inequality, corruption, and authoritarian tendencies within the PRI-dominated state. The Green Revolution, which significantly increased agricultural productivity, also began in Mexico during this period.

The PRI maintained its grip on power through a combination of co-optation, patronage, electoral manipulation, and, at times, repression. Dissent was often met with force. A key event exposing the regime's authoritarianism was the Tlatelolco massacre on October 2, 1968, just days before Mexico City hosted the 1968 Summer Olympics. Government forces opened fire on a student protest, killing hundreds. This event became a watershed moment, fueling further opposition and criticism of the PRI. The period from the late 1960s to the early 1980s also saw the "Dirty War" (Guerra Sucia_{Dirty War}^Spanish), a low-intensity conflict involving state repression of leftist student and guerrilla groups, resulting in forced disappearances and extrajudicial killings, further eroding faith in the democratic process and human rights protections.

Economic problems, including the 1982 debt crisis triggered by falling oil prices and rising interest rates, began to erode the PRI's legitimacy. The government's slow response to the devastating 1985 Mexico City earthquake further fueled public discontent. In the 1988 presidential election, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas (son of Lázaro Cárdenas), who had broken from the PRI to form a leftist coalition, mounted a strong challenge. The PRI's candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, was declared the winner amidst widespread allegations of electoral fraud, further damaging the party's credibility.

Salinas (1988-1994) implemented sweeping neoliberal economic reforms, including privatization of state-owned enterprises, deregulation, and trade liberalization. The cornerstone of his economic policy was the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with the United States and Canada, which came into effect on January 1, 1994. On the same day, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), an Indigenous rebel group in the southern state of Chiapas, launched an uprising, protesting against NAFTA's perceived negative impacts on Indigenous communities and demanding greater autonomy and social justice. While the armed conflict was brief, the Zapatistas gained international attention and continued as a significant social and political movement.

The year 1994 was tumultuous: besides the Zapatista uprising, the PRI's presidential candidate, Luis Donaldo Colosio, was assassinated, as was another high-ranking PRI official. Salinas's successor, Ernesto Zedillo (1994-2000), inherited the "December Mistake" (peso crisis) shortly after taking office, requiring a 50.00 B USD IMF bailout. Zedillo implemented further macroeconomic reforms and, crucially, oversaw significant electoral reforms that paved the way for a more competitive political system. These reforms, coupled with growing public demand for change, set the stage for the end of the PRI's long dominance.

3.8. Contemporary Mexico (2000-present)

The presidential election of 2000 marked a historic turning point for Mexico. Vicente Fox of the conservative National Action Party (PAN) won, ending 71 years of uninterrupted rule by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). This peaceful transition to a multi-party democracy was widely hailed as a significant step in Mexico's political development. Fox's presidency (2000-2006) focused on maintaining macroeconomic stability and attempting further reforms, but he often faced a divided Congress that limited his legislative agenda.

The 2006 presidential election was highly contentious. Felipe Calderón of the PAN was declared the winner by a very narrow margin (0.58%) over Andrés Manuel López Obrador (often known as AMLO) of the leftist Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). López Obrador alleged widespread fraud and organized massive protests, refusing to concede and even declaring himself the "legitimate president." Calderón's presidency (2006-2012) was largely defined by the escalation of the conflict with drug cartels. He deployed the military to combat organized crime, leading to a dramatic increase in violence and homicides across the country, raising significant human rights concerns.

In the 2012 presidential election, the PRI returned to power with the election of Enrique Peña Nieto. His administration (2012-2018) pushed through significant structural reforms in energy, education, telecommunications, and finance. The energy reform, in particular, ended Pemex's decades-long monopoly and opened the sector to private and foreign investment. However, Peña Nieto's term was also marred by corruption scandals, persistent violence, and human rights issues, such as the disappearance of 43 students in Iguala, which sparked national and international outrage and highlighted impunity and alleged state collusion with organized crime.

The 2018 presidential election saw a landslide victory for Andrés Manuel López Obrador, running under his newly formed MORENA party. Promising to combat corruption, reduce inequality, and pacify the country, AMLO's populist message resonated with voters disillusioned with the traditional parties. His coalition also won majorities in both houses of Congress. López Obrador's presidency (2018-2024) focused on social programs, austerity in government, and infrastructure projects like the Tren Maya. His approach to security continued to rely heavily on the military, formalizing its role in public security through the creation of the National Guard. His tenure also faced challenges including the COVID-19 pandemic, ongoing cartel violence, and economic pressures. The privatization of state-owned enterprises, a hallmark of previous neoliberal reforms, saw some reversal or slowdown, particularly concerning Pemex, though some exploration licenses continued to be issued. Efforts to combat corruption included the arrest of figures like Emilio Lozoya Austin, former CEO of Pemex, in 2020.

In the 2024 presidential election, Claudia Sheinbaum, López Obrador's chosen successor from MORENA, won a landslide victory, becoming Mexico's first female president. She took office on October 1, 2024, promising to continue many of AMLO's policies while addressing pressing issues such as security, water scarcity, and social equity. Contemporary Mexico continues to grapple with significant challenges, including high crime rates, the power of drug cartels, economic inequality, and ensuring the full protection of human rights, alongside navigating its complex relationship with the United States, particularly on issues of trade (under the USMCA, successor to NAFTA), immigration, and security cooperation.

4.1. Topography and geology

Mexico is located in the southern portion of North America, bordered by the United States to the north, Belize and Guatemala to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, the Gulf of Mexico to the east, and the Caribbean Sea to the southeast. The country covers a total area of 0.8 M mile^{2 (1.97 M km2)}. Most of Mexico lies on the North American Plate, with parts of the Baja California peninsula on the Pacific Plate and the Cocos Plate. Geophysically, some geographers include the territory east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (about 12% of the total) within Central America, but geopolitically, Mexico is considered part of North America.

The country's topography is dominated by mountain ranges. The Sierra Madre Occidental runs along the western side, and the Sierra Madre Oriental along the eastern side; these are extensions of the Rocky Mountains. The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Eje Neovolcánico_{Neo-Volcanic Axis}^Spanish), also known as the Sierra Nevada, stretches east-west across central Mexico and contains the country's highest peaks, many of which are active or dormant volcanoes. These include Pico de Orizaba (Citlaltépetl), the highest point at 19 K ft ^{(5.64 K m)}, Popocatépetl (18 K ft ^{(5.43 K m)}), Iztaccihuatl (17 K ft ^{(5.23 K m)}), and Nevado de Toluca (15 K ft ^{(4.68 K m)}). The Sierra Madre del Sur extends along the southern coast. Between these mountain ranges lies the vast Mexican Plateau (Altiplano Mexicano_{Mexican Plateau}^Spanish), which itself is divided into a lower, arid northern section and a higher, more temperate southern section (the Mesa Central), where most of Mexico's population and major cities are located.

Coastal plains are found along the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. The Yucatán Peninsula in the southeast is a large, low-lying limestone platform, known for its cenotes (natural sinkholes) and the Chicxulub crater, the impact site linked to the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event. Mexico is geologically active, situated in the Ring of Fire, leading to frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity. Major rivers include the Rio Grande (Río Bravo del Norte_{Brave River of the North}^Spanish), which forms a large part of the border with the United States, and the Usumacinta River, which forms part of the border with Guatemala. Lake Chapala is the largest freshwater lake in Mexico.

4.2. Climate

Mexico's climate is highly varied due to its large size, diverse topography, and the influence of the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. The Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into temperate zones to the north and tropical zones to the south.

Land north of the Tropic of Cancer generally experiences cooler temperatures during the winter months and has predominantly arid (desert climate, BWk/BWh) or semi-arid (steppe climate, BSk/BSh) conditions. The Sonoran Desert and Chihuahuan Desert are major features of this region, with some areas experiencing summer temperatures exceeding 104 °F ^{(40 °C)}.

South of the Tropic of Cancer, temperatures are generally constant year-round, varying primarily with elevation rather than season. Coastal plains and the Yucatán Peninsula have tropical climates, ranging from tropical savanna (Aw) with distinct wet and dry seasons to tropical monsoon (Am) and tropical rainforest (Af) in areas with higher rainfall, particularly in the south and southeast, where annual precipitation can exceed 0.1 K in ^{(2.00 K mm)}.

The mountainous regions and the high Mexican Plateau experience temperate climates due to their altitude. Mexico City, at an elevation of about 7.3 K ft ^{(2.24 K m)}, has a subtropical highland climate (Cwb) with mild temperatures year-round and a rainy season from May to October. Higher elevations in the mountain ranges can have alpine climates (ET) or even small glaciers on the highest volcanic peaks.

Mexico is affected by tropical cyclones (hurricanes) on both its Pacific and Atlantic/Caribbean coasts, typically between June and November. The northern part of the country can experience occasional cold fronts (nortes_{northers (cold fronts)}^Spanish) during winter, bringing cooler temperatures and sometimes precipitation.

4.3. Biodiversity and environment

Mexico is recognized as one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, ranking among the top five globally for natural biodiversity. It is home to an estimated 10-12% of the world's species, with over 200,000 different species identified within its borders. The country ranks first in the world for reptile diversity (with over 707 known species), second for mammals (over 438 species), fourth for amphibians (over 290 species), and fourth for flora (with over 26,000 different species). This extraordinary biodiversity is a result of its complex topography, varied climates, and its position as a transition zone between Nearctic and Neotropical biogeographic realms.

Major ecosystems in Mexico include vast deserts in the north (Sonoran and Chihuahuan), temperate and tropical rainforests (such as the Lacandon Jungle), cloud forests, mangrove swamps, alpine tundra, and extensive coral reef systems, notably the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef along the Yucatán Peninsula. Many species are endemic to Mexico, meaning they are found nowhere else in the world. These include iconic animals like the axolotl, the vaquita (a critically endangered porpoise), and numerous species of cacti and agaves.

To protect its natural heritage, Mexico has established a significant network of "Protected Natural Areas," covering approximately 66 K mile^{2 (170.00 K km2)}. These include 34 biosphere reserves, 67 national parks, 4 natural monuments, 26 areas for protected flora and fauna, 4 areas for natural resource protection (focused on soil and water conservation), and 17 wildlife sanctuaries.

Despite these efforts, Mexico faces significant environmental challenges. Deforestation has been a major issue, driven by agricultural expansion, logging, and urbanization. In 2002, Mexico had one of the highest rates of deforestation globally. While the rate has since slowed, forest degradation and loss continue to threaten biodiversity. Soil erosion is another pressing problem, particularly in rural areas. Other environmental concerns include water scarcity and pollution in many regions, overfishing, and the impacts of climate change. Environmental protection laws have improved, especially in urban areas, but enforcement remains a challenge, particularly in remote and rural regions.

Mexico is the center of origin and diversification for many important domesticated plants, including maize (corn), beans, squash, chili peppers, tomatoes, avocados, and vanilla. These crops, originally cultivated by Indigenous peoples, are now staples in global cuisine. Tequila and mezcal, distilled alcoholic beverages made from native agave plants, are major industries and cultural exports. The country's rich biodiversity has also made it a site for bioprospecting, such as the discovery of Dioscorea composita (Barbasco), a yam species rich in diosgenin, which was crucial in the development of synthetic hormones and the first oral contraceptive pills in the mid-20th century. These activities raise important questions about benefit-sharing and the rights of local communities over their genetic resources, aligning with broader concerns for social equity and sustainable development.

5.1. Government structure

The federal government of Mexico is structured into three branches:

1. Executive Branch: The President is the head of state and head of government, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Mexican Armed Forces. The president is elected by popular vote for a single six-year term (sexenio_{six-year term}^Spanish) and cannot be re-elected. The president appoints the Cabinet (Secretaries of State) and other high-ranking officials, is responsible for executing and enforcing laws, and has the power to veto legislation passed by the Congress. There is no vice president; in the event of the president's death or removal, the Congress designates an interim president.

2. Legislative Branch: The federal legislature is the bicameral Congress of the Union (Congreso de la Unión_{Congress of the Union}^Spanish), composed of:

• The Senate (Senado de la República_{Senate of the Republic}^Spanish): Comprises 128 senators. Ninety-six are elected from the 32 states (three per state: two by plurality for the winning party/coalition and one for the first minority party). The remaining 32 are elected by proportional representation from national party lists. Senators serve six-year terms.
• The Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados_{Chamber of Deputies}^Spanish): Consists of 500 deputies. Three hundred are elected by plurality vote in single-member districts (federal electoral districts), and 200 are elected by proportional representation from closed party lists within five multi-state electoral constituencies. Deputies serve three-year terms.

The Congress is responsible for making federal laws, declaring war, imposing taxes, approving the national budget and international treaties, and ratifying certain presidential appointments.

3. Judicial Branch: The highest judicial body is the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación_{Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation}^Spanish), which consists of eleven justices (ministers) appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate. The Supreme Court interprets laws and judges cases of federal competency. Other federal courts include the Federal Electoral Tribunal, collegiate circuit courts, unitary circuit courts, and district courts. The Council of the Federal Judiciary oversees the administration of the federal court system.

The 1917 Constitution also establishes three levels of government: federal, state, and municipal. This federal structure grants significant autonomy to the 32 federal entities (31 states and Mexico City), whose political systems are also influenced by a blend of Indigenous traditions and European Enlightenment ideals, particularly concerning individual rights and democratic governance.

5.2. Political parties

Mexico has a multi-party system, a significant evolution from the 71-year period of single-party dominance by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) which ended in 2000. The current political landscape features several major parties with varying ideologies and support bases:

• MORENA (Movimiento Regeneración Nacional_{National Regeneration Movement}^Spanish): Founded by current President Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO), MORENA is a left-wing party that emerged as a dominant force in the 2018 elections. It generally advocates for social justice, anti-corruption measures, and a stronger state role in the economy, often appealing to a broad base concerned with inequality and traditional political elites.
• PAN (Partido Acción Nacional_{National Action Party}^Spanish): A conservative, center-right party founded in 1939. The PAN traditionally supports free-market economic policies, fiscal conservatism, and often aligns with socially conservative values. It was the party that broke the PRI's long hold on the presidency in 2000 with Vicente Fox and held it again with Felipe Calderón. Its support base is often found in the urban middle class and northern states.
• PRI (Partido Revolucionario Institucional_{Institutional Revolutionary Party}^Spanish): For seven decades, the PRI was the hegemonic party in Mexico, originating from the factions of the Mexican Revolution. Historically a catch-all party with corporatist structures, its ideology has shifted over time, often described as centrist. While significantly weakened since 2000, it remains a relevant political force, particularly at state and local levels, and briefly regained the presidency with Enrique Peña Nieto (2012-2018).

Other notable parties include:

• PRD (Partido de la Revolución Democrática_{Party of the Democratic Revolution}^Spanish): A center-left to left-wing party founded in 1989, originally as a major opposition force to the PRI. Its influence has waned in recent years with the rise of MORENA, from which many of its former members, including AMLO, originated.
• MC (Movimiento Ciudadano_{Citizens' Movement}^Spanish): A social democratic party that has positioned itself as an alternative to the larger blocs, often appealing to younger and urban voters.
• PVEM (Partido Verde Ecologista de México_{Ecologist Green Party of Mexico}^Spanish): A party focused on environmental issues, though often criticized for opportunistically allying with larger parties.
• PT (Partido del Trabajo_{Labor Party}^Spanish): A left-wing party often in alliance with MORENA.

Mexico's electoral system and political finance laws have undergone significant reforms aimed at promoting fairer competition and transparency, contributing to a more dynamic, though sometimes fragmented, multi-party democracy. Coalitions between parties are common, especially in presidential and gubernatorial elections.

5.3. Administrative divisions

The United Mexican States is a federation composed of 32 federal entities: 31 free and sovereign states (estados libres y soberanos_{free and sovereign states}^Spanish) and Mexico City (Ciudad de México_{Mexico City}^Spanish, CDMX), which is the capital of the republic and a federal entity with a status comparable to that of the states.

Each of the 31 states has its own constitution, a unicameral state congress, and a judiciary. The citizens of each state elect a governor for a six-year term and representatives to their state congress for three-year terms. States have considerable autonomy in local affairs, including the power to levy certain taxes and manage local services, within the framework of the federal constitution.

Mexico City (CDMX) holds a unique status. Formerly known as the Federal District (Distrito Federal_{Federal District}^Spanish, D.F.), it was directly administered by the federal government. However, a significant political reform in 2016 granted Mexico City greater autonomy, transforming it into a federal entity with its own constitution, local congress, and a Head of Government (Jefe de Gobierno_{Head of Government}^Spanish) elected by popular vote, similar to state governors. It is the seat of the federal powers and the country's most populous city.

The states are further divided into municipalities (municipios_{municipalities}^Spanish), which are the smallest administrative and political entities in the country. Each municipality is governed by a municipal president (presidente municipal_{municipal president}^Spanish) and a municipal council, elected by its residents. There are over 2,400 municipalities in Mexico, varying greatly in size and population. Municipal governments are responsible for local public services such as water, sanitation, local roads, public safety, and markets. The autonomy and capacity of municipal governments can vary significantly depending on their resources and political context.

6.1. Relations with the United States

The relationship between Mexico and the United States is one of the most complex and consequential bilateral relationships in the world. It is characterized by deep historical ties, extensive economic interdependence, and shared challenges, as well as periods of tension and cooperation. The two countries share a 2.0 K mile ^{(3.14 K km)} border, one of the busiest in the world.

Historically, the relationship has been shaped by conflict, notably the Mexican-American War (1846-1848), which resulted in Mexico ceding nearly half its territory to the U.S. This legacy has, at times, fueled Mexican nationalism and a cautious approach to its powerful northern neighbor.

Economically, the U.S. is by far Mexico's largest trading partner. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), implemented in 1994, and its successor, the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), effective in 2020, have profoundly integrated the two economies, particularly in manufacturing (especially automotive), agriculture, and energy. This interdependence brings significant economic benefits but also makes Mexico vulnerable to U.S. economic fluctuations and policy changes.

Security cooperation is a major aspect of the relationship, focused on combating transnational organized crime, particularly drug trafficking. The U.S. has provided Mexico with assistance through initiatives like the Mérida Initiative to bolster its law enforcement and judicial capacities. However, issues such as arms trafficking from the U.S. into Mexico and differing approaches to drug policy remain points of contention. The human rights implications of the "war on drugs" in Mexico are also a concern for bilateral relations.

Immigration is another critical and often sensitive dimension. Millions of Mexicans live in the U.S., and remittances sent home are a vital part of Mexico's economy. The U.S. relies on Mexican labor in various sectors. However, undocumented immigration, border security, and the treatment of migrants are persistent sources of political debate and tension. U.S. immigration policies and border enforcement measures directly impact Mexican communities on both sides of the border.

Cultural exchange between the two countries is extensive, influencing music, food, language, and popular culture in both nations. Despite historical grievances and ongoing challenges, the U.S.-Mexico relationship is managed through numerous bilateral mechanisms and dialogues, reflecting a shared understanding of their intertwined destinies and the need for cooperation on a wide range of issues affecting the well-being and security of their populations. Perspectives from affected communities, particularly border communities and migrant groups, often highlight the human cost of unresolved issues and advocate for more equitable and humane policies.

6.2. Relations with other countries and regions

While the relationship with the United States is paramount, Mexico also maintains significant diplomatic, economic, and cultural ties with other countries and regions, reflecting its status as a regional power and an emerging global player.

Canada: As the third partner in the USMCA (formerly NAFTA), Canada is an important economic ally. Bilateral trade and investment have grown, and cooperation extends to areas like temporary worker programs and multilateral forums.

Latin America: Mexico sees itself as a leading nation in Latin America and the Caribbean. It is a founding member of the Organization of American States (OAS) and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC). Mexico has historically played a role in regional diplomacy, sometimes acting as a mediator or advocating for principles like non-intervention. It has strong cultural and economic ties with many Latin American nations, though relationships can vary. Mexico has championed regional integration efforts and has provided development assistance to some Central American and Caribbean countries.

European Union and Spain: The European Union (EU) is Mexico's third-largest trading partner and a significant source of foreign direct investment. Mexico and the EU have a comprehensive Free Trade Agreement that has deepened economic ties. Within the EU, Spain, as the former colonial power, holds a special place. The relationship is characterized by strong historical, cultural, linguistic, and economic links, with significant Spanish investment in Mexico and a robust flow of tourism and migration in both directions.

Asia-Pacific: Mexico has increasingly sought to diversify its foreign relations and has strengthened ties with key Asia-Pacific countries. It is a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum and was a signatory to the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP). Japan, China, and South Korea are important trading partners and sources of investment, particularly in the manufacturing sector. Cultural exchange with Asian nations has also grown.

Mexico actively participates in global governance forums such as the United Nations (where it has served multiple terms as a non-permanent member of the Security Council), the G20, and the OECD. Its foreign policy often emphasizes multilateralism, sustainable development, human rights, and disarmament. Areas of international cooperation include climate change, global health, and combating organized crime, though potential conflicts can arise over trade disputes, differing approaches to international crises, or human rights criticisms.

8.1. Major industries

Mexico's economy is diversified across several key sectors, with manufacturing playing a particularly prominent role, especially for export.

Manufacturing: This is a cornerstone of the Mexican economy, heavily integrated into North American supply chains.

• Automotive: Mexico is one of the world's largest auto producers and exporters, hosting assembly plants for many major global automakers (e.g., General Motors, Ford, Stellantis, Volkswagen, Nissan, Kia, Audi, BMW, Mercedes-Benz). The industry also includes a significant number of auto parts manufacturers. This sector is a major source of employment and foreign exchange but has faced scrutiny regarding labor conditions and wages, which, while rising, have historically been lower than in the U.S. or Canada.
• Electronics: Mexico has a large electronics industry, producing consumer electronics, telecommunications equipment, and components, much of which is exported to the United States. It is considered one of the top global players in this sector.
• Aerospace: This is a growing sector, with numerous international companies establishing manufacturing operations for aircraft components.
• Other manufacturing includes appliances, medical devices, and industrial machinery.

Oil and Gas: The petroleum industry, historically dominated by the state-owned company Pemex (Petróleos Mexicanos), has been a vital part of Mexico's economy for decades. Mexico is a significant global oil producer and exporter, although production has declined from its peak. Pemex is involved in exploration, extraction, refining, and distribution. Recent energy reforms (beginning around 2013-2014) aimed to open the sector to private and foreign investment to boost production and modernize infrastructure, though the current administration has shown a preference for strengthening Pemex's role. The environmental impact of oil and gas extraction and processing is an ongoing concern.

Agriculture: While its share of GDP has declined, agriculture remains important for employment, particularly in rural areas. Mexico is a major producer and exporter of various agricultural products, including avocados (world's largest producer), tomatoes, chili peppers, limes, mangoes, coffee, sugarcane, and corn (maize), which is a cultural and dietary staple. Challenges include water scarcity, land tenure issues, and competition from imports. Labor conditions for agricultural workers, particularly migrant laborers, are often precarious.

Mining: Mexico has a long history of mining and remains a leading global producer of silver. It also produces significant quantities of gold, copper, zinc, lead, and fluorite. The mining sector attracts foreign investment but also faces environmental and social scrutiny regarding land use, water consumption, pollution, and impacts on local communities.

Services Sector: This is the largest component of Mexico's GDP and includes a wide range of activities:

• Tourism: A major source of foreign exchange and employment (see separate section).
• Financial Services: Banking, insurance, and other financial activities are well-developed, particularly in major urban centers.
• Retail and Wholesale Trade: A large and dynamic sector catering to domestic consumption.
• Telecommunications: (see separate section).
• Transportation and Logistics: Essential for supporting manufacturing and trade.

Labor rights and environmental sustainability are increasingly important considerations across all industries. While labor laws exist, enforcement can be inconsistent, and challenges related to union freedom, fair wages, and safe working conditions persist, particularly in export-oriented manufacturing and agriculture. Environmental regulations are in place, but their effective implementation and the transition to more sustainable practices are ongoing processes.

8.2. Energy

Mexico's energy sector is predominantly managed by state-owned companies: Pemex (Petróleos Mexicanos) for oil and gas, and the Federal Commission of Electricity (CFE) for electricity generation, transmission, and distribution.

Oil and Gas: Pemex, one of the world's largest oil companies by revenue, has historically been the cornerstone of Mexico's energy production and a major source of government revenue. Mexico is a significant global oil producer, with major reserves in the Gulf of Mexico. However, production has declined from its peak in the early 2000s. The country has seven oil refineries on its territory and Pemex also co-owns the Deer Park refinery in the United States. Energy reforms initiated around 2013-2014 aimed to attract private and foreign investment to reverse production declines and modernize the sector, but the current administration has sought to reassert Pemex's dominance. Natural gas production is also significant, though Mexico is a net importer of natural gas.

Electricity: The CFE has traditionally held a monopoly over the electricity sector. Mexico's electricity generation mix includes thermal plants (natural gas, coal, oil), hydroelectricity, nuclear power, and increasingly, renewable energy.

• Hydroelectric Power: Mexico has around 60 hydroelectric plants, accounting for about 12% of its electricity. The largest is the 2.40 K MW Manuel Moreno Torres Dam on the Grijalva River in Chiapas, one of the world's most productive.
• Nuclear Power: Mexico operates one nuclear power plant, the Laguna Verde Nuclear Power Station in Veracruz, which has two reactors.
• Renewable Energy: Mexico has significant potential for renewable energy, particularly solar and wind.
  • Solar Power: The country has the world's third-largest solar power potential. As of 2018, the Villanueva Solar Park in Coahuila (828 MW) was the largest in the Americas, and the SEGH-CFE 1 project in Sonora (46.8 MW) also contributes significantly. Over 11 M ft^{2 (1.00 M m2)} of solar thermal panels are installed.
  • Wind Power: Numerous wind farms have been developed, especially in regions with strong wind resources like Oaxaca, home to the Eurus Wind Farm, one of the largest in Latin America.

  The energy sector is undergoing a period of transition, with debates over the role of state-owned enterprises versus private investment, the pace of transition to cleaner energy sources, and ensuring energy security and affordability. The government's policies aim to increase domestic refining capacity and strengthen Pemex and CFE, while also meeting renewable energy targets.

8.3. Tourism

Tourism is a vital industry for Mexico, contributing significantly to its economy, foreign exchange earnings, and employment. The country's rich cultural heritage, diverse natural landscapes, favorable climate, and extensive coastline make it a highly attractive destination for international and domestic travelers. As of 2017, Mexico was the 6th most-visited country globally and ranked 15th in tourism income worldwide, the highest in Latin America.

Major Tourist Attractions:

• Archaeological Sites: Mexico is home to impressive remnants of ancient civilizations. Iconic sites include Chichen Itza and Tulum (Maya) in the Yucatán Peninsula; Teotihuacan (with its Pyramids of the Sun and Moon) near Mexico City; Palenque (Maya) in Chiapas; and Monte Albán (Zapotec) in Oaxaca. These sites offer insights into the sophisticated cultures that flourished before European contact.
• Colonial Cities: Centuries of Spanish colonial rule left a legacy of beautiful historic cities with well-preserved architecture, churches, and plazas. Examples include Mexico City's historic center, Puebla, Guanajuato, San Miguel de Allende, Oaxaca, and Zacatecas. Many of these are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
• Beaches and Coastal Resorts: Mexico's extensive coastlines boast numerous world-renowned beach destinations.
  • Caribbean Coast: Cancún, Playa del Carmen, Cozumel, and the Riviera Maya in the state of Quintana Roo are famous for their white-sand beaches, turquoise waters, coral reefs (part of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef), and vibrant nightlife. These areas are particularly popular with international tourists, including university students during spring break. Ecological parks like Xcaret and Xel-Há are also major attractions.
  • Pacific Coast: Destinations include Acapulco, historically a glamorous resort; Puerto Vallarta; Mazatlán; and the Los Cabos corridor (Cabo San Lucas and San José del Cabo) at the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula, known for luxury resorts, sport fishing (especially marlin), and whale watching. San Felipe is a popular weekend destination closer to the U.S. border.

  Economic Significance: The tourism industry is a major driver of economic growth, job creation (directly and indirectly), and regional development. It attracts significant foreign investment in hotels, infrastructure, and services. The majority of international tourists come from the United States and Canada, followed by Europe and Asia, with a smaller number from other Latin American countries.
  
  Social and Environmental Impact: While tourism brings economic benefits, it also presents social and environmental challenges. Rapid development in some coastal areas has led to concerns about environmental degradation, strain on water resources, and impacts on local ecosystems like mangroves and coral reefs. There are ongoing efforts to promote sustainable tourism practices. Socially, the industry can create opportunities but also lead to issues like displacement of local communities, cultural commodification, and dependence on a volatile global market. Medical tourism has also become significant in Mexican cities along the U.S. border, with visitors seeking more affordable healthcare services such as medication, dentistry, and elective surgeries. This creates economic activity but also raises questions about equitable access to healthcare for local populations.

8.4. Transportation

Mexico has an extensive and developing transportation infrastructure designed to connect its vast territory and support its large economy, though challenges remain due to difficult topography and regional disparities.

Road Network: The roadway network is the primary mode of transportation for passengers and freight. It has an extent of approximately 227 K mile ^{(366.10 K km)}, of which about 73 K mile ^{(116.80 K km)} are paved. This includes federal highways, state roads, and rural roads. A significant portion, around 6.5 K mile ^{(10.47 K km)}, consists of multi-lane expressways (toll roads or autopistas, and some free autovías), with the majority being four-lane highways. Major highway projects continue to improve connectivity, such as the Durango-Mazatlán highway featuring the Baluarte Bridge.

Railways: Mexico was one of the first Latin American countries to promote railway development in the late 19th century. The current network covers approximately 19 K mile ^{(30.95 K km)}. Historically, passenger rail services declined significantly with the privatization of railways in the 1990s, which focused on freight. However, there has been a recent resurgence of interest in passenger rail.

• Tren Maya: A major ongoing intercity railway project aimed at connecting tourist destinations and communities in the Yucatán Peninsula, including cities like Cancún, Mérida, Chichen Itza, and Palenque.
• El Insurgente: An intercity train connecting Toluca with Mexico City, designed to alleviate road congestion.
• Tren Interoceánico: A project to restore and modernize the rail corridor across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, connecting Pacific and Atlantic ports to create a trade route.
• A high-speed rail link between Mexico City and Guadalajara has been proposed in the past, aiming to connect the country's two largest metropolitan areas.

Airports: Mexico has 233 airports with paved runways. Ten major airports handle about 72% of national cargo and 97% of international cargo.

• Mexico City International Airport (AICM) is the busiest airport in Latin America and a major international hub, transporting around 45 million passengers annually.
• To alleviate congestion at AICM, two additional airports serve the Mexico City metropolitan area: Toluca International Airport and the newer Felipe Ángeles International Airport (AIFA).
• Other major airports are located in Cancún, Guadalajara, Monterrey, and Tijuana.

Seaports: Mexico has numerous seaports on both the Pacific and Gulf/Caribbean coasts, crucial for international trade. Major ports include Manzanillo and Lázaro Cárdenas on the Pacific, and Veracruz, Altamira, and Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf of Mexico. These ports handle diverse cargo, including containerized goods, bulk commodities, and petroleum products. Many coastal cities are also important destinations for cruise ships.

Urban transportation in major cities like Mexico City, Guadalajara, and Monterrey includes extensive metro systems, bus rapid transit (BRT) lines (e.g., Metrobús in Mexico City), and traditional bus networks. Traffic congestion and air pollution remain significant challenges in these large urban centers.

8.5. Communications

Mexico's communications sector includes telecommunications (fixed-line, mobile, internet) and media broadcasting (television, radio). The industry has undergone significant changes due to technological advancements and regulatory reforms aimed at increasing competition and expanding access.

Telecommunications:
The telecommunications industry was historically dominated by Telmex (Teléfonos de México_{Telephones of Mexico}^Spanish), the former state-owned monopoly that was privatized in 1990. Telmex remains a major player in fixed-line telephone and internet services and has expanded its operations to other Latin American countries and the United States. Other significant providers in the Mexican market include Axtel, Maxcom, Alestra, Marcatel, and AT&T Mexico.

• Fixed-line Telephony: Penetration of fixed-line telephones per capita is relatively low compared to some other Latin American countries, partly due to Mexico's challenging orography making service provision expensive in remote mountainous areas. As of 2023, around 51.8% of Mexican households had a fixed-line phone.
• Mobile Telephony: Mobile phone usage is widespread. In 2023, 81.4% of Mexicans over the age of six owned a mobile phone. The total number of mobile lines (approximately 97.2 million) is almost double that of landlines, as mobile networks can reach all areas at a lower cost.
• Internet: Internet penetration has been growing steadily. In 2023, 81.2% of Mexican households had an internet connection. Fiber-optic and coaxial cable networks are expanding, particularly in urban areas.

The telecommunications industry is regulated by the Federal Telecommunications Institute (Instituto Federal de Telecomunicaciones_{Federal Telecommunications Institute}^Spanish, IFT), an autonomous body created by constitutional reforms in 2013 to promote competition and regulate the sector.

Satellite Communications: Mexico has a domestic satellite system with around 120 earth stations. Mexican satellites are operated by Satélites Mexicanos_{Mexican Satellites}^Spanish (Satmex), a private company that is a leader in Latin America, providing services to both North and South America. Satmex offers broadcast, telephone, and telecommunication services to 37 countries in the Americas, providing high-speed connectivity to ISPs and Digital Broadcast Services.

Media Broadcasting:

• Television: Televisa has historically been the dominant media company in the Spanish-speaking world, with a significant presence in broadcast television, cable, and content production. TV Azteca is another major commercial broadcaster. Imagen Televisión is a newer national network. The 2013 telecommunications reform aimed to increase competition by licensing new national digital television channels. Mexico was the first Latin American country to complete the transition from analog to all-digital television broadcasting.
• Radio: Radio remains an important medium, with numerous national and local stations.
• Telenovelas: Mexican telenovelas (soap operas) are highly popular domestically and are exported and translated worldwide. Mexico was a pioneer in "edutainment," using telenovelas for social messaging, such as promoting family planning in the 1970s.
• Indigenous Media: Bilingual government radio stations broadcasting in Spanish and Indigenous languages have existed since the late 1950s for educational purposes. Since 1979, the National Indigenous Institute (now INPI) has supported a network of bilingual radio stations.

8.6. Science and technology

Mexico has a developing scientific and technological sector, with several key institutions and notable achievements. Government policies have aimed to foster innovation and increase investment in research and development (R&D), though challenges remain in translating research into widespread economic and social benefits.

Major Institutions:

• The National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), officially established in 1910 (though tracing its origins to the 16th century Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico), is the country's largest and most prestigious public university. It is a major center for research and education in science, medicine, engineering, and humanities. Many specialized research institutes operate within UNAM.
• The National Polytechnic Institute (Instituto Politécnico Nacional_{National Polytechnic Institute}^Spanish, IPN), founded in 1936, is another leading public institution focusing on engineering, technology, and applied sciences.
• The Mexican Academy of Sciences (Academia Mexicana de Ciencias_{Mexican Academy of Sciences}^Spanish), created in 1959, serves to coordinate scientific efforts among academics and promote scientific excellence.
• CONACYT (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología_{National Council for Science and Technology}^Spanish), the National Council for Science and Technology, is the primary government agency responsible for formulating and funding science and technology policies, supporting research projects, and providing scholarships for postgraduate studies.

R&D Investment and Achievements:
Investment in R&D as a percentage of GDP has historically been lower than in many OECD countries, but there are ongoing efforts to increase it. Mexico has made contributions in various scientific fields:

• Astronomy: The Large Millimeter Telescope (LMT or Gran Telescopio Milimétrico, GMT), located on the Sierra Negra volcano in Puebla, is the world's largest and most sensitive single-aperture telescope designed for observations in its frequency range (0.85 to 4 mm wavelengths). It is a binational project between Mexico (through INAOE and UNAM) and the United States (University of Massachusetts Amherst). It is designed to observe regions of space obscured by stellar dust, studying planet formation, distant galaxies, and early universe cosmology.
• Chemistry: Mario J. Molina, an alumnus of UNAM, shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 with Paul J. Crutzen and F. Sherwood Rowland for their work on atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone, which led to the understanding of the Antarctic ozone hole. He was the first Mexican citizen to win a Nobel Prize in science.
• Biotechnology and Medicine: Research in these fields is ongoing, with notable past contributions such as the work on diosgenin from the Barbasco yam, which was crucial for the development of synthetic hormones.
• Engineering and Manufacturing: The strong manufacturing sector, particularly in automotive and aerospace, drives applied research and technological development.

Innovation Policies and Social Applications:
Government policies aim to promote innovation through various programs, including support for technology parks, incubators, and collaboration between universities and industry. There is a growing emphasis on the social applications of science and technology, addressing national challenges in areas like health, agriculture, energy, and environmental sustainability. Ethical considerations, particularly in fields like biotechnology and artificial intelligence, are also part of the evolving discussion. Mexico was ranked 56th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

9.1. Population trends

According to Mexico's National Statistics and Geography Institute (INEGI), the country's population was estimated at 129,150,971 in 2022. Throughout the 19th century, Mexico's population had barely doubled. In 1900, the population was a little over 13 million. The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) significantly impacted population growth, with the 1921 census reporting a loss of about 1 million inhabitants.

The population growth rate increased dramatically between the 1930s and the 1980s, with the country registering growth rates of over 3% annually during the period 1950-1980. The population doubled in twenty years; for instance, it grew from approximately 70 million in 1982 to over 123.5 million by 2017. This rapid growth was driven by high fertility rates and declining mortality rates due to improvements in public health and sanitation.

In recent decades, the growth rate has slowed considerably as fertility rates have fallen. Life expectancy has also seen a dramatic increase, from around 36 years in 1895 to approximately 75 years in 2020. Mexico is now experiencing a demographic transition, with an aging population, though it still has a relatively young age structure compared to many developed countries. Population density varies significantly by region, with the highest concentrations in the central states and major metropolitan areas. Urbanization has been a major trend, with a large majority of the population now living in urban areas.

9.2. Ethnicity and race

Mexico is a country of significant ethnic and racial diversity, a product of its Indigenous origins, Spanish colonization, and subsequent immigration. However, the official and societal understanding of ethnicity and race has been complex and influenced by nationalist discourses.

For much of the 20th century, particularly after the Mexican Revolution, the Mexican government promoted the concept of mestizaje - the idea of a unified national identity based on the blending of Indigenous and European (primarily Spanish) ancestries. This ideology often downplayed or sought to assimilate distinct Indigenous identities and other ethnic groups into a single "Mestizo" nation. As a result, official censuses for a long time did not collect comprehensive data on race beyond identifying speakers of Indigenous languages or those living in Indigenous communities.

• Mestizos: People of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry are considered the largest group, though precise figures are difficult due to the subjective nature of the category and historical undercounting of other groups. Estimates often place them at around 60-70% of the population.
• Indigenous Peoples: Mexico officially recognizes 68 distinct Indigenous linguistic groups. In the 2020 census, 6.1% of the population aged 3 and older reported speaking an Indigenous language, and 19.4% of the population self-identified as Indigenous. Major Indigenous groups include the Nahua, Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Otomi, and Purépecha. Despite legal recognition and efforts to promote their rights (e.g., the 1996 San Andrés Accords following the Zapatista uprising), Indigenous communities often face significant social and economic marginalization, discrimination, and challenges in accessing education, healthcare, and justice in their own languages.
• Europeans (White Mexicans): People of predominantly European descent, primarily Spanish, constitute a significant minority, estimated between 9% and 17% in various surveys, sometimes based on self-identification of skin color. Other European ancestries include Italian, French, German, and Irish, among others, from various waves of immigration.
• Afro-Mexicans: People of African descent have a long history in Mexico, dating back to the colonial era when enslaved Africans were brought to the country. Their presence and contributions were historically overlooked or subsumed under the Mestizo category. Recent constitutional recognition (2019) and census efforts aim to provide greater visibility. The 2020 census reported that 2% of the population identified as Afro-Mexican or of African descent. Many Afro-descendants may also identify as moreno (brown), a term often associated with the broader Mestizo identity.
• Other Groups: Smaller communities of Asian Mexicans (including Chinese, Korean, and Filipino diasporas) and Arab Mexicans (primarily Lebanese and Syrian) also exist, each contributing to Mexico's cultural fabric. The 2020 census indicated that Asians and Middle Easterners each represented around 1% of the population.

Social stratification and racism persist, often linked to skin color and socio-economic status, with lighter skin tones sometimes being favored. There is ongoing debate and activism regarding the recognition of Mexico's pluricultural nature and the need to combat discrimination and ensure equitable opportunities for all ethnic and racial groups.

9.3. Languages

Spanish is the de facto national language of Mexico, spoken by the vast majority of the population. This makes Mexico the world's most populous Hispanophone country. The variety of Spanish spoken in Mexico has distinct regional variations in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar but is generally mutually intelligible with other Spanish dialects.

The Mexican federal government officially recognizes 68 distinct Indigenous linguistic groups and 364 specific varieties of these Indigenous languages. The Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas (Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas_{General Law of Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples}^Spanish), enacted in 2003, grants these languages the status of "national languages" with validity equal to Spanish in the territories where they are spoken. The National Indigenous Languages Institute (INALI) is responsible for promoting and protecting these languages.

According to the 2020 census, approximately 8.3 million citizens speak an Indigenous language.

• The most widely spoken Indigenous language is Nahuatl (the language of the Aztecs), with over 1.7 million speakers.
• Yucatec Maya is spoken by nearly 850,000 people, primarily in the Yucatán Peninsula.
• Other significant Mayan languages, Tzeltal and Tzotzil, are each spoken by around half a million people, mainly in the state of Chiapas.
• Mixtec and Zapotec languages, primarily spoken in Oaxaca, each have around 500,000 native speakers.

Despite legal recognition, speakers of Indigenous languages often face discrimination and lack full access to public services, education, and the justice system in their native tongues, as Spanish remains the predominant language in most official and public spheres. There are ongoing efforts to promote bilingual education and revitalize endangered Indigenous languages.

Other minority languages spoken in Mexico due to historical immigration include:

• Plautdietsch (a variety of Low German), spoken by the Mennonite community of around 80,000, primarily in northern states like Chihuahua and Durango. The Mexican government has historically allowed Mennonite communities to maintain their own educational systems.
• Chipilo Venetian, a dialect of the Venetian language, spoken by about 2,500 people in the town of Chipilo, Puebla, descendants of 19th-century Venetian immigrants.

English is the most commonly taught foreign language in Mexico, with an estimated 24 million people studying it. However, high-level proficiency is limited to a smaller percentage of the population (around 5%). French is the second most taught foreign language.

9.4. Religion

While the Mexican Constitution establishes a separation of church and state and guarantees freedom of religion, Roman Catholicism has historically been and remains the dominant faith in the country, a legacy of Spanish colonization.

According to the 2020 census conducted by INEGI (National Institute of Statistics and Geography):

• Roman Catholics constituted 77.8% of the population (approximately 97.8 million people). This makes Mexico the country with the second-largest Catholic population in the world, after Brazil. However, regular church attendance is lower; surveys indicate about 47% of Catholics attend services weekly.
• Protestant/Evangelical Christians accounted for 11.2% of the population (approximately 14.1 million). This diverse group includes:
  • Other Christians (6.78 million)
  • Evangelicals (2.38 million)
  • Pentecostals (1.18 million)
  • Jehovah's Witnesses (1.53 million)
  • Seventh-day Adventists (791,000)
  • Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (338,000)
• No religion (including atheists and agnostics) was declared by 8.1% of the population (approximately 9.5 million).
• Unaffiliated but Believers (those who profess a belief but are not part of an organized religion) accounted for 2.5% (3.1 million).
• Other Religions were reported by 0.2% of the population. This category includes Judaism (around 58,800 people, with a history dating back to the 16th century and a modern community formed in the late 19th/early 20th centuries by immigrants from Europe and the Ottoman Empire), Islam (around 7,900 members, largely among Arab Mexicans), Buddhism, and various spiritualist beliefs (around 36,700).
• Approximately 0.4% of respondents did not specify a religion or gave no answer.

The religious landscape is dynamic, with a notable growth in Protestant and Evangelical denominations and an increase in the non-religious population in recent decades, while the percentage of Catholics has gradually declined from over 90% in the mid-20th century.

Religious syncretism is also a feature in Mexico, particularly the blending of Indigenous spiritual beliefs and practices with Catholicism. This is evident in many local festivals and customs. The veneration of Our Lady of Guadalupe, the patron saint of Mexico, is a powerful symbol of Mexican Catholicism and national identity, with her feast day on December 12 being a major cultural and religious event. Popular religious expressions also include the cult of Santa Muerte (Holy Death), which has grown in recent years, and unique interpretations of Catholic traditions like the Día de Muertos_{Day of the Dead}^Spanish and Passion of Christ reenactments.

9.5. Emigration and immigration

Mexico has significant international migration patterns, characterized primarily by large-scale emigration to the United States and, to a lesser extent, immigration from various countries.

Emigration:
An estimated 11.7 million Mexican-born people lived outside Mexico as of 2019. When including foreign-born individuals of Mexican parentage and further descendants, the Mexican diaspora is considerably larger. The vast majority (98-99%) of Mexican emigrants reside in the United States. Between 1965 and 2015, over 16 million Mexicans migrated to the U.S., representing one of the largest mass migrations in modern history. This has resulted in a substantial Mexican American population in the U.S., with an estimated 37.2 million U.S. residents (11.2% of the U.S. population) identifying as being of full or partial Mexican ancestry as of 2017. The largest Mexican communities in the U.S. are found in metropolitan areas such as Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex. Remittances sent by Mexicans working abroad, predominantly in the U.S., constitute a major source of foreign income for Mexico, often exceeding revenue from tourism or even oil exports.

Among the small percentage of Mexican expatriates not residing in the U.S., popular destinations include Canada (approximately 86,780, mainly in Ontario and Quebec), Spain, and Germany (these two accounting for two-thirds of Mexicans in Europe). Around 69,000 Mexicans live in other Latin American countries, with the largest communities in Guatemala, Bolivia, Chile, and Panama.

Immigration:
Historically, Mexico has not been a major destination for mass immigration compared to other countries in the Western Hemisphere. As of 2020, an estimated 1.2 million foreign-born individuals resided in Mexico, an increase from nearly 1 million in 2010. In 2021, Mexico officially received 68,000 new immigrants, though the overall number of migrants, including those with irregular status or in transit, may be higher.

The largest group of immigrants in Mexico comes from the United States; an estimated 900,000 U.S. citizens live in Mexico, making it the top destination for Americans living abroad. Many are retirees, expatriates working in Mexico, or individuals with family ties. The second-largest immigrant group is from neighboring Guatemala (around 54,500), followed by Spain (around 27,600). Other significant sources of immigration include fellow Latin American countries such as Colombia, Argentina, and Cuba.

Certain immigrant communities have had a notable cultural impact despite their smaller numbers. For example, descendants of the Lebanese diaspora (who arrived mainly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries) have made significant contributions, particularly to Mexican cuisine (e.g., tacos árabes_{Arab tacos}^Spanish). German-speaking Mennonites, who began settling in northern Mexico in the 1920s, maintain distinct agricultural communities and have influenced regional traditional music and food products (like cheese).

In recent years, Mexico has also become a major transit country for migrants from Central America, South America, the Caribbean, and other parts of the world seeking to reach the United States. This has created complex humanitarian and policy challenges for Mexico, including providing assistance to migrants and asylum seekers while also managing border security in cooperation with the U.S.

9.6. Urban areas

Mexico has experienced significant urbanization over the past century, with a large majority of its population now residing in cities and metropolitan areas. In 2020, it was estimated that close to 53% of the country's population lived in one of its 48 officially defined metropolitan areas, and about 76.81% of the total population lived in urban areas.

The largest metropolitan areas in Mexico are:
1. Greater Mexico City (Zona Metropolitana del Valle de México_{Metropolitan Area of the Valley of Mexico}^Spanish): This is one of the largest urban agglomerations in the world. In 2020, it had a population of approximately 21.8 million people, accounting for about 18% of the nation's total population. It is the political, economic, cultural, and educational heart of the country.
2. Greater Monterrey (Zona Metropolitana de Monterrey_{Monterrey Metropolitan Area}^Spanish): Located in the northeastern state of Nuevo León, Monterrey is a major industrial, commercial, and educational center with a metropolitan population of around 5.3 million in 2020.
3. Greater Guadalajara (Zona Metropolitana de Guadalajara_{Guadalajara Metropolitan Area}^Spanish): The capital of Jalisco state in western Mexico, Guadalajara is a significant cultural, technological, and economic hub, with a metropolitan population of about 5.2 million in 2020.
4. Greater Puebla (Zona Metropolitana de Puebla-Tlaxcala_{Puebla-Tlaxcala Metropolitan Area}^Spanish): Centered around the historic city of Puebla, this metropolitan area in central Mexico had a population of roughly 3.2 million in 2020 and is an important industrial and colonial heritage site.
5. Greater Toluca (Zona Metropolitana de Toluca_{Toluca Metropolitan Area}^Spanish): Located near Mexico City in the State of Mexico, Toluca's metropolitan area had a population of about 2.3 million in 2020 and serves as an industrial and commercial zone.

Other significant urban areas include Tijuana and Mexicali (important border cities in Baja California), Ciudad Juárez (a major border city in Chihuahua), León (an industrial city in Guanajuato), Querétaro (a rapidly growing industrial and colonial city), and Mérida (the largest city in the Yucatán Peninsula).

Urbanization has brought economic opportunities and access to services for many, but it has also led to challenges such as traffic congestion, air pollution, housing shortages, strain on public services (water, sanitation, transportation), and social inequalities within urban areas. Managing sustainable urban development and improving the quality of life in its major cities are key priorities for Mexico.

10.1. Education

Mexico has made significant strides in expanding access to education, though challenges related to quality, equity, and regional disparities persist. The Mexican education system is structured into preschool, primary, lower secondary (secundaria), upper secondary (preparatoria or bachillerato), and higher education.

Literacy and Compulsory Education: As of 2020, the literacy rate in Mexico was 95.25%, a notable increase from 82.99% in 1980. Male and female literacy rates are relatively equal. Education is compulsory from age 3 (preschool) through age 18 (completion of upper secondary education). This expanded compulsory education, implemented through reforms, aims to improve overall educational attainment and opportunities. However, dropout rates can be high, especially in poorer regions and at the upper secondary level, often due to economic pressures forcing young people to work.

Structure and Access:

• Basic Education: Includes preschool, primary (grades 1-6), and lower secondary (grades 7-9). The government provides free textbooks for public basic education.
• Upper Secondary Education: Typically three years, offering various tracks including general academic, technical, and vocational.
• Higher Education: Includes universities, technological institutes, and teacher training colleges. The National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), founded in 1551 (as the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico) and officially established in its modern form in 1910, is the largest and often considered the most prestigious public university in the country and Latin America. Other prominent public universities include the National Polytechnic Institute (IPN), the Metropolitan Autonomous University (UAM), the University of Guadalajara, and the Autonomous University of Nuevo León. El Colegio de México is a renowned public institution for social sciences and humanities.

Private higher education institutions also play a significant role, with well-regarded universities such as the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education (ITESM), Universidad Iberoamericana, Universidad Panamericana, Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México (ITAM), and Universidad Anáhuac.

Challenges and Reforms:
Despite progress, the education system faces challenges:

• Quality: Ensuring high-quality education across all levels and regions is a persistent concern. Teacher training, curriculum relevance, and assessment methods are areas of ongoing reform.
• Equity: Significant disparities exist in educational access and outcomes between urban and rural areas, wealthy and poor families, and Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations. Indigenous students often face disadvantages due to language barriers and lack of culturally relevant education.
• Funding: While the government allocates a substantial portion of its budget to education, resources may not always be sufficient or efficiently utilized to address all needs.
• Infrastructure: Many schools, particularly in marginalized areas, lack adequate facilities and resources.

Successive governments have implemented educational reforms aimed at improving teacher quality (e.g., through evaluation systems), modernizing curricula, decentralizing administration, and increasing parental involvement. Promoting education is seen as crucial for social mobility, economic development, and strengthening democratic values.

10.2. Health

Mexico's healthcare system is a mix of public and private institutions, providing services to different segments of the population. The country has made significant progress in improving key health indicators over the past decades, but challenges related to access, quality, and equity remain.

Healthcare System Structure:

• Public Sector: This is the largest component and is divided into several institutions:
  • IMSS (Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social_{Mexican Social Security Institute}^Spanish): Provides health coverage, pensions, and social benefits to workers in the formal private sector and their families. It is funded by contributions from employees, employers, and the government.
  • ISSSTE (Instituto de Seguridad y Servicios Sociales de los Trabajadores del Estado_{Institute for Social Security and Services for State Workers}^Spanish): Provides similar coverage for federal government employees and their families.
  • Secretariat of Health (Secretaría de Salud_{Secretariat of Health}^Spanish, SSA) and State Health Services: Offer services to the uninsured population, often through a network of public hospitals and clinics. Programs like Seguro Popular (Popular Health Insurance), established in the early 2000s and later replaced by INSABI (Institute of Health for Well-being) under the López Obrador administration, aimed to provide universal health coverage to those not covered by IMSS or ISSSTE. The current approach continues to evolve with the goal of universal access.
  • Pemex, SEDENA (military), and SEMAR (navy) also have their own healthcare services for their employees and families.
• Private Sector: Plays a significant role, accounting for about 13% of all medical units. It offers services to those who can afford them or have private health insurance. Many Mexicans, including those with public insurance, may use private services for certain types of care due to perceived better quality or shorter waiting times. Medical tourism from the U.S. is also a feature of the private sector.

Health Indicators and Issues:
Mexico has seen improvements in life expectancy (around 75 years) and reductions in infant mortality. The country is in an epidemiological transition, with chronic non-communicable diseases (e.g., diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cancer) now being the leading causes of death, alongside persistent infectious diseases in some regions. Obesity and diabetes are major public health crises.
Prevalent health issues include:

• High rates of obesity and diabetes.
• Cardiovascular diseases.
• Cancers.
• Violence-related injuries and deaths.
• Infectious diseases, particularly in underserved areas.

Access and Equity:
Despite efforts towards universal coverage, access to quality healthcare remains unequal. Disparities exist between:

• Urban and rural areas: Rural communities often lack adequate medical facilities, specialized personnel, and advanced equipment, forcing residents to travel to urban centers.
• Rich and poor: Wealthier individuals often have better access to private care or can supplement public services.
• Different states: Health infrastructure and service quality can vary significantly across regions.
• Insured vs. Uninsured (or underinsured) populations.

Medical training is primarily conducted in public universities, with many specializations undertaken in vocational or internship settings. Some Mexican universities have agreements to train U.S. medical students. Healthcare costs in private institutions and prescription drug prices in Mexico are generally lower than in the United States. Government health policies continue to focus on expanding coverage, improving the quality and efficiency of public services, and addressing major public health challenges, with an emphasis on achieving greater social equity in health outcomes.

10.3. Public order and human rights

Mexico faces significant challenges in public order and the protection of human rights. High rates of crime, particularly drug cartel-related violence, organized crime, corruption, and impunity, pose serious threats to citizen security and the rule of law. The government has undertaken various efforts in law enforcement and judicial reform, but deeply entrenched problems persist, drawing criticism from national and international human rights organizations.

Major Crime Problems:

• Drug Cartel Violence: The ongoing conflict between powerful drug trafficking organizations and government forces (often referred to as the Mexican Drug War, which escalated significantly since 2006) has resulted in extremely high levels of violence, including homicides, kidnappings, and extortion. Cartels often battle each other for territory and influence, further destabilizing regions.
• Organized Crime: Beyond drug trafficking, organized crime groups are involved in a range of illicit activities, including human trafficking, arms smuggling, fuel theft, and illegal mining.
• Corruption: Corruption within law enforcement agencies, the judiciary, and other government institutions is a pervasive problem that undermines efforts to combat crime and ensure justice. It often leads to impunity for perpetrators.
• Common Crime: Robbery, theft, and assault are also prevalent, impacting daily life for many citizens.

Law Enforcement and Judicial System:
The Mexican Federal Police was officially dissolved in 2019 and its functions largely absorbed into the newly created National Guard, a gendarmerie-style force intended to be under civilian command but increasingly operating under military control. State and municipal police forces also exist, but often suffer from lack of training, resources, and corruption. Public confidence in the police and the judicial system is generally low, leading to underreporting of crimes. Judicial reforms have aimed to transition from an inquisitorial to an adversarial system of justice to improve transparency and efficiency, but implementation has been slow and uneven.

Critical Human Rights Issues:

• Enforced disappearances: Tens of thousands of people have been officially registered as missing, many since the escalation of the drug war in 2007. The mass disappearance of 43 students from Ayotzinapa in 2014 became a symbol of this crisis and the problem of impunity.
• Extrajudicial Killings and Torture: Security forces have been implicated in numerous cases of extrajudicial killings, torture, and arbitrary detentions, particularly in the context of anti-crime operations.
• Violence Against Journalists and Human Rights Defenders: Mexico is one of the most dangerous countries in the world for journalists. Attacks, threats, and killings of media workers and human rights defenders are frequent, and most of these crimes remain unsolved.
• Femicide and Gender-Based Violence: Violence against women, including femicide, is a severe problem, prompting widespread protests and demands for government action.
• Impunity: A very high percentage of crimes, including serious human rights violations, go unpunished, fostering a climate of impunity that perpetuates violence and erodes public trust.
• Migrant Rights: Migrants transiting through Mexico, particularly from Central America, are highly vulnerable to abuses by criminal organizations and sometimes by corrupt officials.

Efforts for Reform and Accountability:
The Mexican government has created institutions like the National Human Rights Commission (Comisión Nacional de los Derechos Humanos_{National Human Rights Commission}^Spanish, CNDH) to investigate abuses. However, the CNDH's impact has often been limited, with its recommendations frequently ignored by authorities. Civil society organizations play a crucial role in documenting abuses, advocating for victims, and pushing for reforms and accountability. International bodies have also called on Mexico to strengthen its efforts to protect human rights and combat impunity. Legal reforms regarding same-sex marriage (fully recognized nationwide by 2022) and anti-discrimination laws concerning sexual orientation (since 2003) represent progress in some areas of human rights, though challenges like hate crimes against the LGBT community persist.

10.4. Social stratification and inequality

Despite Mexico's status as an upper-middle-income country and its significant economic development, profound social stratification and inequality remain defining features of its society. Disparities in wealth, income, opportunities, and access to basic services are stark and are often intertwined with factors such as class, ethnicity, region, and gender.

Wealth and Income Inequality: Mexico has one of the highest levels of income inequality among OECD countries, although there have been some recent trends towards a slight reduction. A small percentage of the population controls a disproportionately large share of the nation's wealth. The bottom 10% of the income hierarchy disposes of a very small fraction of the country's resources (around 1.36%), whereas the top 10% controls a substantial portion (almost 36%). This concentration of wealth limits opportunities for social mobility for many.

Regional Disparities: There are significant economic and social differences between Mexico's regions. The northern states, often more industrialized and integrated with the U.S. economy, tend to have higher average incomes and better development indicators than many southern states, which often have larger Indigenous populations and historically have faced greater neglect and poverty. Urban areas generally offer more opportunities and better access to services than rural areas. For instance, a 2008 UN report highlighted that average income in typical urbanized areas was significantly higher ($26,654) than in nearby rural areas ($8,403).

Ethnicity and Inequality: Indigenous peoples and Afro-Mexicans historically and currently face higher rates of poverty, discrimination, and limited access to quality education, healthcare, and economic opportunities. While legal frameworks exist to protect their rights, systemic disadvantages persist. Lighter skin color and European features have sometimes been associated with higher socio-economic status, reflecting colonial legacies of racial hierarchy.

Access to Opportunities: Inequality extends to access to quality education, healthcare, and formal employment. While progress has been made in expanding coverage, the quality of public services can vary greatly, and those with greater resources often opt for private alternatives. The large informal labor sector, which employs a significant portion of the workforce, typically lacks social security benefits and job stability, contributing to economic vulnerability.

Poverty: A substantial percentage of the Mexican population lives in poverty. According to CONEVAL (Mexico's National Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy), while overall poverty rates decreased between 2018 and 2022 (from 41.9% to 36.3%), extreme poverty saw a slight increase (remaining around 7.1%), and the number of people lacking access to healthcare services significantly rose. These figures highlight the ongoing struggle to achieve broad-based well-being.

Social Movements and Policies: Various social movements have emerged throughout Mexican history to address inequality and advocate for social justice, from peasant uprisings demanding land reform during the Mexican Revolution to contemporary movements focused on Indigenous rights, labor rights, gender equality, and environmental justice. Government policies aimed at reducing inequality have included conditional cash transfer programs (like Oportunidades/Prospera, though their form has changed under different administrations), efforts to increase minimum wages, and investments in social infrastructure. However, the scale and effectiveness of these policies in tackling deep-rooted structural inequalities remain subjects of ongoing debate and demand sustained commitment to pro-equity reforms.

11.1. Art

Mexican art boasts a long and distinguished tradition, from ancient cave paintings dating back approximately 7,500 years in Baja California to contemporary expressions. Pre-Columbian art, evident in majestic pyramids, intricate pottery, codices, and vibrant murals like those at Bonampak, Teotihuacan, Cacaxtla, and Monte Albán, showcased sophisticated aesthetics and complex worldviews.

During the early colonial era (16th century), art was predominantly religious, with newly constructed churches and monasteries adorned with murals depicting Christian themes, often created by Indigenous artists under Spanish guidance, leading to unique syncretic styles. Examples can be found in Acolman, Actopan, and Huejotzingo. Through the 17th century, religious art continued to flourish. By the late 17th and prominently in the 18th century, secular art, including portraits and casta paintings (depicting racial mixing), gained prominence. Notable painters from the late colonial period include Juan Correa, Cristóbal de Villalpando, and Miguel Cabrera.

In the 19th century, following independence, Mexican art was influenced by Romanticism, with landscapes and portraits being significant genres. Hermenegildo Bustos is highly regarded for his realistic portraits, while José María Velasco Gómez became famous for his majestic landscapes of the Valley of Mexico. Political cartoonist José Guadalupe Posada, active in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, created iconic calavera (skeleton) imagery that remains influential.

The 20th century witnessed the rise of Mexican muralism, a movement sponsored by the post-revolutionary government to create public art that educated the populace about Mexican history and revolutionary ideals. The "Big Three" muralists - Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Clemente Orozco - achieved international fame for their large-scale, politically charged murals on public buildings, often celebrating Indigenous heritage and critiquing oppression. Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera's wife, created intensely personal and symbolic self-portraits that explored themes of identity, the body, and Mexican culture, gaining worldwide recognition and becoming one of the most celebrated female artists in history. Rufino Tamayo was another influential modernist painter who blended Mexican themes with international styles.

In the 21st century, Mexico City has become a major center for contemporary art, with numerous museums and galleries. The Museo Jumex, founded by collector Eugenio López Alonso, and the Museo Tamayo Arte Contemporáneo are leading institutions. International art galleries like Kurimanzutto and FF Projects have a strong presence, and contemporary Mexican artists such as Gabriel Orozco, Bosco Sodi, Stefan Brüggemann, and Mario García Torres have achieved global recognition.

11.2. Architecture

Mexican architecture presents a remarkable continuum from the monumental structures of pre-Columbian civilizations to innovative contemporary designs. Mesoamerican civilizations like the Maya, Aztec, and Teotihuacano created sophisticated urban centers with pyramids, palaces, and observatories, demonstrating advanced engineering and astronomical knowledge. Teotihuacan, with its massive Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, and Maya cities like Palenque and Chichen Itza, are iconic examples.

The Spanish conquest introduced European architectural styles, including Renaissance, Baroque, and Neoclassical, often blended with Indigenous motifs and techniques. The 16th century saw the construction of numerous mendicant monasteries, fortress-like structures with Romanesque, Gothic, and Mudéjar elements, sometimes incorporating tequitqui (Indigenous-Christian syncretic) art. Grand cathedrals and palaces in the Baroque and later Churrigueresque styles, characterized by ornate decoration, were built in major colonial cities. Rural haciendas (large estates) often featured Mozarabic architectural influences.

In the 19th century, after independence, Neoclassicism became prominent, reflecting the new republic's ideals. The Hospicio Cabañas in Guadalajara, designed by Manuel Tolsá, is a notable example. The early 20th century saw the introduction of Art Nouveau and Art Deco, exemplified by the Palacio de Bellas Artes in Mexico City, which combines these styles with pre-Columbian symbolism.

Mexican modernist architecture flourished in the mid-20th century. The main campus of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), a UNESCO World Heritage Site designed in the 1950s by architects like Mario Pani and Enrique del Moral, integrated modernist buildings with murals by artists such as Diego Rivera and David Alfaro Siqueiros. Juan O'Gorman was a pioneer of organic architecture, seeking to harmonize buildings with the landscape.

Luis Barragán is perhaps Mexico's most internationally renowned modern architect. He won the Pritzker Prize in 1980 for his distinctive style that combined modernist principles with traditional Mexican vernacular forms, vibrant colors, and masterful use of light and shadow, creating serene and emotionally resonant spaces. Contemporary Mexican architects continue to explore diverse styles, often incorporating sustainable design principles and responding to the country's unique cultural and environmental contexts.

11.3. Literature

Mexican literature has a rich history, with roots in the oral traditions and pictographic writings of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. Aztec poetry, for instance, was a highly developed art form, often performed with musical accompaniment, with notable poets like Nezahualcoyotl of Texcoco.

The colonial period saw the emergence of chronicles of the conquest, such as Bernal Díaz del Castillo's vivid eyewitness account, The True History of the Conquest of New Spain. Literary production was heavily influenced by Spanish models, with religious themes dominating. Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, a 17th-century nun, poet, and scholar, is considered one of the greatest literary figures of the colonial era, known for her intellectual prowess and defense of women's right to education. Spanish-born poet Bernardo de Balbuena extolled the virtues of Mexico in Grandeza mexicana (Mexican Grandeur, 1604). Juan Ruiz de Alarcón was another notable Baroque playwright.

The 19th century, following independence, saw the rise of literary Romanticism and Realism. José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi's The Mangy Parrot (El Periquillo Sarniento_{The Mangy Parrot}^Spanish), published in 1816, is often considered the first Latin American novel. Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, a writer of Indigenous Nahua origin and a prominent liberal, played a key role in shaping national literature.

The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) profoundly impacted Mexican literature, giving rise to the "novel of the Revolution," which depicted the conflict's social and human dimensions. Mariano Azuela's The Underdogs (Los de abajo_{The Underdogs}^Spanish) is a classic of this genre. Other writers who explored revolutionary themes include Martín Luis Guzmán and Nellie Campobello.

The 20th century produced many internationally acclaimed Mexican writers. Octavio Paz, a poet, essayist, and diplomat, received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1990 for his influential work exploring Mexican identity, art, and politics, notably in The Labyrinth of Solitude. Carlos Fuentes was a leading novelist of the Latin American Boom, with works like The Death of Artemio Cruz and Terra Nostra. Juan Rulfo's concise masterpieces, the novel Pedro Páramo and the short story collection The Burning Plain (El Llano en llamas_{The Burning Plain}^Spanish), are seminal works of magical realism and profoundly influenced later writers. Alfonso Reyes was a distinguished essayist and classical scholar. Rosario Castellanos wrote novels and poetry addressing issues of gender and Indigenous identity, such as Balún Canán. Carlos Monsiváis was a prominent chronicler and critic of contemporary Mexican culture and politics. Elena Poniatowska is a celebrated journalist and author known for works like Massacre in Mexico (La noche de Tlatelolco_{The Night of Tlatelolco}^Spanish). Contemporary Mexican literature continues to thrive with diverse voices and themes.

11.4. Music and dance

Mexican music is exceptionally diverse, reflecting the country's pre-Hispanic Indigenous traditions, Spanish colonial influences, and subsequent global interactions. Music and dance are deeply intertwined with social life, festivals, and religious practices.

Pre-Hispanic music involved various percussion instruments (drums, rattles), wind instruments (flutes, conch-shell trumpets), and was integral to ceremonies and storytelling. During the colonial era, European religious music, including Gregorian chant and polyphony, was introduced and adapted. Secular European musical forms also took root.

Traditional Mexican folk music genres are regionally diverse and widely popular:

• Mariachi: Perhaps the most internationally recognized Mexican music, Mariachi ensembles typically feature violins, trumpets, guitars (including the vihuela and guitarrón), and singers. Originating in Jalisco, it is associated with celebrations and romantic serenades.
• Ranchera: A genre of traditional song often dealing with themes of love, patriotism, and rural life, typically sung by a soloist with Mariachi or other accompaniment. Iconic singers include Jorge Negrete, Pedro Infante, and Chavela Vargas.
• Norteño: Popular in northern Mexico and the southwestern U.S., characterized by the use of the accordion and bajo sexto (a 12-string bass guitar), often featuring corridos (narrative ballads).
• Banda: A brass-based ensemble music originating from Sinaloa, known for its powerful sound and wide repertoire, including rancheras, corridos, and cumbias.
• Corrido: Narrative folk ballads that tell stories, often about historical events, heroes, outlaws, and social issues. They were particularly popular during the Mexican Revolution and have evolved into contemporary forms like narcocorridos (ballads about drug traffickers), which are controversial.
• Son Music: A broad category of regional folk music and dance styles, such as Son Jarocho from Veracruz (featuring harp, jarana, and requinto), Son Huasteco (with violin and falsetto singing), and Son Jaliscience (the basis of Mariachi).

Folk dances are vibrant and regionally specific, often performed in traditional attire. The Ballet Folklórico de México, founded in 1952 by Amalia Hernández, is a renowned company that performs a wide range of traditional Mexican dances and music in venues like the Palacio de Bellas Artes.

In classical music, Carlos Chávez (1899-1978) is the most prominent Mexican composer of the 20th century. He composed symphonies and other works often incorporating Indigenous themes and founded the Orquesta Sinfónica Nacional.

Popular music in Mexico encompasses a wide range of genres, including pop, rock en español, cumbia, and various forms of electronic music. The embrace of rock and roll in the 1960s and 1970s led to the La Onda countercultural movement. Mexican artists like Carlos Santana, the band Maná, and Los Lobos have achieved international success.

11.5. Cinema

Mexican cinema has a rich history, including a celebrated "Golden Age" from the 1930s to the 1950s, during which its film industry was one of the most prolific and influential in Latin America, comparable in output to Hollywood at the time. Films from this era were widely exported and exhibited throughout Latin America and Europe.

Golden Age (c. 1936-1959): This period produced iconic stars such as María Félix, Pedro Infante, Dolores del Río, Jorge Negrete, and the comedian Cantinflas. Directors like Emilio Fernández ("El Indio") created classic films that often explored Mexican identity and social themes. Fernández's María Candelaria (1943) was one of the first films to win the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 1946. The renowned Spanish-born director Luis Buñuel made some of his masterpieces in Mexico between 1947 and 1965, including the critically acclaimed Los Olvidados (The Young and the Damned, 1950) and Viridiana (1961).

Later Periods and Contemporary Cinema: After the Golden Age, Mexican cinema experienced periods of decline and resurgence. In more recent decades, a "New Mexican Cinema" has emerged, with films like Como agua para chocolate_{Like Water for Chocolate}^Spanish (1992), Amores perros (2000), Y tu mamá también (2001), and El crimen del Padre Amaro_{The Crime of Father Amaro}^Spanish (2002) achieving international success and critical acclaim for their universal stories and contemporary subjects.

A group of Mexican filmmakers, often referred to as "The Three Amigos," has gained exceptional international recognition:

• Alfonso Cuarón: Director of films such as A Little Princess, Y tu mamá también, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Gravity (for which he won the Academy Award for Best Director, the first Mexican to do so), and Roma (which won multiple Academy Awards, including Best Director and Best Foreign Language Film).
• Guillermo del Toro: Known for his visually stunning and often dark fantasy films, including Pan's Labyrinth, Crimson Peak, The Shape of Water (which won Academy Awards for Best Picture and Best Director), and Nightmare Alley.
• Alejandro González Iñárritu: Director of critically acclaimed films such as Amores perros, Babel, Birdman (Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Original Screenplay), The Revenant (Academy Award for Best Director), and Bardo, False Chronicle of a Handful of Truths.

Other notable figures include screenwriter Guillermo Arriaga (known for his collaborations with Iñárritu on films like Amores perros and Babel) and cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki (who won three consecutive Academy Awards for Best Cinematography for Gravity, Birdman, and The Revenant). The contemporary Mexican film industry continues to produce a diverse range of films, from commercial successes to art-house features, and Mexican talent is increasingly prominent in global cinema.

11.6. Cuisine

Mexican cuisine is renowned globally for its vibrant flavors, diverse ingredients, and rich history, blending Indigenous Mesoamerican traditions with Spanish colonial influences and subsequent global exchanges. In 2010, Mexican gastronomy was recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Indigenous Roots: The foundations of Mexican cuisine lie in pre-Columbian staples cultivated for thousands of years, primarily maize (corn), beans, and chili peppers. Other important Indigenous ingredients include squash (calabaza), avocado, tomato, sweet potato (camote), turkey, chocolate (cacao, originally consumed as a beverage), vanilla, guava, chayote, epazote (an herb), jícama, nopal (prickly pear cactus), and various fruits like sapote and mamey sapote. Pre-Columbian cooking techniques still in use include nixtamalization (treating corn with alkali to improve nutritional value and workability), grinding with a molcajete (mortar and pestle) and metate (grinding stone), and cooking in earth ovens.

Spanish Influence: The Spanish introduced new ingredients that became integral to Mexican cuisine, such as pork, beef, chicken, peppercorn, sugar, milk and dairy products (cheese), wheat (for bread), rice, citrus fruits, garlic, and onions. They also brought new cooking techniques.

Signature Dishes and Beverages: The fusion of these two culinary traditions resulted in a vast array of iconic dishes:

• Tacos: Perhaps the most famous Mexican dish, tacos consist of corn or wheat tortillas folded or rolled around a filling, which can include various meats (beef, pork, chicken, fish), beans, vegetables, and cheese, often garnished with salsa, cilantro, onions, and lime.
• Mole: A complex and rich sauce, often served with turkey or chicken. There are many regional varieties, some containing dozens of ingredients like chili peppers, spices, nuts, seeds, and sometimes chocolate (as in mole poblano). Mole is often considered Mexico's national dish.
• Enchiladas: Corn tortillas dipped in chili sauce, filled (with meat, cheese, beans, or vegetables), rolled, and often topped with more sauce and cheese.
• Tamales: Steamed masa (corn dough) filled with meats, cheeses, fruits, vegetables, or chili peppers, wrapped in corn husks or banana leaves.
• Pozole: A traditional hearty stew made from hominy (nixtamalized corn), meat (usually pork), and seasoned with chili peppers and other garnishes.
• Guacamole: A dip or spread made from mashed avocados, typically seasoned with lime juice, onions, tomatoes, chili peppers, and cilantro.
• Salsas: A wide variety of sauces, typically chili-based, used as condiments or ingredients.
• Beverages: Traditional drinks include atole_{atole (corn-based beverage)}^Spanish (a warm corn-based beverage), champurrado_{champurrado (chocolate atole)}^Spanish (chocolate-based atole), horchata_{horchata (rice/nut drink)}^Spanish (a rice or nut-based drink), aguas frescas_{aguas frescas (fresh fruit waters)}^Spanish (fresh fruit-infused waters), and pulque_{pulque (fermented agave drink)}^Spanish (a traditional alcoholic beverage made from fermented agave sap). Tequila and mezcal, distilled spirits made from agave, are internationally renowned. Mexican beer, such as Corona, is also widely popular.
• Desserts: Traditional sweets include acitrón_{acitrón (candied cactus)}^Spanish (candied biznaga cactus), various crystallized fruits, rompope_{rompope (eggnog-like drink)}^Spanish (an eggnog-like drink), cajeta_{cajeta (caramelized goat's milk)}^Spanish (caramelized goat's milk), and jericalla_{jericalla (custard dessert)}^Spanish (a custard dessert). Many traditional desserts originated in colonial-era convents.

Regional diversity is a hallmark of Mexican cuisine, with each state and area boasting its own specialties and local ingredients. Mexican chefs like Daniela Soto-Innes and Elena Reygadas have gained international recognition for their contributions to contemporary Mexican cuisine.

11.7. Sports

Sports play a significant role in Mexican culture, with a diverse range of popular activities from traditional pursuits to modern international sports. Organized sport largely dates from the late 19th century, though practices like bullfighting have a longer history from the colonial era.

Football (Soccer): This is overwhelmingly the most popular sport in Mexico. The national professional league, Liga MX, is highly competitive and widely followed. The Mexico national team (El Tri) is a perennial powerhouse in the CONCACAF region, having won the CONCACAF Gold Cup a record number of times and participated in numerous FIFA World Cup tournaments, consistently reaching the knockout stages. Mexico hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1970 and 1986, and is set to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup with the United States and Canada, making it the first country to host or co-host the men's World Cup three times. Iconic football stadiums like the Estadio Azteca in Mexico City are central to the nation's sporting identity.

Boxing: Mexico is an international powerhouse in professional boxing and has produced numerous world champions across various weight classes. Figures like Julio César Chávez, Rubén Olivares, and Ricardo López are legendary. Mexican boxers are known for their aggressive, crowd-pleasing style. Mexico has also won 14 Olympic medals in boxing. The World Boxing Council (WBC), one of the major global boxing sanctioning bodies, is headquartered in Mexico City.

Lucha Libre (Professional Wrestling): A unique form of professional wrestling characterized by colorful masked wrestlers (luchadores), high-flying maneuvers, and rapid sequences. Lucha Libre is a major spectator sport and a significant part of Mexican popular culture, with iconic figures like El Santo, Blue Demon, and Mil Máscaras achieving legendary status. Promotions such as AAA and CMLL are prominent.

Baseball: Popular particularly in certain regions like northern Mexico and the Gulf Coast, baseball has a strong following. The Mexican League (Liga Mexicana de Béisbol_{Mexican Baseball League}^Spanish, LMB) is the country's top professional league. Mexico also participates in international competitions like the World Baseball Classic and the Caribbean Series. Many Mexican players have competed in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the United States.

Charrería: Considered Mexico's national sport, charrería is a traditional equestrian practice that evolved from the ranching traditions of colonial Mexico. It involves a series of competitive events showcasing horsemanship and cattle-handling skills, performed by charros in traditional attire. It is recognized as an Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO.

Bullfighting: Despite controversy and activism from animal rights groups seeking to ban it, bullfighting (corrida de toros_bullfight^Spanish) remains a popular, albeit declining, tradition in many parts of Mexico. Most large cities have bullrings (plazas de toros), with the Plaza México in Mexico City being the largest in the world, seating around 45,000 people.

Other Sports: Basketball, American football, and motorsports also have followings. Mexico hosted the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, the first Latin American city to do so. This event was significant for showcasing Mexico internationally, though it was also marked by the tragic Tlatelolco massacre shortly before the Games. Mexican athletes have competed in a variety of Olympic sports, with notable success in diving and taekwondo in addition to boxing.

11.8. Media

The mass media landscape in Mexico includes television, radio, print journalism, and a rapidly growing digital media sector.

Television: Television is a dominant medium. For many years, Televisa held a virtual monopoly and remains one of the largest Spanish-language media companies in the world, producing a vast amount of content, including highly popular telenovelas (soap operas). TV Azteca is another major commercial broadcaster. Imagen Televisión emerged as a third national commercial network following telecommunications reforms in 2013 aimed at increasing competition. Cable and satellite television have expanded viewership options. Mexico was the first Latin American country to complete the transition from analog to all-digital television broadcasting.

• Telenovelas: These serialized dramas are a cornerstone of Mexican television and popular culture, widely exported and adapted globally. Mexico was a pioneer in "edutainment," with producer Miguel Sabido developing the "Sabido method" in the 1970s, using telenovelas to promote social messages like family planning, literacy, and health awareness.

Radio: Radio remains an important source of news, entertainment, and cultural expression, with numerous national and local stations broadcasting in Spanish. Since the late 1950s, bilingual government radio stations (Spanish and Indigenous languages) have been used for Indigenous education. The National Indigenous Institute (INPI, formerly CDI) has supported a network of Indigenous community radio stations.

Print Journalism: Mexico has a diverse newspaper and magazine market, with national and regional publications covering a range of political perspectives. However, the print industry faces challenges from digital media and, critically, from violence and threats against journalists, particularly those covering crime, corruption, and politics in high-risk areas.

Digital Media and Internet: Internet access and the use of digital media have grown significantly. Social media platforms are influential in news dissemination and public discourse. Online news outlets and citizen journalism are expanding, though issues of misinformation and digital security are also concerns.

Freedom of Expression: While freedom of expression is constitutionally guaranteed, Mexico is one of the most dangerous countries in the world for journalists. Violence, intimidation, and impunity for crimes against media workers severely hinder press freedom and access to information. Various organizations advocate for greater protection for journalists and accountability for attacks. The telecommunications reform of 2013 aimed to diversify media ownership and strengthen regulatory oversight, but challenges in ensuring a truly pluralistic and safe media environment persist.

11.9. Festivals and public holidays

Mexican culture is rich in festivals (fiestas_festivals^Spanish) and public holidays, which blend Indigenous traditions, Catholic religious observances, and national civic commemorations. These events are often colorful, communal, and deeply significant.

Major National Public Holidays (Official, based on Labor Law Article 74):

• January 1:** Año Nuevo_{New Year}^Spanish (New Year's Day)
• First Monday of February (observance of February 5):** Día de la Constitución_{Constitution Day}^Spanish (Constitution Day, commemorating the constitutions of 1857 and 1917)
• Third Monday of March (observance of March 21):** Natalicio de Benito Juárez_{Birth of Benito Juárez}^Spanish (Benito Juárez's Birthday, honoring the revered 19th-century president)
• May 1:** Día del Trabajo_{Labor Day}^Spanish (Labor Day)
• September 16:** Día de la Independencia_{Independence Day}^Spanish (Independence Day), commemorating the Cry of Dolores in 1810. Celebrations often begin on the evening of September 15 with the presidential Grito from the National Palace.
• Third Monday of November (observance of November 20):** Día de la Revolución_{Revolution Day}^Spanish (Revolution Day, marking the start of the Mexican Revolution in 1910)
• December 1 (every six years):** Transmisión del Poder Ejecutivo Federal_{Transmission of Federal Executive Power}^Spanish (Presidential Inauguration Day)
• December 25:** Navidad_Christmas^Spanish (Christmas Day)

Important Traditional Festivals and Observances (may not all be official public holidays but are widely celebrated):

• Día de Muertos (Día de Muertos_{Day of the Dead}^Spanish): Celebrated on November 1 (Día de Todos los Santos_{All Saints' Day}^Spanish - All Saints' Day, honoring deceased children) and November 2 (Día de los Fieles Difuntos_{All Souls' Day}^Spanish - All Souls' Day, honoring deceased adults). This unique festival blends pre-Hispanic Indigenous beliefs about death with Catholic traditions. Families create ofrendas (altars) with photos, food, marigolds (cempasúchil_{cempasúchil (marigold)}^Spanish), and other items to welcome the spirits of their deceased loved ones. Sugar skulls (calaveras de azúcar) and Catrinas (elegant skeleton figures) are iconic symbols.
• Semana Santa (Holy Week): The week leading up to Easter is a major religious observance, with processions, passion plays, and other Catholic rituals. It is also a popular vacation period.
• Cinco de Mayo (May 5): Commemorates the Mexican army's victory over French forces at the Battle of Puebla in 1862. While a significant historical event, it is more widely celebrated in the United States by Mexican Americans than as a major national holiday within Mexico itself (though it is an official holiday in Puebla).
• Día de la Virgen de Guadalupe (Día de la Virgen de Guadalupe_{Day of the Virgin of Guadalupe}^Spanish): December 12. This is one of the most important religious festivals, honoring the patron saint of Mexico. Millions of pilgrims visit the Basilica of Guadalupe in Mexico City.
• Las Posadas: Celebrated from December 16 to 24, these are reenactments of Mary and Joseph's search for lodging in Bethlehem, involving processions, songs, and festive gatherings.
• Carnival (Carnaval_Carnival^Spanish): Celebrated in various cities, particularly Veracruz and Mazatlán, in the days leading up to Lent, with parades, costumes, music, and dancing.

Many towns and villages also have their own local festivals throughout the year to honor their patron saints, often featuring religious services, traditional music and dance, fireworks, rodeos (charreadas), and community feasts. These local fiestas are vital expressions of regional culture and community identity.

11.10. World Heritage Sites

Mexico is exceptionally rich in cultural and natural heritage, recognized by its numerous UNESCO World Heritage Sites. It ranks first in the Americas and seventh globally for the number of such sites. These sites encompass outstanding archaeological zones, historic colonial cities, and unique natural landscapes, reflecting the country's diverse history and biodiversity.

As of recent counts, Mexico has:

• 27 Cultural Heritage Sites
• 6 Natural Heritage Sites
• 2 Mixed Heritage Sites (both cultural and natural significance)
• An additional 22 sites on the Tentative List, indicating potential future nominations.

Some of the most prominent World Heritage Sites include:

• Archaeological Sites:
  • Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan (with its massive Pyramids of the Sun and Moon)
  • Pre-Hispanic City and National Park of Palenque (exquisite Maya architecture and art)
  • Historic Centre of Oaxaca and Archaeological Site of Monte Albán (Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations)
  • Pre-Hispanic City of Chichen Itza (iconic Maya-Toltec site in Yucatán)
  • Ancient Maya City and Protected Tropical Forests of Calakmul, Campeche (major Maya city and vast biosphere reserve - Mixed Site)
  • Pre-Hispanic Town of Uxmal (Puuc-style Maya architecture)
  • Archaeological Zone of Paquimé, Casas Grandes (unique culture in northern Mexico)
  • Rock Paintings of the Sierra de San Francisco (ancient cave art in Baja California)
  • Prehistoric Caves of Yagul and Mitla in the Central Valley of Oaxaca (evidence of early agriculture - Cultural Landscape)
• Historic Cities and Towns:
  • Historic Centre of Mexico City and Xochimilco (Aztec and colonial heritage)
  • Historic Centre of Puebla (Baroque architecture and talavera pottery)
  • Historic Town of Guanajuato and Adjacent Mines (picturesque colonial mining city)
  • Historic Centre of Zacatecas (another important colonial mining city)
  • Historic Monuments Zone of Querétaro
  • Historic Fortified Town of Campeche (walled port city)
  • Protective town of San Miguel and Sanctuary of Jesús Nazareno de Atotonilco
• Natural Sites:
  • Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve (diverse ecosystems in Quintana Roo)
  • Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaíno (breeding grounds for gray whales in Baja California)
  • Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California (exceptional marine biodiversity, "the world's aquarium")
  • Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (overwintering site for millions of monarch butterflies - Natural Site)
• Other Cultural Sites:
  • Agave Landscape and Ancient Industrial Facilities of Tequila (cultural landscape related to tequila production)
  • Franciscan Missions in the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro (Baroque mission churches)
  • Luis Barragán House and Studio (masterpiece of modern architecture)
  • Central University City Campus of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) (integration of modern architecture, art, and urbanism)

  These sites underscore Mexico's profound historical depth, its artistic achievements across different eras, and its remarkable natural environments, all contributing to its global cultural significance.

11.11. Clothing and fashion

Traditional Mexican attire is diverse and varies significantly by region, reflecting Indigenous heritages, colonial influences, and local environments. While Western-style clothing is predominant in daily life, especially in urban areas, traditional garments are still worn, particularly by Indigenous communities, during festivals, and as symbols of cultural identity.

Key Traditional Garments:

• Huipil: A sleeveless, tunic-like garment, often elaborately embroidered or woven with symbolic designs. It is commonly worn by Indigenous women in southern Mexico (e.g., Oaxaca, Chiapas, Yucatán Peninsula) and Central America. The length, style, and decoration of huipils vary widely by community.
• Rebozo: A long, rectangular shawl that can be made from cotton, wool, or silk. It is a versatile garment used by women for warmth, to carry babies or goods, or as a fashion accessory. Rebozos are often intricately woven or tie-dyed (using the ikat technique) and are a significant cultural symbol.
• Sombrero: A wide-brimmed hat, traditionally worn by men, designed to provide shade from the sun. Sombreros come in many styles and materials, from simple straw hats for field work to elaborately decorated felt or velvet sombreros worn by charros (Mexican horsemen) and Mariachi musicians.
• Sarape (or Serape): A long blanket-like shawl or poncho, often brightly colored with distinctive patterns, traditionally worn by men, especially in northern and central Mexico.
• Charro suit: The traditional attire of the charro, consisting of a short, fitted jacket, tight trousers (often with silver buttons or embroidery down the sides), a wide-brimmed sombrero, and boots. This elaborate outfit is worn for charrería (Mexican rodeo) and festive occasions.
• China Poblana Dress: Historically, a colorful and elaborately embroidered dress associated with women in Puebla, though its exact origins are debated and its widespread use as a "national" costume is more a 19th and early 20th-century construction. It typically included a white blouse, a richly decorated skirt (castor), and a rebozo.
• Tehuana Dress: A distinctive and elegant traditional dress from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Oaxaca, famously worn by Frida Kahlo. It often features a short huipil and a long skirt, both heavily embroidered with floral or geometric designs, typically on dark velvet or satin, and often accompanied by elaborate headdresses and gold jewelry.

Regional variations are significant. For example, the white, embroidered guayabera shirt is popular in tropical regions like the Yucatán. Various Indigenous groups have their own unique textiles, weaving techniques, and traditional clothing styles that signify their cultural identity and community affiliation.

Contemporary Mexican fashion designers often draw inspiration from traditional textiles, embroidery, and silhouettes, blending them with modern trends. There is a growing appreciation for artisanal and ethically made clothing that supports Indigenous craftspeople and preserves traditional techniques. Mexican fashion, both traditional and contemporary, reflects the country's vibrant cultural mix and artistic creativity.