Mohammed V of Morocco

2.1. Early Life and Education

Sidi Mohammed bin Yusef was born on August 10, 1909, in Fes, as the third son of Sultan Yusef of Morocco. His early life was shaped by the imposition of the Treaty of Fes in March 1912, which transformed Morocco into a French protectorate following French invasions that eventually captured the capital, Fes.

He began his education through homeschooling within the qasr al-amami (front palace) grounds in Fes. There, he was taught to read and write and received his initial lessons of the Quran. When his father established Rabat as the new capital, Sidi Mohammed, along with most of his brothers, relocated there and continued his homeschooling with private tutors. In Rabat, he became a hafiz (one who has memorized the entire Quran). Following this, he pursued academic studies, learning Arabic and French, with teachers appointed by his father. Notably, Mohammed Mammeri provided special attention to his French education and later served as his head of protocol. He also attended a public school in Rabat.

2.2. Early Reign and Policies

On November 18, 1927, at the age of 17, Mohammed bin Yusef was enthroned as Sultan following the death of his father, Sultan Yusef, and the departure of Hubert Lyautey, the former French resident general. His early reign saw him marry Hanila bint Mamoun in 1925, and in 1928, he married Lalla Abla bint Tahar, who gave birth to Hassan II in 1929. Later, he married Bahia bint Antar.

During the initial years of his rule, French colonial authorities pursued a more assertive "native policy." On May 16, 1930, Sultan Muhammad V, then 20 years old and reportedly under no duress, signed the Berber Dahir. This decree altered the legal system in areas of Morocco primarily inhabited by Berber-speaking communities (Bled es-Siba), while the rest of the country (Bled al-Makhzen) maintained its existing legal framework. The signing of this dhahir deeply impacted the nation, drawing sharp criticism from Moroccan nationalists and significantly catalyzing the Moroccan Nationalist Movement against continued French rule.

2.3. World War II and Protection of Jews

During World War II, Sultan Muhammad V demonstrated his support for the Allies. In January 1943, he participated in the Anfa Conference held in Casablanca, where he privately met with US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill. At this meeting, Roosevelt assured the Sultan that the post-war global landscape would differ significantly from the pre-war era, particularly regarding colonial issues. Mohammed's 14-year-old son, the future King Hassan II, also attended and later recalled Roosevelt's prediction that Morocco would gain independence within ten years.

Mohammed V's actions concerning the protection of Moroccan Jews during the Holocaust remain a subject of historical debate. While there are competing accounts, most scholars emphasize his benevolent stance toward the Moroccan Jewish community during the Vichy era. He reportedly refused to endorse efforts by Vichy officials to impose anti-Jewish legislation in Morocco and to deport the country's 250,000 Jews to Nazi concentration and extermination camps in Europe. His stance was rooted in both his humanitarian instincts and his assertion of sovereignty over all his subjects, including Jews, viewing Vichy's dictates as an insult to his authority. Despite his objections, some partial Nazi race measures were enacted in Morocco, and Mohammed did, under instructions from Vichy officials, sign two decrees that barred Jews from specific schools and positions.

Nevertheless, Mohammed V is highly revered by Moroccan Jews, who credit him with protecting their community from the Nazi and Vichy French governments. He has been honored by Jewish organizations for his role in safeguarding his Jewish subjects during the Holocaust. However, some historians, such as Michel Abitol, argue that while Mohammed V was compelled to sign anti-Jewish decrees, he was more passive than Moncef Bey of Tunisia in publicly rejecting Vichy's policies.

2.4. Struggle for Independence

Sultan Mohammed became a central figure in the Moroccan independence movement, often referred to as the Revolution of the King and the People (ثورة الملك والشعب^Arabic). Although initially critical of early reform movements within the French colonial administration, he later became a staunch supporter of full independence, with the Moroccan Nationalist Movement growing significantly since the protests following the Berber Dahir of 1930.

His prominent role in the eventual Proclamation of Independence of Morocco further solidified his image as a national symbol. On April 9 and 10, 1947, he delivered two historic speeches at the Mendoubia and the Grand Mosque of Tangier, collectively known as the Tangier Speech. In these addresses, he openly appealed for Moroccan independence and underscored the country's deep connections with the rest of the Arab world, praising the Arab League which was founded in 1945, without explicitly naming the colonial powers.

This rapprochement between the monarchy and the nationalist movement, despite their differing projects, was mutually beneficial. As historian Bernard Cubertafond noted, "each side needs the other." The nationalist movement benefited from the king's growing popularity and his gradual assertion of independence from a protectorate that had increasingly resorted to direct administration. The king, in turn, needed the power of protest from the nationalist movement-which comprised the nation's vital forces and its youth elite-to exert pressure on France for change.

Following the Tangier Speech, relations between the Sultan and the French authorities became increasingly strained, particularly with the new Resident General, General Alphonse Juin. Juin implemented severe measures and pressured the Sultan to disavow the Istiqlal and distance himself from nationalist demands. The definitive break with France occurred in 1951, leading Sidi Mohammed to form the Pact of Tangier with the nationalists, committing to fight for independence. The appointment of General Augustin Guillaume as Resident General further exacerbated the dissension. Large-scale demonstrations, some escalating into riots, occurred in Morocco in 1952, notably in Casablanca, as Sidi Mohammed garnered international attention for the Moroccan cause at the United Nations, supported by the United States.

2.5. Deposition and Exile

On August 20, 1953, the eve of Eid al-Adha, French colonial authorities, viewing Mohammed V as a crucial national symbol fueling the independence movement, forcibly deposed him and exiled him along with his family to Corsica. They subsequently transferred him to Madagascar in January 1954. In his place, his first cousin once removed, Mohammed Ben Aarafa, was installed as a puppet monarch, pejoratively known as the "French sultan." This deposition ignited widespread and active opposition to the French protectorate within Morocco.

In response to the Sultan's exile, a significant act of resistance occurred on Christmas Eve of that year when Muhammad Zarqtuni bombed Casablanca's Central Market. Faced with escalating violence and unrest throughout Morocco, the French government was compelled to negotiate. With strong support from Moroccan nationalists and backing from countries like Libya, Algeria (through the FLN), and Egypt, the French government eventually allowed Mohammed V's return.

2.6. Restoration and Post-Independence Reign

Mohammed V returned from exile on November 16, 1955, and was reinstated as Sultan, his triumphant return symbolizing the approaching end of the colonial era. In February 1956, he successfully negotiated with France and Spain for Morocco's full independence.

In 1957, he adopted the title of King of Morocco, a change intended to symbolize the unity of the country, transcending traditional divisions between Arabs and Berbers. Domestically, upon his return, he permitted the first congress of the Istiqlal, which subsequently formed various governments under his reign. He also authorized the creation of trade unions, but increasing unrest and strikes led him to assume greater direct power during the final years of his rule.

Internationally, Mohammed V staunchly supported the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) in their struggle for Algerian Independence. He offered to facilitate the participation of FLN leaders in a conference with Habib Bourguiba in Tunis. However, on October 22, 1956, during the ongoing Algerian War, French forces controversially hijacked a Moroccan airplane carrying prominent FLN leaders, including Ahmed Ben Bella, Hocine Aït Ahmed, and Mohamed Boudiaf. The plane, originally destined from Palma de Mallorca to Tunis, was rerouted to occupied Algiers, where the FLN leaders were arrested.

His state visit to the United States later that year significantly strengthened his position as Morocco's sole legitimate representative on the global stage, transforming his trip into a major publicity success. This visit marked a strategic effort to align Morocco closely with the US, showcasing the monarchy's importance globally. He actively employed various techniques to project royal authority, such as personally thanking former supporters of the nationalist movement on behalf of the Moroccan people. Mohammed V also served as patron for the International Meetings, a series of conferences on contemporary issues and interfaith dialogue hosted at the Benedictine monastery of Toumliline, which attracted scholars and intellectuals worldwide.

During his reign, the Moroccan Liberation Army engaged in the Ifni War against Spain and France. This conflict resulted in the successful capture of most of Ifni, as well as Cape Juby and parts of Spanish Sahara. Under the treaty of Angra de Cintra, Morocco formally annexed Cape Juby and the surrounding areas of Ifni, with the remaining part of the colony ceded by Spain in 1969.

2.7. Death

On February 26, 1961, Mohammed V died from complications following a routine surgery on his nasal septum, performed by a surgeon from Vaud. His death, at the age of 51, was announced on national radio by his eldest son, Crown Prince Moulay Hassan, who subsequently ascended to the throne as King Hassan II of Morocco.

5.1. Positive Assessment and Contributions

Mohammed V is widely celebrated as a national hero in Morocco, primarily due to his decisive leadership in achieving Moroccan independence. His willingness to challenge French colonial rule, culminating in the historic Tangier Speech and his eventual exile, galvanized the nationalist movement and fostered unprecedented national unity. He effectively transformed the struggle for independence into a "Revolution of the King and the People," establishing the monarchy as the symbol of national aspirations.

Beyond independence, his widely recognized efforts to protect Moroccan Jews during World War II highlight his humanitarian instincts. His refusal to sign anti-Jewish legislation and his assertion of sovereignty over all Moroccan subjects, regardless of religion, are highly esteemed by the Moroccan Jewish community and stand as a testament to his commitment to human rights in a challenging global context. His diplomatic efforts, particularly engaging with the United States, further contributed to Morocco's international standing and its strategic alignment on the global stage. He played a critical role in steering Morocco towards modernization and asserting its place within the Arab and African worlds.

5.2. Criticism and Controversies

While overwhelmingly positive, historical assessments of Mohammed V also include critical perspectives and controversies. The signing of the Berber Dahir in 1930 is a notable point of contention. Although he was young and under colonial pressure, this decree, which imposed a separate legal system on Berber-speaking regions, sparked widespread nationalist opposition and is viewed by some as an initial compliance with divisive colonial policies.

Furthermore, debates persist regarding the precise extent of his role in protecting Moroccan Jews during the Holocaust. While generally credited with benevolence, some historians suggest that his actions were more passive compared to other regional leaders, noting that he did sign certain decrees barring Jews from specific schools and positions under Vichy instructions. These debates underscore the complexities of navigating colonial rule and humanitarian principles during a period of immense global upheaval.

5.3. Commemoration and Memorials

Mohammed V's enduring legacy is widely commemorated across Morocco and beyond through numerous places, institutions, and cultural initiatives named in his honor. Prominent examples include the Mohammed V International Airport and Stade Mohammed V in Casablanca, the Mohammed V Avenue, Mohammed V University and Mohammadia School of Engineering in Rabat, and the Mohammed V Mosque in Tangier. A significant memorial is the Mausoleum of Mohammed V in Rabat, where he is interred.

Beyond Morocco, avenues named Mohammed V exist in nearly every Moroccan city, as well as major ones in Tunis, Tunisia, and Algiers, Algeria. The Mohammed V Palace in Conakry, Guinea, is also named in his honor. In December 2007, The Jewish Daily Forward reported on a diplomatic initiative by the Moroccan government seeking to have Mohammed V admitted to the Righteous Among the Nations, a recognition for non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust.