1. Biography
Gyula Andrássy's life was marked by a deep commitment to Hungarian national interests, which evolved from revolutionary fervor to pragmatic statesmanship, significantly influencing the trajectory of the Dual Monarchy.
1.1. Birth and Early Life
Gyula Andrássy was born on 3 March 1823, though his exact date and place of birth are somewhat disputed, with some records indicating a baptism in Košice (then known as Kassa) on 3 March 1823. He was the son of Count Károly Andrássy and Etelka Szapáry. His birthplace was Oláhpatak (present-day Vlachovo, Rožňava District, Slovakia), within the Kingdom of Hungary. His father, Károly Andrássy, was a notable liberal figure who belonged to the political opposition, a dangerous stance at the time. Inheriting his father's liberal leanings and a strong sense of patriotism, Gyula Andrássy immersed himself in the political struggles of his era from a very young age, aligning himself with the nationalist cause.
1.2. Education
During his ten-year exile following the 1848 Revolution, Andrássy dedicated himself to studying politics and European diplomacy. He spent time in London and Paris, which were then centers of European diplomatic activity. This period of intense study allowed him to gain a deep understanding of international relations and to discern the underlying weaknesses of the Second French Empire, despite its imposing external appearance. This informal but rigorous education in the heart of European political thought profoundly shaped his future diplomatic and political strategies.
1.3. Early Career and the 1848 Revolution
Andrássy's political career began with recognition from Count István Széchenyi, who was among the first to appreciate his abilities. In 1845, Andrássy was appointed president of the society for the regulation of the waters of the Upper Tisza River. His outspoken nature quickly brought him to public attention; in 1846, he published highly critical articles against the government in Lajos Kossuth's influential paper, the Pesti Hírlap.
In 1848, he was elected as one of the radical candidates to the Diet of Hungary. When Josip Jelačić's Croat forces attempted to reclaim Međimurje (then part of Hungary) for Croatia, Andrássy joined the military. He commanded the gentry of his county and distinguished himself in the Battle of Pákozd and the Battle of Schwechat, serving as Artúr Görgei's adjutant in 1848. Towards the end of the war, the revolutionary government dispatched Andrássy to Constantinople to secure the neutrality, or ideally the support, of the Ottoman Empire in Hungary's struggle against Austria.
Following the defeat of the Hungarian forces at Világos, Andrássy emigrated, first to London and then to Paris. On 21 September 1851, the Austrian government condemned him in absentia to death for his involvement in the Hungarian revolt, and he was symbolically hanged in effigy. After a decade in exile, Andrássy returned to Hungary in 1858. Despite his difficult position, having never sought amnesty and consistently rejecting overtures from both the Austrian government and Magyar Conservatives who favored less than full autonomy, he enthusiastically supported Ferenc Deák's party, which advocated for a compromise with the Habsburg monarchy.
2. Political Career
Andrássy's political career was defined by his central role in the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, his leadership as Prime Minister of Hungary, and his impactful tenure as the Dual Monarchy's Foreign Minister, during which he reshaped its foreign policy.
2.1. Role in the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
Andrássy's return to Hungarian politics saw him quickly rise to prominence within Ferenc Deák's party. On 21 December 1865, he was elected vice-president of the Diet. In March 1866, he was chosen as president of the sub-committee tasked by the parliamentary commission to draft the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 between Austria and Hungary. He is credited with originating the concept of the "Delegations," a system designed to manage common affairs between the two halves of the monarchy. It was widely acknowledged at the time that he was the only member of the commission capable of persuading the Austrian court of the legitimacy of Hungarian national claims.
The context for the Compromise was significantly influenced by the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which culminated in Prussia's decisive victory over Austria at the Battle of Königgrätz. This defeat effectively ended Austria's aspirations for a leading role in German unification. Seeking to restore good relations after the war, Emperor Franz Joseph I for the first time formally consulted Andrássy, who advised the re-establishment of the Hungarian constitution and the appointment of responsible foreign and defense ministries. On 17 February 1867, the Emperor-King appointed Andrássy as the first Prime Minister of the Hungarian half of the newly formed Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Ferenc Deák, the primary architect of the Compromise, had initially been the obvious choice but declined in favor of Andrássy, famously describing him as "the providential statesman given to Hungary by the grace of God."
2.2. Prime Minister of Hungary
As the first Prime Minister of Hungary under the Dual Monarchy, Andrássy quickly established a commanding position through his firmness, amiability, and dexterity as a debater. Despite the continued immense authority of Deák, which overshadowed other party leaders, Andrássy demonstrated exceptional capability. He personally oversaw the departments of war and foreign affairs for the Hungarian government. A significant achievement of his premiership was the reorganization of the Honvéd system, the state army. He often remarked that the regulation of the military border districts was the most challenging work of his life.
During the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Andrássy resolutely defended the neutrality of the Austrian monarchy. In a speech on 28 July 1870, he strongly protested against the notion that it was in Austria's interest to attempt to regain its pre-1863 position in Germany. Furthermore, as Prime Minister, Andrássy strongly opposed the proposed "Bohemian Ausgleich" (compromise with the Czechs) within the Austrian half of the empire. He feared that granting similar autonomy to the Czechs would dilute the relative status of Hungarians within the Dual Monarchy and, more critically, could incite nationalist sentiments among the Slavic populations within Hungarian territories, such as the Slovaks. His opposition, shared by Emperor Franz Joseph I, ultimately led to the abandonment of the Bohemian Ausgleich, solidifying the unique position of Hungary within the Dual Monarchy.
2.3. Foreign Minister of Austria-Hungary
Andrássy's tenure as Foreign Minister, following the fall of Count Beust on 6 November 1871, marked an epoch-making shift in the foreign policy of the Dual Monarchy. Where Beust had pursued a policy hostile to Germany and friendly toward Russia, Andrássy adopted the opposite approach, seeking closer ties with Germany and maintaining a more cautious stance towards Russia.
Historically, the Habsburg Empire had struggled to dissociate itself from its Holy Roman traditions. However, the loss of influence in Italy and Germany, and the subsequent formation of the Dual Monarchy, redirected its diplomatic focus. The only viable field for its future diplomacy lay in the Near East, particularly the Balkans, where the process of national crystallization among various peoples was still incomplete. The central question became whether these emerging nationalities would achieve independence or merely exchange the tyranny of the Ottoman sultan for that of the Russian tsar or the Habsburg emperor. Previously, Austria had either sought to exclude Russia from the Balkans or share spoils with it. Now, weakened by recent misfortunes, Austria-Hungary needed to restore its influence in European councils. Andrássy successfully achieved this, first by approaching the German Emperor and then by establishing more satisfactory relations with the courts of Italy and Russia through a series of conferences in Berlin, Vienna, Saint Petersburg, and Venice.
2.4. Foreign Policy and Diplomacy
Andrássy's foreign policy was characterized by a conservative and strategic approach aimed at securing the Dual Monarchy's interests in a rapidly changing European landscape.
2.4.1. General Foreign Policy Stance
Andrássy was fundamentally a conservative statesman. His foreign policies were primarily directed towards expanding the Dual Monarchy's influence into Southeast Europe, ideally with the support of Great Britain and Germany, and without alienating the Ottoman Empire. He regarded Russia as the principal adversary due to its own expansionist policies, particularly towards Slavic and Orthodox regions, which he viewed as a direct threat to Austria-Hungary's multi-ethnic composition and territorial integrity. He deeply distrusted Slavic nationalist movements, considering them a significant threat to the stability of his empire. To counter Russia and the burgeoning Slavic states, he actively pursued an alliance with Germany, recognizing that for the Dual Monarchy, the "Balkan problem" had become more critical than the "German unification problem." While prioritizing ties with Germany, he also sought partial reconciliation with Russia, as evidenced by the Three Emperors' League in 1872, and maintained neutrality during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878.
2.4.2. The "Andrássy Note"
The recovered influence of Austria-Hungary under Andrássy became evident during the diplomatic efforts following the outbreak of serious disturbances in Bosnia in 1875. The courts of Vienna, Berlin, and Saint Petersburg reached a consensus regarding their stance on the Eastern Question, and their views were formalized in a diplomatic dispatch known as the "Andrássy Note." This note was sent by Andrássy on 30 December 1875, to Count Beust, the Austrian ambassador to the Court of St James's.
In the note, Andrássy highlighted that the European powers' efforts to localize the Bosnian revolt appeared to be failing, with the rebels maintaining their ground. He pointed out that the Ottoman Empire's promises of reform, articulated in various firmans, were vague statements of principle that had never been, and likely were not intended to be, locally applied. To avert the risk of a general conflagration, he urged that the time had come for concerted action by the powers to pressure the Porte to fulfill its commitments.
The note then outlined essential reforms: the recognition, rather than mere toleration, of the Christian religion; the abolition of the system of farming taxes; and, specifically in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where religious issues were complicated by agrarian questions, the conversion of Christian peasants into free proprietors to liberate them from their dual subjection to Muslim Ottoman landowners. Furthermore, it proposed the establishment of elected provincial councils in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the appointment of life-term judges, and guarantees for individual liberties. Finally, a mixed commission of Muslims and Christians was to be empowered to oversee the implementation of these reforms. The fact that the Sultan would be accountable to Europe for the realization of his promises was intended to alleviate the natural suspicions of the insurgents. Both Britain and France generally assented to this plan, and the Andrássy Note was adopted as the basis for subsequent negotiations.
2.4.3. Balkan Policy and the Congress of Berlin
When war between Russia and the Ottoman Porte became inevitable, Andrássy negotiated with the Russian court to ensure that, should Russia prevail, the status quo would not be altered to the detriment of the Austrian monarchy. However, when the Treaty of San Stefano threatened to establish Russian hegemony in the Near East, Andrássy concurred with the German and British courts that the final settlement of affairs must be submitted to a European congress.
At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Andrássy served as the principal Austrian plenipotentiary. His primary objectives were to diminish Russia's gains and aggrandize the Dual Monarchy. Even before the Congress officially opened on 13 June, negotiations between Andrássy and the British Foreign Secretary Marquess of Salisbury concluded on 6 June with Britain agreeing to all Austrian proposals concerning Bosnia-Herzegovina in exchange for Austrian support for British demands.
In addition to securing the occupation and administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Andrássy also obtained the right for Austria-Hungary to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, which remained under Ottoman administration. The Sanjak's continued existence served to separate Serbia and Montenegro. The presence of Austro-Hungarian garrisons there was seen as opening the way for a potential advance towards Salonika, which "would bring the western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence." Indeed, high Austro-Hungarian military authorities desired an immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective.
However, this occupation was highly unpopular within Hungary, both for financial reasons and due to the strong pro-Turk sentiments among the Magyars. On 28 September 1878, the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, backed by Archduke Albert, were allowed to advance to Salonika. In the Hungarian Parliament session on 5 November 1878, the Opposition proposed impeaching Andrássy for violating the constitution through his policies during the Near East Crisis and the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, though the motion was defeated by 179 to 95. The opposition's rank and file raised grave accusations against him.
On 10 October 1878, French diplomat Melchior de Vogüé described the situation:
"Particularly in Hungary the dissatisfaction caused by this 'adventure' has reached the gravest proportions, prompted by that strong conservative instinct which animates the Magyar race and is the secret of its destinies. This vigorous and exclusive instinct explains the historical phenomenon of an isolated group, small in numbers yet dominating a country inhabited by a majority of peoples of different races and conflicting aspirations, and playing a role in European affairs out of all proportions to its numerical importance or intellectual culture. This instinct is to-day awakened and gives warning that it feels the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina to be a menace which, by introducing fresh Slav elements into the Hungarian political organism and providing a wider field and further recruitment of the Croat opposition, would upset the unstable equilibrium in which the Magyar domination is poised."
The Japanese source notes that Andrássy's "parliament-ignoring diplomacy" was criticized by German liberals in Austria, and the acquisition of Bosnia-Herzegovina was criticized in Hungary for increasing the proportion of Slavic residents. This policy, while temporarily expanding Austria-Hungary's interests in the Balkans, ultimately led to irreconcilable conflict with Russia and Slavic states, contributing to the empire's dissolution in World War I.
2.4.4. Relations with Major Powers
Andrássy's diplomatic efforts significantly reshaped Austria-Hungary's relationships with the major European powers. He prioritized an alliance with Germany, culminating in the signing of the offensive-defensive alliance with Germany the day before his retirement, which stabilized the Dual Monarchy's foreign relations. With Russia, he initially sought partial reconciliation through the Three Emperors' League in 1872 and maintained neutrality during the Russo-Turkish War. However, the Russian threat of hegemony in the Near East following the Treaty of San Stefano led him to seek a European congress, ultimately resulting in a more adversarial stance and Russia's eventual withdrawal from the Three Emperors' League.
His policy towards the Ottoman Empire was complex; while avoiding outright alienation, he actively pressured the Porte for reforms in the Balkans through the "Andrássy Note." His pre-Congress of Berlin negotiations with Great Britain secured British support for Austria-Hungary's Balkan ambitions, and Britain, along with France, generally assented to the principles outlined in the Andrássy Note. He also established more cordial relations with Italy through various conferences, despite past tensions over border areas.
3. Later Life and Retirement
Andrássy felt compelled to resign from his position as Foreign Minister due to the intense domestic opposition, particularly in Hungary, to his Balkan policies. He submitted his resignation to the Emperor on 8 October 1879. The day before his retirement, he signed the crucial offensive-defensive alliance with Germany, an agreement that fundamentally re-established the stability of Austria-Hungary's foreign relations.
Even after his retirement, Andrássy remained actively involved in public affairs, participating in both the Delegations (the common parliamentary bodies of the Dual Monarchy) and the Upper House of the Hungarian Parliament. In 1885, he strongly supported the project for the reform of the House of Magnates. Conversely, he jealously guarded the inviolability of the 1867 Compromise, speaking out on 5 March 1889, in the Upper House against any particularist interference with the common army, asserting the need for a unified imperial military. In the final years of his life, he regained much of his popularity, and his death on 18 February 1890, at the age of 66, was widely mourned as a national calamity. A plaque dedicated to him exists in the town of Volosko (between Rijeka and Opatija in present-day Croatia), located above the restaurant Amfora.
Andrássy was celebrated as the first Magyar statesman in centuries to hold a truly European position. He was described as embodying a unique blend of the Magyar magnate and the modern gentleman. His personal motto was: "It is hard to promise, but it is easy to perform." If Ferenc Deák is considered the architect of the modern Hungarian nation-state, Andrássy can be seen as its builder.
4. Personal Life
Gyula Andrássy's personal life, including his family and a notable rumored relationship, often intertwined with his public persona.
4.1. Family
Andrássy married Countess Katinka Kendeffy in Paris in 1856. Together, they had three children: two sons, Tivadar Andrássy (born 10 July 1857) and Gyula Andrássy the Younger (born 30 June 1860), and one daughter, Ilona (born in 1858 or 1859). Both of his sons achieved distinction in Hungarian politics. Tivadar was elected vice-president of the Lower House of the Hungarian parliament in 1890, while Gyula the Younger also pursued a successful political career, eventually serving as the Dual Monarchy's Foreign Minister from October to November 1918.
Andrássy's family extended into prominent European noble lines through his grandchildren. His granddaughter, Klára, married the Hungarian nobleman and industrialist Prince Károly Odescalchi. Other granddaughters included Borbála, who married Marquis Pallavicini; Katalin, who married Count Mihály Károlyi; and another Ilona, who was the war widow of Prince Pál Esterházy and later remarried Count József Cziráky.
4.2. Relationship with Empress Elisabeth
For many years, rumors circulated suggesting that Count Andrássy had a long-lasting romantic relationship with Empress Elisabeth of Austria, also known as Sisi, the wife of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary. Some even speculated that Sisi's fourth child, Archduchess Marie Valerie of Austria, had been fathered by Andrássy. However, historical evidence does not support these claims, and these rumors have been widely disproven.
The speculation likely arose from the unusually close bond between Empress Elisabeth and Count Andrássy, both of whom shared a profound devotion to Hungary, its culture, and national customs. Elisabeth was fluent in Hungarian, and both held Hungarian poetry in high regard, spending considerable time together in their mutual pursuit of dreams for Hungary. Additionally, as Marie Valerie grew older, her physical resemblance to her father, Franz Joseph, became very marked, further discrediting the rumors of Andrássy's paternity.
5. Assessment and Legacy
Gyula Andrássy's legacy is complex, marked by significant achievements in Hungarian politics and European diplomacy, alongside criticisms regarding the long-term consequences of some of his policies.
5.1. Positive Contributions
Andrássy is widely recognized for his exceptional statesmanship and diplomatic acumen. His most significant positive contribution was his pivotal role in the negotiation and implementation of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. This agreement fundamentally reshaped the Habsburg Empire, granting Hungary extensive autonomy and establishing the Dual Monarchy, which brought a period of relative stability and prosperity to the region. He was instrumental in securing Hungary's unique position within the empire, a vision he steadfastly defended throughout his career. As Foreign Minister, Andrássy successfully recovered and elevated Austria-Hungary's standing in the European concert of powers, particularly after the empire's earlier losses of influence in Italy and Germany. His strategic approach to foreign policy, emphasizing alliances with Germany and Britain, helped stabilize the Dual Monarchy's external relations during a tumultuous period. He was the first Magyar statesman in centuries to achieve such a prominent and influential European position, effectively uniting the traditional Hungarian magnate with the modern gentleman in his political style.
5.2. Criticisms and Controversies
Despite his achievements, Andrássy's policies and political decisions also drew significant criticism and had controversial long-term consequences. His "parliament-ignoring diplomacy" was a point of contention, particularly among German liberals in Austria, who viewed his actions as undermining parliamentary oversight. The occupation and administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina, secured at the Congress of Berlin, proved to be highly unpopular in Hungary. This unpopularity stemmed from both the financial burden it imposed and the strong pro-Turk sentiments among the Magyars, who opposed the introduction of more Slavic elements into the Hungarian political organism. Critics argued that the acquisition of Bosnia-Herzegovina upset the delicate ethnic balance within the Dual Monarchy and provided a wider field for Croat opposition, thereby threatening the stability of Magyar domination.
From a broader historical perspective, Andrássy's Balkan policy, particularly the acquisition of Bosnia-Herzegovina, is often viewed as a significant factor that contributed to the long-term instability of the region. By expanding Austria-Hungary's influence into the Balkans and increasing its Slavic population, his actions created irreconcilable conflicts with Russia and the emerging Slavic states. This heightened tension in the Balkans ultimately played a crucial role in the chain of events that led to the outbreak of World War I and the eventual dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. While he aimed to secure the empire's interests, some of his decisions inadvertently sowed the seeds of future conflict, impacting regional stability and ethnic relations for decades to come.
6. Honors and Decorations
Gyula Andrássy received numerous orders and decorations from various European monarchies and states, reflecting his prominent role in international diplomacy.
Austria-Hungary:
- Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, 1867
- Knight of the Golden Fleece, 1877
- Baden:
- Knight of the House Order of Fidelity, 1873
- Kingdom of Bavaria:
- Knight of St. Hubert, 1873
- Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold
- Second French Empire:
- Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Kingdom of Greece:
- Grand Cross of the Redeemer
Kingdom of Italy:
- Knight of the Annunciation, 28 November 1873
Sovereign Military Order of Malta:
- Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion
- Netherlands:
- Grand Cross of the Netherlands Lion
- Ottoman Empire:
- Order of the Medjidie, 1st Class in Diamonds
Qajar Iran:
- Order of the August Portrait, in Diamonds
Kingdom of Portugal:
- Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword
Kingdom of Prussia:
- Knight of the Black Eagle, 10 September 1872
- Russian Empire:
- Knight of St. Andrew, 1874
- Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky
- Knight of the White Eagle
- Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class
- Knight of St. Stanislaus, 1st Class
- Kingdom of Saxony:
- Knight of the Rue Crown, 1872
Siam:
- Grand Cross of the Crown of Siam
- Württemberg:
- Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1874