Hungary

3.1. Before 895: Prehistory and Antiquity

The territory of present-day Hungary, largely coinciding with the Carpathian Basin, has been inhabited by various peoples since prehistoric times. Before the arrival of the Magyars, groups such as the Celts were prominent. The Roman Empire began its conquest of the region west of the Danube River between 16 and 15 BC. By 14 BC, Emperor Augustus recognized Pannonia, the western part of the Carpathian Basin, as part of the Roman Empire in his Res Gestae Divi Augusti. The Danube largely served as the empire's frontier. The area south-east of Pannonia was organized as the Roman province of Moesia in 6 BC. In 106 AD, the region east of the River Tisza became the Roman province of Dacia, which included parts of today's eastern Hungary, remaining under Roman rule until 271 AD.
The decline of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, under pressure from the migration of Germanic peoples and the Carpians, brought new groups into Central Europe. The Hunnic Empire (circa 370-469 AD) was a significant early invading force. Attila the Hun, its most powerful ruler (434-453), became a central figure in later Hungarian mythology. After the Hunnic Empire's disintegration, the Gepids, an Eastern Germanic tribe previously vassalized by the Huns, established their own kingdom in the Carpathian Basin. Other Germanic tribes like the Goths, Vandals, and Lombards, as well as Slavs, also reached the region during this Migration Period.
In the 560s, the Avars founded the Avar Khaganate, a state that maintained supremacy in the region for over two centuries. The Franks under Charlemagne defeated the Avars in a series of campaigns during the 790s. Between 804 and 829, the First Bulgarian Empire conquered the lands east of the Danube, taking control of local Slavic tribes and Avar remnants. By the mid-9th century, the Balaton Principality (also known as Lower Pannonia) was established west of the Danube as part of the Frankish March of Pannonia. These developments set the stage for the subsequent arrival of the Magyar tribes.

3.2. 895-1526: Middle Ages

The medieval period in Hungary began with the arrival of the Magyar tribes in the late 9th century and the establishment of the Principality of Hungary, which later transformed into the powerful Kingdom of Hungary. This era saw the consolidation of the state, its Christianization, significant cultural and economic development, expansion, and challenges such as the devastating Mongol invasion.

The foundation of the Hungarian state is linked to the Magyar conquerors, who arrived from the Pontic-Caspian steppe as a confederation of seven tribes, possibly with affiliated Khazar elements. Under the leadership of Grand Prince Álmos and his son Árpád, founders of the Árpád dynasty, the Magyars took possession of the Carpathian Basin in a strategically planned process between 862 and 895. The Árpád dynasty often claimed descent from Attila the Hun.
Following their settlement, the Principality of Hungary conducted numerous military campaigns and raids across Europe, known as the Hungarian invasions of Europe (kalandozások_{kalandozások (raids/adventures)}^Hungarian), stretching from Constantinople to as far as modern-day Spain. Between 907 and 910, Hungarian forces defeated three major East Frankish imperial armies. These raids largely ceased after a significant defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, particularly those directed towards the west, prompting a shift towards a more settled state.

3.2.1. Age of Árpádian kings

The rule of the Árpád dynasty (Árpád-ház_{Árpád-ház (House of Árpád)}^Hungarian) was foundational to the Hungarian state, overseeing its transition from a tribal confederation to a Christian kingdom integrated into Western Europe. This period was characterized by the consolidation of royal power, the establishment of Christian institutions, and the development of early societal and administrative structures. Key administrative centers and royal seats during this era included Esztergom and Székesfehérvár.
In 972, the ruling prince (fejedelem_{fejedelem (ruling prince)}^Hungarian) Géza initiated the process of integrating Hungary into Christian Western Europe. His son, Stephen I (Szent István I_{Saint Stephen I}^Hungarian), became the first King of Hungary around 1000 AD after defeating his pagan uncle Koppány, who also claimed leadership. Stephen I formally converted the realm to Catholicism and, with the approval of Pope Sylvester II, Hungary was recognized as an Apostolic Kingdom. He received the royal insignia, including what is believed to be part of the Holy Crown of Hungary, from the papacy. Stephen implemented sweeping reforms to establish a Western-style feudal state and introduced Latin as the official language of administration, a practice that continued until 1844.

King Saint Ladislaus I (Szent László I_{Saint Ladislaus I}^Hungarian) further consolidated state power and strengthened Christianity. His strategic leadership helped end internal power struggles and fend off foreign threats. In 1091, at the request of his sister Helen, wife of the Croatian king Demetrius Zvonimir, Ladislaus intervened in Croatia. This led to the establishment of a personal union between the Kingdom of Croatia and the Kingdom of Hungary in 1102, when King Coloman (Könyves Kálmán_{Coloman the Bookish}^Hungarian) was crowned "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" in Biograd na Moru.
King Béla III was one of the most powerful and wealthiest monarchs of the Árpád dynasty. According to contemporary records, his annual income was equivalent to 23 tonnes of silver, exceeding that of the French king and double the revenue of the English Crown.
King Andrew II issued the Diploma Andreanum in 1224, which secured special privileges for the Transylvanian Saxons and is considered one of the earliest examples of regional autonomy laws. He also led the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217 with a large royal army. His most significant domestic act was the issuance of the Golden Bull of 1222, a charter of rights that limited royal power and granted privileges to the nobility, often compared to England's Magna Carta. It was a foundational document in Hungarian constitutional development and contributed to the evolution of the Hungarian Diet (parliament, parlamentum publicum_{public parliament}^Latin).
The kingdom faced a severe crisis with the Mongol invasion of 1241-1242, which devastated the country and resulted in the loss of up to half of its approximately 2 million inhabitants. In response, King Béla IV initiated a program of national reconstruction, including allowing Cumans and Jassic peoples fleeing the Mongols to settle in depopulated areas. These groups gradually assimilated into Hungarian society. Béla IV also ordered the construction of hundreds of stone castles and fortifications. These defenses proved crucial when the Mongols returned in 1285; the invading force was defeated near Pest by the royal army of King Ladislaus IV.

3.2.2. Age of Angevin and elected kings

Following the end of the Árpád dynasty in 1301, Hungary entered a period of interregnum before the Angevin dynasty ascended to the throne, followed by an era where monarchs were often elected, most notably members of the Hunyadi family. This period saw the kingdom reach new heights of power and cultural flourishing, but also face increasing threats from the expanding Ottoman Empire.
After a destructive interregnum (1301-1308), Charles I of Hungary (Károly Róbert_{Charles Robert}^Hungarian), an Angevin with Árpád lineage, successfully restored royal power by defeating rival oligarchs, the "little kings." His son, Louis the Great (Nagy Lajos I_{Louis the Great}^Hungarian, reigned 1342-1382), led numerous successful military campaigns, extending Hungarian influence from Lithuania to southern Italy (Kingdom of Naples), and also became King of Poland from 1370.
After Louis the Great died without a male heir, Sigismund of Luxembourg (Luxemburgi Zsigmond_{Sigismund of Luxembourg}^Hungarian, reigned 1387-1437) eventually secured the throne. Sigismund also became Holy Roman Emperor in 1433. The first Hungarian Bible translation was completed around 1439. In 1437, a significant anti-feudal and anti-clerical peasant revolt in Transylvania occurred, strongly influenced by Hussite ideas.
John Hunyadi (Hunyadi János_{John Hunyadi}^Hungarian), from a noble family in Transylvania, rose to prominence as a brilliant military commander. He was elected governor and later regent. Hunyadi was a key figure in the wars against the Ottoman Turks, with his most celebrated victory being the Siege of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) in 1456, which temporarily halted Ottoman advances.

The last strong king of medieval Hungary was Matthias Corvinus (Hunyadi Mátyás_{Matthias Corvinus}^Hungarian, reigned 1458-1490), son of John Hunyadi. His election marked the first time a member of the nobility without direct dynastic ties ascended to the Hungarian throne. Matthias was a successful military leader and an enlightened patron of the arts and learning, embodying the Renaissance spirit. His library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was one of Europe's largest collections of historical chronicles, philosophical, and scientific works in the 15th century, second only to the Vatican Library. It was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2005. Matthias was regarded by serfs and commoners as a just ruler, protecting them from abuses by the magnates. His mercenary standing army, the Black Army of Hungary (Fekete sereg_{Black Army}^Hungarian), was exceptionally large for its time and conquered parts of Austria, including Vienna, and Bohemia. In 1479, his army decisively defeated Ottoman and Wallachian forces at the Battle of Breadfield.
Following Matthias's death without a legitimate heir, the Hungarian magnates facilitated the accession of the Polish Vladislaus II of the Jagiellonian dynasty (reigned 1490-1516), chosen partly due to his perceived weakness and susceptibility to aristocratic influence. Under Vladislaus II, Hungary's international role declined, political stability faltered, and social progress stagnated. In 1514, a major peasant rebellion led by György Dózsa erupted due to worsening conditions but was brutally suppressed by the nobles under John Zápolya. The ensuing disorder weakened the kingdom, paving the way for Ottoman advances. In 1521, the strategic southern fortress of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) fell to the Turks. The early spread of Protestantism during this period further complicated internal relations as the kingdom faced external threats.

3.3. 1526-1699: Ottoman wars and trisection

The Battle of Mohács in 1526 marked a catastrophic turning point for medieval Hungary. After approximately 150 years of intermittent warfare with the expanding Ottoman Empire, the Hungarian forces, led by King Louis II, suffered a decisive defeat. King Louis II himself perished while fleeing the battlefield. The political chaos that ensued saw the divided Hungarian nobility elect two rival kings: John Zápolya and Ferdinand I of the Habsburg dynasty.
The Ottoman conquest of Buda in 1541 solidified the division of Hungary into three parts, a state of affairs that persisted for over 150 years:
1. Royal Hungary (Királyi Magyarország_{Royal Hungary}^Hungarian): The north-western part of the kingdom remained under Habsburg rule, with the Habsburg emperors also holding the title of King of Hungary. Its capital was Pozsony (present-day Bratislava, Slovakia).
2. Ottoman Hungary (Török hódoltság_{Ottoman Hungary}^Hungarian): The central and southern part of the former kingdom, including the historic capital Buda, was directly administered by the Ottoman Empire as the Pashalik of Buda. This region suffered significantly from constant warfare and Ottoman governance, leading to depopulation and economic decline. The Ottoman military presence included Janissaries and local auxiliary forces.
3. The Principality of Transylvania (Erdélyi Fejedelemség_{Principality of Transylvania}^Hungarian): The eastern part of the kingdom became a semi-independent principality under Ottoman suzerainty, later also influenced by the Habsburgs. It was often ruled by Hungarian princes (like the Zápolya family and later elected princes such as those from the Bethlen and Rákóczi families) and served as a haven for Hungarian culture and Protestantism, offering a degree of religious tolerance not found elsewhere in the region. It played a crucial role in preserving Hungarian statehood and identity.
The period was characterized by ongoing conflict, known as the Ottoman-Habsburg wars. In 1686, the Holy League's multinational army recaptured Buda from the Turks during the Great Turkish War. Subsequent Ottoman defeats led to the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, where the Ottomans officially ceded most of Ottoman Hungary to the Habsburgs. By 1718, virtually all of the historical Kingdom of Hungary was removed from direct Ottoman rule, though Tatar raids, vassals of the Ottomans from Crimea, continued sporadically, with the last significant one in 1717.
The Habsburgs initiated a strong Counter-Reformation policy in the 17th century, which led to the majority of the kingdom's population returning to Catholicism. The prolonged warfare had devastating demographic consequences. Large areas were depopulated, settlements vanished, and the ethnic composition of the southern regions was fundamentally altered as the Habsburg government settled large groups of Serbs, other Slavs, and Germans (known as Danube Swabians) in these areas. Hungarians were often restricted from resettling in the southern parts of the Carpathian Basin, which had long-term effects on the region's ethnic makeup and social structure, impacting peasants and various ethnic groups differently.

3.4. 1699-1918: Habsburg rule and national movements

Following the expulsion of the Ottomans, most of Hungary came under the rule of the Habsburg Empire. This era was marked by efforts to centralize power under Vienna, leading to significant national resistance movements aimed at restoring Hungarian autonomy and rights. These struggles, coupled with broader European Enlightenment and nationalist ideas, culminated in the Hungarian Reform Era, the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, and eventually the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 which established Austria-Hungary. The period ended with the cataclysm of World War I and the dissolution of the empire.
Between 1703 and 1711, Francis II Rákóczi (II. Rákóczi Ferenc_{Francis II Rákóczi}^Hungarian), a Transylvanian nobleman, led a large-scale war of independence against Habsburg rule. The Hungarian Diet at Ónod declared the Habsburgs dethroned in 1707, and Rákóczi provisionally took power as Ruling Prince. Despite initial successes, the Hungarian Kuruc forces were defeated at the Battle of Trenčín in 1708, and the uprising eventually collapsed due to internal divisions and lack of sustained foreign support, leading to surrender in 1711.
During the Napoleonic Wars and in the subsequent decades, the Hungarian Diet was rarely convened. However, by the 1820s, financial pressures forced the Emperor to call the Diet, marking the beginning of the Hungarian Reform Era (Reformkor_{Reform Era}^Hungarian, 1825-1848). A liberal party emerged, focusing on social reforms, including for the peasantry. Figures like Count István Széchenyi advocated for modernization, while Lajos Kossuth became a prominent leader of the lower gentry in the Diet, pushing for greater national rights and liberal reforms. Despite Habsburg obstruction of key civil, political, and economic reforms, and the imprisonment of reformers like Kossuth and Mihály Táncsics, the nation focused its energies on modernization.

The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 erupted on March 15, 1848, with mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda, compelling the Habsburgs to accept the Twelve Points, a list of demands for Hungarian autonomy and civil liberties. A government was formed with Lajos Batthyány as Prime Minister and Lajos Kossuth as Minister of Finance (later Regent-President). The Habsburgs were eventually dethroned by the Hungarian Diet. The Austrian court skillfully manipulated Croatian, Serbian, and Romanian peasant leaders, loyal to the Habsburgs, into rebelling against the Hungarian government. However, the Hungarian cause was supported by a majority of Slovaks, Germans, and Rusyns within the kingdom, as well as all Jewish Hungarians and numerous Polish, Austrian, and Italian volunteers. In July 1849, the Hungarian Parliament enacted pioneering laws on ethnic and minority rights. The Hungarian revolutionary army (Honvédség_{Hungarian revolutionary army}^Hungarian) initially achieved significant military victories against Austrian forces. To crush the revolution, Habsburg Emperor Franz Joseph I appealed to Tsar Nicholas I of Russia for assistance. The intervention of the Russian army led to the surrender of the Hungarian forces under Artúr Görgei in August 1849. The Austrian commander, Julius Jacob von Haynau, imposed a brutal period of repression, ordering the execution of the 13 Martyrs of Arad (leaders of the Hungarian army) and Prime Minister Batthyány in October 1849. Kossuth fled into exile, and Hungary entered a period of "passive resistance."
External pressures and internal problems, combined with Austria's military defeats (e.g., in the Austro-Prussian War), made reforms inevitable. This led to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 (Kiegyezés_Compromise^Hungarian), which established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary (Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia_{Austro-Hungarian Monarchy}^Hungarian). This new empire was the second-largest in Europe by area and third most populous. Austria and Hungary were governed separately by two parliaments from two capitals (Vienna and Budapest), with a common monarch (Franz Joseph I was crowned King of Hungary), and common foreign, military, and certain financial policies. Economically, the empire formed a customs union. The old Hungarian Constitution was restored. This era witnessed impressive economic development, with the formerly agrarian Hungarian economy becoming relatively modernized and industrialized by the turn of the 20th century, although agriculture remained significant. In 1873, the old capital Buda and Óbuda were officially united with Pest to create the new metropolis of Budapest. Many modern state institutions and the administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. However, the Hungarian government also pursued policies of Magyarization aimed at assimilating ethnic minorities, which created tensions and contributed to the struggles for minority rights.

Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in June 1914, Hungarian Prime Minister István Tisza initially opposed escalating the crisis into war but was overruled. Austria-Hungary, as part of the Central Powers alongside Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey, mobilized millions of soldiers from the Kingdom of Hungary for World War I. Hungarian troops fought on various fronts. The home territory saw direct conflict during the Brusilov Offensive in 1916 and a Romanian invasion of Transylvania later that year, both of which were repelled. In 1916, Emperor Franz Joseph died, and his successor, Charles IV (Károly IV), was more inclined towards peace. Despite successes on the Eastern Front, the Central Powers ultimately faced defeat on the Western Front. By 1918, the economic situation in Hungary had deteriorated severely, leading to strikes and army mutinies. Leftist and liberal movements in both Vienna and Budapest supported the separatist aspirations of ethnic minorities. Austria-Hungary signed a general armistice in Padua on November 3, 1918. In October 1918, Hungary's union with Austria was effectively dissolved, ending the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

3.5. 1918-1941: Between the World Wars

The aftermath of World War I plunged Hungary into a period of profound political turmoil and territorial loss. The Aster Revolution in October 1918 led to the establishment of the Hungarian People's Republic under the social-democratic Prime Minister Mihály Károlyi. Despite having a substantial army, Károlyi's pacifist government ordered disarmament, leaving Hungary vulnerable. During this period, Hungary lost control over approximately 75% of its pre-war territory of 126 K mile^{2 (325.41 K km2)} to foreign occupation without significant resistance. Romania invaded Transylvania, Czechoslovakia annexed Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia), and a joint Serbian-French force occupied Vojvodina and other southern regions.
In March 1919, communists led by Béla Kun ousted Károlyi's government and proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic (Tanácsköztársaság_{Soviet Republic}^Hungarian). This was followed by a campaign of Red Terror. Despite some military successes against Czechoslovak forces, Kun's regime was unable to withstand a Romanian invasion. By August 1919, Romanian troops occupied Budapest and overthrew the Soviet Republic.

In November 1919, rightist forces led by former Austro-Hungarian admiral Miklós Horthy entered Budapest. Horthy was proclaimed Regent of the re-established Kingdom of Hungary in January 1920, inaugurating the "Horthy era" (Horthy-kor_{Horthy era}^Hungarian). The new government worked to normalize foreign relations while a White Terror swept through the countryside, involving extrajudicial killings of suspected communists and Jews, which lasted into 1920.
On June 4, 1920, the Treaty of Trianon formally established Hungary's new borders. The country lost 71% of its territory and 66% of its pre-war population, including many sources of raw materials and its sole seaport at Fiume. Approximately 3.3 million ethnic Hungarians found themselves living outside the new borders. The revision of the Treaty of Trianon became a central and profound socio-economic and political objective for Hungary.
The early Horthy regime faced putsch attempts by the former Habsburg monarch Charles IV, continued suppression of communists, and a migration crisis due to territorial changes. The government's policies grew increasingly right-wing, with the passage of antisemitic laws. Isolation by the Little Entente (Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia) pushed Hungary economically and politically towards Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. The Great Depression exacerbated the situation, increasing the popularity of fascist politicians like Gyula Gömbös and Ferenc Szálasi.
Horthy's nationalist and revisionist agenda saw some success when Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, through the First Vienna Award (1938) and Second Vienna Award (1940), allowed Hungary to peacefully regain some ethnic-Hungarian-majority territories from Czechoslovakia and Romania. In 1939, Hungary forcibly annexed further territory from Czechoslovakia (Carpatho-Ruthenia). Hungary formally joined the Axis powers by signing the Tripartite Pact on November 20, 1940. In 1941, Hungary participated in the invasion of Yugoslavia, gaining some of its former southern territories.

3.6. 1941-1945: World War II

Hungary formally entered World War II as an Axis power on June 26, 1941, declaring war on the Soviet Union after unidentified planes bombed Kassa (then part of Hungary, now Košice, Slovakia), Munkács (now Mukachevo, Ukraine), and Rahó (now Rakhiv, Ukraine). Hungarian troops fought on the Eastern Front for two years. Despite an early success at the Battle of Uman, the Hungarian Second Army suffered catastrophic losses at the River Don in January 1943.
Following these heavy losses, Regent Miklós Horthy's government began seeking a secret peace pact with the Allies. Learning of these clandestine efforts, German troops occupied Hungary on March 19, 1944, to ensure Horthy's compliance and prevent Hungary from defecting.

In October 1944, as the Soviet front approached and the Hungarian government made further attempts to disengage from the war, German forces ousted Horthy and installed a puppet government under Ferenc Szálasi's fascist Arrow Cross Party. Szálasi pledged all the country's resources to the German war effort. By October 1944, Soviet forces had reached the River Tisza and, despite some Hungarian-German resistance (e.g., Battle of Debrecen), succeeded in encircling and besieging Budapest by December.
Budapest surrendered on February 13, 1945. By April 1945, German troops had been driven out of Hungary, and the country came under Soviet military occupation. The war left Hungary devastated, with over 60% of its economy destroyed and significant loss of life.
The consequences of the war included territorial reversions. The Paris Peace Treaties of 1947 officially reduced Hungary to its immediate post-Trianon borders. Population transfers also occurred: approximately 200,000 ethnic Hungarians were expelled from Czechoslovakia in exchange for 70,000 Slovaks living in Hungary, and around 202,000 ethnic Germans were expelled from Hungary to Germany.
The Holocaust had a devastating impact. In addition to over 600,000 Hungarian Jews who were murdered (with nearly 440,000 deported, mainly to Auschwitz, almost all of whom perished), many thousands of Romani people were also victims. Furthermore, as many as 280,000 other Hungarians were subjected to violence, including rape and murder, or were deported for slave labor. The Horthy government's complicity in the Holocaust, particularly after the German occupation, remains a deeply painful and contentious aspect of Hungarian history, impacting the Jewish population and other minorities profoundly.

3.7. 1945-1989: Communist era

Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, Hungary became a satellite state of the Soviet Union. The Second Hungarian Republic (1946-1949) was short-lived, as the Hungarian Communist Party, with Soviet backing, gradually eliminated political opposition. In 1949, the Hungarian People's Republic (Magyar Népköztársaság_{Hungarian People's Republic}^Hungarian) was established, marking the beginning of four decades of Communist rule.
The Soviet leadership selected Mátyás Rákosi to lead the Stalinization of the country. Rákosi effectively ruled Hungary from 1949 to 1956 as General Secretary of the Hungarian Working People's Party. His government's policies of forced militarization, rapid industrialization, agricultural collectivization, and harsh war reparations led to a severe decline in living standards. Imitating Stalin's KGB, Rákosi's government established a brutal secret political police, the ÁVH (Államvédelmi Hatóság_{State Protection Authority (ÁVH)}^Hungarian), to enforce the regime. Approximately 350,000 officials, intellectuals, and ordinary citizens were imprisoned or executed between 1948 and 1956. Many freethinkers, democrats, and Horthy-era dignitaries were secretly arrested and extrajudicially interned in domestic and foreign gulags. An estimated 600,000 Hungarians were deported to Soviet labor camps, where at least 200,000 died.
After Stalin's death in 1953, the Soviet Union pursued a program of de-Stalinization, which was anathema to Rákosi and led to his deposition. A period of political easing followed, with Imre Nagy becoming prime minister. Nagy promised market liberalization and political openness. However, Rákosi and his hardline allies eventually managed to discredit Nagy and replace him with the more doctrinaire Ernő Gerő. Hungary joined the Warsaw Pact in May 1955, as societal dissatisfaction with the regime continued to swell.
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 (1956-os forradalom_{1956 Revolution}^Hungarian) erupted on October 23, 1956, following the firing on peaceful student demonstrations by Soviet soldiers and the ÁVH. Protesters took to the streets in Budapest, demanding democratic reforms and national independence. Imre Nagy returned as premier in an effort to quell the chaos, promised free elections, and announced Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. Violence continued as revolutionary militias fought against the Soviet Army and the ÁVH. The resistance, though heavily outnumbered, fought fiercely. By October 30, 1956, most Soviet troops had withdrawn from Budapest. However, the Soviet leadership, fearing a destabilization of the Eastern Bloc, decided to intervene decisively. On November 4, Soviet reinforcements of over 150,000 troops and 2,500 tanks re-entered Hungary and brutally suppressed the revolution. Nearly 20,000 Hungarians were killed resisting the intervention. Afterward, an additional 21,600 were imprisoned for political reasons, some 13,000 were interned, and 230 were tried and executed. Imre Nagy was secretly tried, found guilty, sentenced to death, and executed by hanging in June 1958. With borders briefly opened during the uprising, nearly a quarter of a million Hungarians fled the country. The revolution had a profound human rights impact and highlighted the repressive nature of Soviet-backed regimes.

After a second, briefer period of Soviet military occupation, János Kádár, Nagy's former minister of state, was chosen by the Soviet leadership to head the new government and chair the new ruling Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party (Magyar Szocialista Munkáspárt_{Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party (MSZMP)}^Hungarian). Kádár quickly normalized the situation. In 1963, his government granted a general amnesty. He proclaimed a new policy line, famously summarized as "those who are not against us are with us," meaning that people were no longer compelled to profess active loyalty to the party if they tacitly accepted the socialist regime.
Kádár introduced new planning priorities in the economy, a system often termed Goulash Communism (Gulyáskommunizmus_{Goulash Communism}^Hungarian). This included allowing farmers significant private plots within the collective farm system (háztáji gazdálkodás_{private plots system}^Hungarian) and greater autonomy for state enterprises. Living standards rose as consumer goods and food production were prioritized over military production. In 1968, the New Economic Mechanism (NEM) introduced further free-market elements into the socialist command economy. From the 1960s through the late 1980s, Hungary was often referred to as "the happiest barrack" within the Eastern Bloc, enjoying a relatively higher standard of living, a more liberalized economy, a less censored press, and less restricted travel rights than its neighbors. In 1980, Bertalan Farkas became the first Hungarian cosmonaut as part of the Interkosmos program.
However, in the 1980s, living standards steeply declined again due to a worldwide recession and the inherent inefficiencies of the communist system. By the time Kádár died in 1989, the Soviet Union was in steep decline. A younger generation of reformists within the MSZMP, along with burgeoning opposition movements, saw liberalization and a transition to democracy as the solution to Hungary's mounting economic and social problems. Processes leading to the fall of communism included Round Table Talks between the MSZMP and opposition groups starting in March 1989, the symbolic reburial of Imre Nagy as a revolutionary martyr in June, and the crucial decision to open the border with Austria in May 1989, which allowed thousands of East Germans to flee to the West, significantly contributing to the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of communism across Eastern Europe.

3.8. 1989-present: Third Republic

Hungary's transition from communism to a democratic, market-based system (rendszerváltás_{regime change}^Hungarian) was notably peaceful, driven by economic stagnation, domestic political pressure, and the changing geopolitical landscape in Eastern Europe. The symbolic end of communism is often marked by the reburial of Imre Nagy as a national hero in June 1989. On October 23, 1989, the Hungarian People's Republic was formally replaced by the Third Hungarian Republic (Harmadik Magyar Köztársaság_{Third Hungarian Republic}^Hungarian), with a new constitution guaranteeing multi-party democracy and human rights.
The first free parliamentary elections were held in May 1990. The Hungarian Democratic Forum (Magyar Demokrata Fórum_{Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF)}^Hungarian), a center-right conservative party, won and formed a coalition government with József Antall as the first democratically elected prime minister since World War II. The early 1990s were marked by economic challenges, including a severe recession due to the removal of state subsidies and rapid privatization. Austerity measures proved unpopular, and the Hungarian Socialist Party (Magyar Szocialista Párt_{Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP)}^Hungarian), the legal and political successor to the former communist party, won the 1994 elections. This pattern of alternating governments continued, with the governing party or coalition being ousted in subsequent elections in 1998 (Fidesz-MDF victory) and 2002 (MSZP victory).
Throughout this period, Hungary pursued a strong integrationist agenda, joining NATO in 1999 and the European Union (EU) in 2004 after a successful referendum. Hungary became part of the Schengen Area in 2007. As a NATO member, Hungary participated in peacekeeping operations in the former Yugoslavia.

In 2006, major nationwide protests erupted after Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány (MSZP) admitted in a leaked private speech (the Őszöd speech) that his party had "lied" to win the recent elections. The popularity of left-wing parties plummeted in the ensuing political upheaval. In the 2010 elections, Viktor Orbán's national-conservative Fidesz party, in alliance with the KDNP, won a parliamentary supermajority. The Fidesz-KDNP government subsequently approved a new constitution, the Fundamental Law of Hungary, which came into effect on January 1, 2012. This brought sweeping governmental and legal changes, including the restructuring of parliamentary constituencies, a reduction in the number of MPs, and a shift to single-round parliamentary elections. The official name of the country was changed from "Republic of Hungary" to simply "Hungary." Fidesz has maintained its supermajority or strong majority in every subsequent election (2014, 2018, 2022).
Since 2010, Hungary under Viktor Orbán has faced increasing international criticism regarding democratic backsliding. Critics have characterized the country as an "illiberal democracy" (a term Orbán himself has embraced, describing Hungary as an "illiberal Christian democracy"), a "hybrid regime", a "kleptocracy", and a "mafia state". These developments have led to strained relations with the United States and the European Union. Areas of ongoing conflict and concern from a center-left/social liberalism perspective include:

• The restriction of LGBT rights, including controversial legislation affecting the portrayal of homosexuality and gender diversity.
• Migration policy, especially during the 2015 European migrant crisis, when the Hungarian government unilaterally constructed border barriers on its borders with Serbia and Croatia and strongly criticized EU migration policies. This approach has raised human rights concerns regarding the treatment of asylum seekers.
• Academic freedom, notably exemplified by the lex CEU, legislation that effectively forced the US-accredited Central European University to relocate most of its programs from Budapest.
• Media freedom, with concerns about increasing government influence over media outlets and a decline in media pluralism.
• Rule of law issues, leading the European Parliament to trigger Article 7 proceedings against Hungary in 2018 due to perceived risks to EU values. The Hungarian government has consistently disputed these allegations.
• Foreign policy decisions, such as authorizing the use of Russian (Sputnik V) and Chinese (Sinopharm) COVID-19 vaccines outside the EU's centralized procurement process, and a nuanced stance on Western sanctions against Russia following the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, sometimes opposing their expansion.

These developments continue to shape Hungary's domestic political landscape and its international relations, with ongoing debates about the country's democratic trajectory and its impact on human rights and minority protections.

4.1. Topography

Hungary's topography is largely defined by the Carpathian Basin. The vast majority of the country consists of plains and gently rolling hills.
Transdanubia (Dunántúl_Transdanubia^Hungarian), stretching westward from the Danube River towards Austria, is a primarily hilly region with varied terrain, including low mountains. This area includes:

• The easternmost stretch of the Alps, known as Alpokalja (Alpokalja_{Alpokalja (foothills of the Alps)}^Hungarian; literally "foothills of the Alps"), located in the west of the country. The highest point in this area, and in Transdanubia, is Írott-kő at 2894 ft ^{(882 m)}.
• The Transdanubian Mountains, a range of hills and low mountains in the central region of Transdanubia.
• The Mecsek Mountains and Villány Mountains in the south.
• The Little Hungarian Plain (Kisalföld_{Little Hungarian Plain}^Hungarian), a flat basin found in northern Transdanubia.
• Lake Balaton, the largest lake in Central Europe, and Lake Hévíz, the world's largest thermal lake, are both located in Transdanubia.

The regions of Duna-Tisza köze (Duna-Tisza köze_{between the Danube and Tisza rivers}^Hungarian) and Tiszántúl (Tiszántúl_{east of the Tisza}^Hungarian) are characterized mainly by the Great Hungarian Plain (Alföld_{Alföld (Great Hungarian Plain)}^Hungarian, also Nagyalföld_Nagyalföld^Hungarian), which covers most of the eastern and southeastern areas of the country. This is a vast, flat, and fertile agricultural region.
To the north of the Great Hungarian Plain, along the border with Slovakia, are the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains. This region includes Hungary's highest peak, Kékes (or Kékestető), which stands at 3.3 K ft ^{(1.01 K m)}.
Major rivers include the Danube (Duna_{Duna (Danube)}^Hungarian), which flows through the capital, Budapest, and forms part of the border with Slovakia, and the Tisza, its largest tributary, which drains much of the Great Plain. The Dráva River (Dráva_{Dráva River}^Hungarian) forms part of the southern border with Croatia. Hungary is also known for its abundance of thermal springs and spa culture, a result of its geological position within the Carpathian Basin.

4.2. Climate

Hungary has a temperate seasonal climate with four distinct seasons. It is generally characterized by warm summers and cold, often snowy, winters. The country's climate is influenced by its location in Central Europe, transitional between oceanic, continental, and (to a lesser extent) Mediterranean influences.
Summers are generally warm, often hot, with relatively low overall humidity, although frequent rain showers can occur. Average high temperatures in summer range from 73.4 °F ^{(23 °C)} to 82.4 °F ^{(28 °C)}, but can reach higher. The highest recorded temperature was 107.41999999999999 °F ^{(41.9 °C)} on July 20, 2007, at Kiskunhalas.
Winters are cold, cloudy, and humid, with snowfall being common, though its frequency and intensity can vary. Average low temperatures in winter are typically between 26.6 °F ^{(-3 °C)} and 19.4 °F ^{(-7 °C)}, but can drop significantly lower. The lowest recorded temperature was -31 °F ^{(-35 °C)} on February 16, 1940, at Miskolc.
The average annual temperature is approximately 49.46 °F ^{(9.7 °C)}. The average yearly rainfall is around 24 in ^{(600 mm)}, with more precipitation generally in the west and less in the east.
The relative isolation of the Carpathian Basin makes Hungary susceptible to droughts. The effects of climate change have been observed, with recent decades reportedly showing trends towards drier conditions, hotter summers, and milder winters with less snow. There is a popular perception, supported by some scientific observations, that spring and autumn seasons are becoming shorter. A small region in the south, near Pécs, can exhibit characteristics closer to a Mediterranean climate.

4.3. Biodiversity and national parks

Hungary's biodiversity reflects its location at the crossroads of various European ecological regions. Phytogeographically, Hungary belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Hungary largely falls within the terrestrial ecoregion of Pannonian mixed forests.
Approximately 20-22.5% of the country is covered by forests, predominantly oak and beech in hilly and mountainous areas. The Great Hungarian Plain (Puszta) historically supported vast grasslands, parts of which are preserved today. Common fauna includes hare, deer, and various bird species, especially waterfowl in wetland areas. Rarer species include wildcat and various bat species. All native reptiles and amphibians are protected, with the exception of the invasive red-eared slider turtle.
Hungary has established a network of protected areas to conserve its natural heritage. These include:

• 10 National Parks: These are large areas with significant ecological and cultural value. Notable examples include Hortobágy National Park (a UNESCO World Heritage site, known for its Puszta landscape and traditional pastoralism), Aggtelek National Park (famous for its karst caves, also a World Heritage site shared with Slovakia), and Fertő-Hanság National Park (encompassing Lake Fertő/Neusiedlersee, another World Heritage site shared with Austria).
• 145 Nature Reserves and 35 Landscape Protection Areas: These offer varying levels of protection to specific habitats and species.

Important ecosystems and protected sites include:

• In Budapest: Margaret Island, Gellért Hill, Sas Hill, and the Pál-völgyi cave system.
• In Transdanubia: Besides Lake Fertő and Lake Balaton, notable sites include the thermal Lake Hévíz, the Tapolca cave system, the Danube Bend, and forests in the Pilis, Bakony, and Mecsek regions. The Gemenc forest along the Danube is a significant floodplain ecosystem.
• In Northern Hungary: The Mátra and Bükk Mountains (including Bükk National Park) offer extensive forests and hiking opportunities.
• On the Great Plain: Apart from Hortobágy, areas like Bugac (part of Kiskunság National Park) preserve traditional Puszta landscapes.

Hungary also has numerous arboretums (e.g., Vácrátó, Zirc, Szarvas) and sites for observing specific fauna, such as the Sóstó Game Park in Nyíregyháza and the Bear Sanctuary in Veresegyháza.
Environmental challenges include soil erosion from intensive agriculture, water pollution, and the impacts of climate change on water resources and biodiversity. From a social perspective, these challenges affect rural livelihoods, access to clean water and healthy environments, and the preservation of cultural landscapes tied to traditional land uses. Conservation efforts aim to balance ecological protection with sustainable development, often involving EU co-financing. There is an ongoing societal discussion about land use, resource management, and the role of local communities in conservation.

The 10 National Parks are:

5.1. Political system

Hungary's political system is a parliamentary republic. The highest organ of state authority is the unicameral National Assembly (Országgyűlés_{National Assembly}^Hungarian). It currently consists of 199 Members of Parliament (országgyűlési képviselő_{Member of Parliament}^Hungarian), who are elected every four years through a mixed electoral system that includes single-member constituencies and national party lists. An electoral threshold of 5% is typically required for parties to gain representation via national lists.
The President of Hungary (köztársasági elnök_{President of the Republic}^Hungarian) serves as the head of state. The president is elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term and can serve a maximum of two terms. The role is largely ceremonial, with powers including formally nominating the prime minister (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition in the Assembly), receiving foreign heads of state, and serving as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president also has a limited veto power over legislation and can refer laws to the Constitutional Court for review of their constitutionality. The current president is Tamás Sulyok, who took office in 2024.
The Prime Minister of Hungary (miniszterelnök_{Prime Minister}^Hungarian) is the head of government and exercises executive power. The prime minister is typically the leader of the political party or coalition that commands a majority in the National Assembly and is formally elected by the Assembly upon the president's nomination. The prime minister selects Cabinet ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them, although cabinet nominees must appear before consultative parliamentary committee hearings and be formally approved by the president. The Cabinet, headed by the prime minister, is responsible to the National Assembly. The current prime minister is Viktor Orbán, who has been in office since 2010.
The third most significant governmental position is the Speaker of the National Assembly, who is elected by the Assembly and is responsible for overseeing its daily sessions and procedures. The current speaker is László Kövér.
The principles of separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches are enshrined in the Fundamental Law. However, concerns have been raised by domestic critics and international observers, particularly from a center-left/social liberalism perspective, about a perceived erosion of checks and balances, the concentration of power, and challenges to the rule of law and judicial independence under the Fidesz-KDNP governments since 2010. These concerns are often linked to constitutional and legislative changes that have impacted the judiciary, media freedom, and the functioning of independent institutions.

5.2. Political parties

Since the end of communism in 1989, Hungary has operated under a multi-party system. The political landscape has been dominated by the national-conservative Fidesz party, in alliance with the KDNP, which has held a parliamentary supermajority or strong majority since 2010. The last parliamentary election took place on April 3, 2022.
The National Assembly currently has 199 seats. The main political forces as of the 2022 election results are:
Government Coalition: (135 seats)

• Fidesz (Fidesz - Magyar Polgári Szövetség_{Fidesz - Hungarian Civic Alliance}^Hungarian): A national-conservative and right-wing populist party. It is the dominant political force in Hungary. (117 seats)
• KDNP (Kereszténydemokrata Néppárt_{Christian Democratic People's Party}^Hungarian): A Christian democratic and socially conservative party, in a long-standing alliance with Fidesz. (18 seats)
• Supported by:
  • German minority representative (Magyarországi Németek Országos Önkormányzata_{National Self-Government of Germans in Hungary}^Hungarian, MNOÖ): Typically aligns with the government. (1 seat for Imre Ritter)

  Opposition Parties:
  The opposition has been fragmented but attempted to unite in the 2022 election under the banner "United for Hungary" (Egységben Magyarországért_{United for Hungary}^Hungarian). Key opposition parties include:

  • Democratic Coalition (Demokratikus Koalíció_{Democratic Coalition}^Hungarian, DK): A social-liberal, pro-European party, led by former Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány. (15 seats)
  • Momentum Movement (Momentum Mozgalom_{Momentum Movement}^Hungarian): A liberal, centrist, pro-European party, generally appealing to younger, urban voters. (10 seats)
  • Jobbik, the Movement for a Better Hungary (Jobbik Magyarországért Mozgalom_{Jobbik, the Movement for a Better Hungary}^Hungarian): Originally a far-right, nationalist party, it has moderated its stance towards the center-right in recent years. (8 seats)
  • Hungarian Socialist Party (Magyar Szocialista Párt_{Hungarian Socialist Party}^Hungarian, MSZP): A social-democratic party, successor to the reform wing of the former communist Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party. (10 seats)
  • LMP - Hungary's Green Party (LMP - Magyarország Zöld Pártja_{LMP - Hungary's Green Party}^Hungarian, formerly Lehet Más a Politika): A green, liberal party. (5 seats)
  • Dialogue - The Greens' Party (Párbeszéd - A Zöldek Pártja_{Dialogue - The Greens' Party}^Hungarian): A green, social-democratic party, often in alliance with MSZP or LMP. (6 seats)
  • Our Homeland Movement (Mi Hazánk Mozgalom_{Our Homeland Movement}^Hungarian, MHM): A far-right, hard Eurosceptic, and nationalist party, which split from Jobbik. It entered parliament for the first time in 2022. (6 seats)

  The political climate has been characterized by significant polarization. From a center-left/social liberalism perspective, concerns are often raised about the Fidesz government's impact on democratic institutions, media freedom, the rights of minorities (particularly LGBTQ+ individuals and Romani people), and the rule of law. Opposition parties face challenges in presenting a united front and countering the governing coalition's strong hold on power and media influence.

5.3. Law and judicial system

Hungary operates under a civil law system, which is primarily based on codified statutes. Its legal framework draws from German law and, more broadly, Roman law traditions. The Fundamental Law of Hungary, adopted in 2011, serves as the supreme law of the land.
The judiciary is divided into several tiers:

• Ordinary Courts**: These courts handle regular civil and criminal cases. The structure includes:
  • Local courts (járásbíróság_{local courts}^Hungarian).
  • Regional appellate courts (ítélőtábla_{regional appellate courts}^Hungarian).
  • The Kúria (Supreme Court), which is the highest judicial authority for most civil and criminal matters. Its decisions serve as important precedents.
• Administrative Courts**: These courts have jurisdiction over litigation between individuals or organizations and public administrative bodies. There have been reforms and controversies regarding the structure and independence of administrative courts in recent years.

The highest courts, including the Kúria and the Constitutional Court, are located in Budapest.
Law enforcement in Hungary is primarily the responsibility of:

• The Hungarian Police (Rendőrség_{Hungarian Police}^Hungarian): This is the main state law enforcement agency, handling most general police duties, including criminal investigation, patrol activity, traffic policing, and, since Hungary's accession to the Schengen Agreement, border control (after the merger with the former Border Guard). It is led by a national police commissioner under the authority of the Minister of the Interior. The police force is structured into national, county, regional, and town departments.
  • Specialized police units include the Nemzeti Nyomozó Iroda (National Bureau of Investigation), focusing on serious crimes, and the Készenléti Rendőrség (Stand-by Police), a militarized unit often dealing with public order situations and reinforcing local police.
• The National Tax and Customs Administration (Nemzeti Adó- és Vámhivatal_{National Tax and Customs Administration (NAV)}^Hungarian): This body is responsible for tax collection, customs enforcement, and financial investigations.

Contemporary challenges to the rule of law and the judicial system have been a significant concern from a center-left/social liberalism perspective. Critics point to legislative changes affecting judicial independence, the appointment process for judges and court leaders, the powers of the Constitutional Court, and the overall environment for checks and balances. International bodies, including the European Union, have raised concerns about these issues, leading to ongoing dialogue and, in some cases, legal proceedings. The adherence to the rule of law is crucial for maintaining democratic principles, protecting human rights, and ensuring fair treatment for all citizens, including minorities and vulnerable groups.

5.4. Military

The Hungarian Defence Forces (Magyar Honvédség_{Hungarian Defence Forces (HDF)}^Hungarian) are responsible for the national defense of Hungary and contribute to international security efforts, primarily through NATO. The President of Hungary holds the title of commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Ministry of Defence, jointly with the Chief of the General Staff, administers the armed forces. Since 2007, the HDF has operated under a unified command structure.
The HDF consists of two main branches:

• The Hungarian Ground Force
• The Hungarian Air Force

As a landlocked country, Hungary does not have a traditional navy, though it operates a small river guard flotilla on the Danube as part of the Ground Forces.

In 2016, the active-duty personnel strength was approximately 31,080, with the operative reserve potentially bringing the total to around 50,000. More recent figures from 2021 suggest around 37,650 active personnel. Conscription was abolished in 2004; military service is now voluntary, though conscription may be reintroduced in wartime.
Hungary's defense budget in 2017 was approximately 1.21 B USD, about 0.94% of its GDP, below the NATO target of 2%. However, there has been a commitment to increase defense spending. By 2021, the budget was reported as 778.00 B HUF (approximately 2.60 B USD), representing about 1.66% of GDP. A significant modernization program, known as "Zrínyi 2026," is underway, aiming to upgrade equipment and capabilities across the forces. This includes the acquisition of new armored vehicles, artillery systems, and aircraft. In 2001, Hungary acquired 14 JAS 39 Gripen fighter aircraft, which form the backbone of its air defense.
As a NATO member since 1999, Hungary actively participates in international missions. In 2016, about 700 Hungarian troops were stationed abroad in peacekeeping forces, including contributions to NATO-led missions like the ISAF in Afghanistan (and its successor, Resolute Support Mission), KFOR in Kosovo, and forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Hungary also participated in the coalition efforts in Iraq with a logistics unit.
The National Cyber Security Centre was reorganized in 2016 to enhance capabilities in cybersecurity. The military's role also includes disaster relief and support to civilian authorities.

7.1. Cities and towns

As of July 15, 2013, Hungary has 3,152 municipalities (település_municipality^Hungarian). These consist of 346 towns (város_town/city^Hungarian, plural: városok_towns/cities^Hungarian; Hungarian terminology does not strictly differentiate between cities and towns in the same way English might) and 2,806 villages (község_village^Hungarian, plural: községek_villages^Hungarian). Villages can be elevated to town status by an act of the President.
The capital city, Budapest, holds a special status and is not part of any county, functioning as its own administrative unit. It is by far the largest city, serving as the nation's political, cultural, economic, and transportation hub, with a population of approximately 1.75 million within the city limits and around 2.5 million in its metropolitan area.
Twenty-five towns (including Budapest itself as of 2022) are designated as cities with county rights (megyei jogú város_{city with county rights}^Hungarian). These are typically the county seats and other major urban centers, possessing extended administrative powers.
Major cities and towns, besides Budapest, each with significant demographic, economic, and cultural roles include:

• Debrecen (Hajdú-Bihar county): The second-largest city, a major cultural, educational (University of Debrecen), and economic center in eastern Hungary, historically known as the "Calvinist Rome." Population around 201,000.
• Szeged (Csongrád-Csanád county): The third-largest city, located in southern Hungary near the Serbian and Romanian borders. It's a university city (University of Szeged) and a regional hub for culture and science, famous for its open-air festivals and paprika. Population around 160,000.
• Miskolc (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén county): The fourth-largest city, an industrial and commercial center in northeastern Hungary, with a university and historical sites like Diósgyőr Castle. Population around 154,000.
• Pécs (Baranya county): Located in southwestern Hungary, known for its rich history dating back to Roman times (Sopianae), its university (University of Pécs, founded 1367), Mediterranean atmosphere, and cultural diversity, including a UNESCO World Heritage early Christian necropolis. Population around 142,000.
• Győr (Győr-Moson-Sopron county): An important industrial, commercial, and transportation hub in northwestern Hungary, situated midway between Budapest and Vienna. It has a well-preserved Baroque city center and a significant automotive industry (Audi). Population around 132,000.
• Nyíregyháza (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg county): A major city in northeastern Hungary, serving as a regional economic and cultural center, known for its zoo and the Sóstó medicinal baths. Population around 116,000.
• Kecskemét (Bács-Kiskun county): Located in the central part of the Great Hungarian Plain, known for its Art Nouveau architecture, fruit brandies (pálinka), and the Kodály Institute of music pedagogy. Population around 110,000.
• Székesfehérvár (Fejér county): Historically one of Hungary's most important cities, serving as a royal seat and coronation city for medieval Hungarian kings. Today, it's an industrial and cultural center in Transdanubia. Population around 97,000.

Other significant towns include Szolnok, Tatabánya, Sopron, Kaposvár, Veszprém, Zalaegerszeg, Eger (famous for its castle and wine), Salgótarján, and Dunaújváros (a major industrial city on the Danube).
The distribution of urban areas reflects Hungary's historical development and economic geography. While Budapest dominates as the primate city, several regional centers play crucial roles in their respective areas. Many smaller towns and villages, some with populations under 100, preserve traditional rural lifestyles and cultural heritage. Four cities (Budapest, Miskolc, Győr, and Pécs) have officially recognized agglomerations, with seventeen other urban areas identified by the Hungarian Central Statistical Office as being in earlier stages of agglomeration development.

8.1. Economic structure and main industries

Hungary is characterized as a high-income mixed economy with an export-oriented industrial base. The private sector accounts for over 80% of the GDP. Major industries include:

• Automotive:** This is a cornerstone of Hungarian industry, with major international manufacturers like Audi, Mercedes-Benz, Suzuki (Magyar Suzuki in Esztergom), and BMW having significant production plants. Hungary is deeply integrated into the European automotive supply chain.
• Electronics:** Hungary is the largest electronics producer in Central and Eastern Europe. Manufacturing and research in this sector, including mobile technology, information security, and related hardware, are key drivers of innovation and economic growth. Companies like Samsung, Foxconn, and Flex have large operations.
• Pharmaceuticals:** Hungary has a strong tradition in pharmaceutical research and production. Companies like Gedeon Richter Plc. are internationally recognized.
• Food Processing:** Leveraging its agricultural base, food processing remains a significant industry, producing goods for both domestic consumption and export.
• Information Technology (IT):** The IT sector, including software development and services, has seen substantial growth, with Budapest emerging as a regional tech hub.
• Chemicals:** This sector includes the production of basic chemicals, plastics, and fertilizers.
• Metallurgy and Machinery:** While traditional heavy industries have seen restructuring, machinery and metal product manufacturing continue to contribute to the economy.
• Tourism:** Tourism is a vital part of the economy. In 2019, Hungary attracted 24.5 million international visitors. Budapest, Lake Balaton, spa towns, and cultural heritage sites are major draws.

Large Hungarian companies listed on the Budapest Stock Exchange (BUX) include the MOL Group (oil and gas, a Fortune Global 500 firm), OTP Bank (a major regional financial institution), Gedeon Richter Plc. (pharmaceuticals), Magyar Telekom (telecommunications), CIG Pannonia (insurance), and Zwack Unicum (spirits). Alongside these large corporations, Hungary has a substantial number of specialized small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), particularly automotive suppliers and technology start-ups.
The labor market is characterized by a skilled workforce, though challenges such as regional disparities in employment, wage levels compared to Western Europe, and issues of "brain drain" (emigration of skilled workers) persist. The government has implemented various policies to boost employment and attract investment.
Addressing social equity in economic development is a key concern from a center-left/social liberalism perspective. This involves tackling income inequality (despite official statistics suggesting it is relatively low, lived experiences can vary), ensuring fair labor practices, improving access to quality jobs and training across all regions and for all social groups (including minorities like the Romani), and mitigating the social costs of industrial restructuring. The benefits of foreign direct investment need to be weighed against potential impacts on local communities and workers' rights. The sustainability of the welfare state and the provision of adequate social safety nets are also crucial for equitable development.

8.2. Science and technology

Hungary has a long and distinguished history of achievements in science and technology, and research and development (R&D) efforts are an integral part of the country's economy. In 2020, Hungary spent 1.61% of its GDP on civil R&D, ranking it among the top 25 globally in R&D expenditure relative to GDP. The country ranked 32nd on the Bloomberg Innovation Index and 36th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.
The Hungarian high-technology industry benefits from a skilled workforce and the presence of foreign high-tech firms and research centers. Hungary demonstrates strong performance in areas such as filed patents, the proportion of high-tech and medium high-tech output in total industrial output, research FDI inflow, and research talent in business enterprises.
The key governmental body for R&D is the National Research, Development and Innovation (NRDI) Office, which serves as a national strategic and funding agency, advising the government on RDI policy and managing the NRDI Fund. Scientific research is supported by industry, universities, and state institutions like the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Magyar Tudományos Akadémia_{Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA)}^Hungarian).

Hungary has been home to numerous prominent researchers. As of 2018, fifteen Hungarians or scientists of Hungarian origin have received Nobel Prizes, including Albert Szent-Györgyi (Medicine, Vitamin C), Dennis Gabor (Physics, holography), George de Hevesy (Chemistry, isotopic tracers), Eugene Wigner (Physics, quantum mechanics), John Harsanyi (Economics, game theory), George Olah (Chemistry, carbocations), and Imre Kertész (Literature).
Hungarian mathematicians have made significant contributions, including Farkas Bolyai and his son János Bolyai (one of the founders of non-Euclidean geometry), Paul Erdős (prolific in number theory and combinatorics), and John von Neumann (a key figure in quantum mechanics, game theory, computing, and the Manhattan Project).
Notable Hungarian inventions include the safety match (János Irinyi), a type of carburetor (Donát Bánki, János Csonka), the electric (AC) train engine and generator (Kálmán Kandó), the Kalman filter (Rudolf E. Kálmán), the ballpoint pen (László Bíró), and the Rubik's Cube (Ernő Rubik). János Kemény, a Hungarian-American computer scientist, co-developed the BASIC programming language.
Hungary has a strong tradition in mathematics education, consistently performing well in international competitions like the International Mathematical Olympiad. Higher education institutions like Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE), the Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME, founded 1782 as the Institutum Geometrico-Hydrotechnicum, considered the oldest institute of technology with university rank), and the University of Szeged are important centers of research and education.
The societal impact of science and technology includes fostering economic competitiveness, but also raises issues of equitable access to technological advancements, the digital divide, and ethical considerations surrounding new technologies, which are important from a social liberalism perspective.

8.3. Transport

Hungary possesses a highly developed transportation network encompassing road, railway, air, and water systems. Budapest serves as the central hub for the national railway system, operated primarily by the Hungarian State Railways (Magyar Államvasutak_{Hungarian State Railways (MÁV)}^Hungarian). The capital features three major international train stations: Keleti pályaudvar (Keleti pályaudvar_{Eastern Terminal}^Hungarian), Nyugati pályaudvar (Nyugati pályaudvar_{Western Terminal}^Hungarian), and Déli pályaudvar (Déli pályaudvar_{Southern Terminal}^Hungarian). Other significant railway hubs outside Budapest include Szolnok, Miskolc (Tiszai Railway Station), Szombathely, Győr, Szeged, and Székesfehérvár. As of March 2024, public transport on MÁV services became free for individuals aged 65 and over and for children under 14 years of age, a measure with significant social impact on mobility and affordability.
Urban public transport is well-established in major cities. Budapest, Debrecen, Miskolc, and Szeged have tram networks. The Budapest Metro is one of the oldest underground metro systems in the world; its historic Line 1 (Millennium Underground) dates from 1896 and is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The metro system currently consists of four lines. A commuter rail system, the HÉV (Budapesti Helyiérdekű Vasút_{BHÉV (Budapest Commuter Rail)}^Hungarian), serves the Budapest metropolitan area.
Hungary has an extensive network of motorways (autópálya_motorway^Hungarian), totaling approximately 0.8 K mile ^{(1.31 K km)}. This network is continually being expanded to connect major economically important cities with the capital and neighboring countries.
Ports are located on the Danube River at Budapest, Dunaújváros, and Baja, facilitating cargo and passenger transport by water.
There are five international airports in Hungary: Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport (commonly known as "Ferihegy"), Debrecen International Airport, Hévíz-Balaton Airport (also called Sármellék Airport), Győr-Pér International Airport, and Pécs-Pogány International Airport. However, only Budapest Ferenc Liszt and Debrecen airports regularly handle scheduled international flights. The low-cost airline Wizz Air is based at Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport.
From a social perspective, the accessibility and affordability of transportation systems are crucial. While Hungary has a developed network, regional disparities in access can affect mobility and economic opportunities, particularly for those in rural areas or lower-income groups. The environmental impact of transportation infrastructure and usage, including air pollution and carbon emissions, is also a significant consideration in national transport policy and development.

8.4. Energy

Hungary's total energy supply is predominantly reliant on fossil fuels. Natural gas holds the largest share, followed by oil and coal. The country is significantly dependent on imported energy resources, particularly natural gas and oil from Russia, which poses challenges for energy security.
In June 2020, Hungary passed a law committing to a target of net-zero emissions by 2050. The National Energy Strategy 2030, with an outlook extending to 2040, prioritizes carbon-neutral and cost-effective energy while aiming to reinforce energy security and independence. Key strategies for achieving the 2050 target include expanding renewable energy sources, maintaining and potentially expanding nuclear power capacity, and increasing the electrification of end-use sectors.
The Paks Nuclear Power Plant currently provides a significant portion of Hungary's electricity (around 50%). Plans are underway for the construction of two new nuclear reactor units at Paks (Paks II project), in cooperation with Russia's Rosatom, a project that has generated domestic and international debate regarding its cost, transparency, and geopolitical implications.
Renewable energy capacity has increased in recent years, particularly solar power. However, growth in the renewables sector has faced some stagnation, and policies limiting the development of wind power have been criticized for potentially hindering the transition to cleaner energy.
Hungary's greenhouse gas emissions have generally decreased since the fall of communism, partly due to economic restructuring and a decline in heavy industry, alongside a gradual shift away from the most carbon-intensive fuels. However, independent analyses suggest that Hungary could adopt more ambitious emissions reduction targets to align with global climate goals.
The environmental impact of energy production and consumption includes air pollution from fossil fuels, the management of nuclear waste, and land use considerations for renewable energy projects. From a social perspective, energy policy affects issues such as energy affordability (energy poverty), the just transition for workers in fossil fuel industries, and public participation in decisions about large-scale energy projects. Ensuring energy security while transitioning to a low-carbon economy remains a major policy challenge.

9.1. Ethnic groups

Hungary's population is predominantly ethnic Hungarians (Magyarok_Hungarians^Hungarian). According to the 2011 census, 83.7% of the population identified as Hungarian. However, as 14.7% of the population did not declare their ethnicity, Hungarians constituted over 90% of those who did. In Hungary, individuals can declare more than one ethnicity, so the sum of ethnic affiliations can exceed the total population. Some sources from 2016 microcensus data suggest a Hungarian majority as high as 98.3%, likely reflecting those who declared a single, Hungarian ethnicity.
The largest recognized national minorities include:

• The Romani (Romák_{Romani people (Roma)}^Hungarian, also Cigányok_{Romani people (Cigányok)}^Hungarian): The 2011 census reported 308,957 Romani (3.1% of the population). However, various studies and community estimates suggest a considerably larger Romani population, potentially ranging from 500,000 to 876,000 (around 5-9% of the total population). The Romani predominantly reside in the northern and eastern parts of the country and face significant socio-economic challenges.
• Germans (Németek_Germans^Hungarian): Numbering around 131,951 (1.3%) in the 2011 census, the German minority is dispersed throughout the country, with historical concentrations in Transdanubia and parts of the Great Plain (Danube Swabians).

Other smaller recognized minorities include Slovaks (0.3%), Romanians (0.3%), Croats (0.2%), Serbs, Ukrainians, Slovenes, Poles, Greeks, Bulgarians, Rusyns, and Armenians.
Budapest is home to a diverse population, including a significant Chinese community. Historically, Hungary had a large Jewish population, but the Holocaust drastically reduced its numbers. Today, the Jewish community is estimated to be around 40,000-120,000, primarily concentrated in Budapest.
There is also a substantial Hungarian diaspora, with an estimated 5 million people of Hungarian descent living outside Hungary, mainly in neighboring countries (Romania, Slovakia, Serbia, Ukraine) as a result of the Treaty of Trianon, as well as in countries like the United States, Canada, and Israel.
From a center-left/social liberalism perspective, ensuring the rights and promoting the social integration of ethnic minorities, particularly the Romani, are critical issues. Challenges include combating discrimination, improving access to education, employment, healthcare, and housing, and fostering intercultural understanding. Government policies aimed at minority support and integration are often subject to scrutiny regarding their effectiveness and impact on equality.

9.2. Languages

The official and predominant spoken language in Hungary is Hungarian (Magyar_{Hungarian language}^Hungarian). It is a member of the Uralic language family, specifically belonging to the Ugric branch, making it unrelated to most neighboring Indo-European languages. Its closest linguistic relatives are Mansi and Khanty, spoken in Western Siberia. Finnish and Estonian are more distantly related Uralic languages. Hungarian is the largest of the Uralic languages in terms of the number of speakers and the only one spoken in Central Europe.
According to the 2011 census, 99.6% of the population (9,896,333 people) speak Hungarian, with 99% (9,827,875 people) speaking it as their first language and 0.7% (68,458 people) as a second language. Standard Hungarian is based on the dialect spoken in Budapest, though various urban and rural dialects exist.
The most widely spoken foreign languages are English (1.6 million speakers, 16.0% of the population in 2011) and German (1.1 million speakers, 11.2%). Proficiency in these languages is more common among younger generations and in urban areas. Russian was formerly a compulsory language during the communist era but its prevalence has significantly declined.
Hungary officially recognizes several minority languages, including Armenian, Boyash (a dialect of Romanian), Bulgarian, Croatian, German, Greek, Romanian, Romani (various dialects), Rusyn, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian, and Ukrainian. Efforts to preserve these minority languages include provisions for mother-tongue education in schools, cultural support programs, and media in minority languages, though the effectiveness and funding of these efforts are ongoing topics of discussion.
Hungary is an observer member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (Francophonie), reflecting some cultural and educational ties with the French-speaking world.

9.3. Religion

Hungary is a historically Christian country, with Catholicism and Protestantism (particularly Calvinism) being the most significant denominations. King Saint Stephen I is credited with the Christianization of Hungary around 1000 AD, establishing Catholicism as the state religion. His successors were traditionally known as Apostolic Kings, and the Archbishop of Esztergom held the title of prince-primate (hercegprímás_{prince-primate}^Hungarian), historically wielding considerable influence.

Contemporary Hungary has no official state religion, and the Fundamental Law guarantees freedom of religion as a fundamental right. However, the constitution's preamble "recognises Christianity's nation-building role," and Article VII affirms that "the state may cooperate with the churches for community goals."
According to the 2022 census:

• Christians** constituted 42.5% of the population.
  • Roman Catholics (római katolikusok_{Roman Catholics}^Hungarian): 27.5%
  • Hungarian Reformed (Calvinists, reformátusok_{Hungarian Reformed (Calvinists)}^Hungarian): 9.8%
  • Lutherans (evangélikusok_Lutherans^Hungarian): 1.8%
  • Greek Catholics: 1.7%
  • Other Christians: 1.7%

These figures represent a significant decrease in declared Christian affiliation and a substantial increase in those not declaring a religion or stating irreligion compared to the 2011 census (which reported 54.3% Christian, 18.2% no religion/atheist, and 27.2% unspecified).
Historically, the Reformation had a profound impact. Most Hungarians initially adopted Lutheranism and then Calvinism, with the Reformed Church in Hungary becoming very strong, especially in the eastern part of the country around Debrecen, often called the "Calvinist Rome." Key figures included Márton Kálmáncsehi and Péter Melius Juhász. The Counter-Reformation, led by the Jesuits in the 16th and 17th centuries, brought a resurgence of Catholicism, though Protestantism remained significant, particularly among the nobility who secured rights for freedom of worship (often under the principle of cuius regio, eius religio). Many localities in Hungary still reflect this historical religious patchwork.
Orthodox Christianity in Hungary is primarily associated with ethnic minorities such as Serbs, Romanians, Ukrainians, and Greeks.
Hungary was historically home to a large and vibrant Jewish community, with a pre-World War II population exceeding 800,000. The Holocaust resulted in the murder of an estimated 564,000 Hungarian Jews. Today, the Jewish community numbers around 40,000 to 120,000, mainly concentrated in Budapest, which is home to the Dohány Street Synagogue, the largest synagogue in Europe.
The social role of religion in contemporary Hungary is complex. Churches play a role in education, social services, and cultural life, and receive state funding. From a center-left/social liberalism perspective, key issues include the nature of church-state relations, ensuring genuine religious freedom for all faiths and non-believers, the equitable distribution of state support to religious organizations, and the influence of religious views in public policy and education.

9.4. Education

Education in Hungary is predominantly public and is overseen by the relevant government ministry. The system encompasses preschool, primary, secondary, and higher education.
Preschool and Compulsory Education: Preschool-kindergarten education (óvoda_{preschool-kindergarten}^Hungarian) is compulsory and provided for all children between the ages of three and six. School attendance is compulsory from the age of six until sixteen.
Primary Education (általános iskola_{primary education}^Hungarian): This typically lasts for eight years (grades 1-8).
Secondary Education (középiskola_{secondary education}^Hungarian): After primary education, students can choose from several types of secondary schools:

• Gymnasium (gimnázium_Gymnasium^Hungarian): This type of school offers a general academic education, typically lasting four, six, or eight years, and prepares students for the Matura (secondary school leaving examination) and university studies. It often enrolls students with higher academic aptitude.
• Secondary Vocational School (szakgimnázium_{secondary vocational school}^Hungarian, formerly szakközépiskola_{former secondary vocational school}^Hungarian): These schools provide both vocational training and general academic education, leading to a Matura and a vocational qualification. They typically last for four or five years.
• Vocational School (szakképző iskola_{vocational school}^Hungarian): These focus more on practical vocational training for specific trades and usually last for three years, leading to a skilled worker qualification.

The system allows for some flexibility and bridges between different tracks. Hungarian students have performed well in international assessments like the TIMSS, particularly in mathematics and science.

Higher Education (felsőoktatás_{higher education}^Hungarian): Most universities in Hungary are public institutions, and traditionally, tuition fees for state-funded places were not charged or were minimal, though this has evolved. The Matura is the general requirement for university admission. The Hungarian public higher education system includes universities and other higher education institutes (colleges, főiskola_college^Hungarian) that provide education leading to bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees, and also contribute significantly to research activities. Students are typically covered by health insurance until the end of their studies. English and German are important languages in Hungarian higher education, with a growing number of degree programs offered in these languages, attracting thousands of international and exchange students annually. In the Global Competitiveness Report 2014, Hungary's higher education and training system was ranked 44th out of 148 countries.
Hungary has a long tradition of higher education. Some of its universities are among the oldest in continuous operation in the world, including the University of Pécs (founded in 1367), Óbuda University (traces roots to 1395), and Universitas Istropolitana (founded in Pozsony/Bratislava in 1465, then part of the Kingdom of Hungary). The Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE) in Budapest evolved from Nagyszombat University, founded in 1635. The world's first institute of technology was established in Selmecbánya (now Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia) in 1735; its legal successor in Hungary is the University of Miskolc. The Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME) is considered the oldest institute of technology in the world with continuous university rank and structure; its predecessor, the Institutum Geometrico-Hydrotechnicum, was founded in 1782 by Emperor Joseph II. The Budapest Business School (BGE), founded in 1857, is considered the first public business school in the world.

From a center-left/social liberalism perspective, issues in Hungarian education include ensuring equal access to quality education for all children regardless of socio-economic background or location, addressing disparities in educational outcomes (particularly for Romani students), curriculum content (including debates on nationalistic versus broader European perspectives), the adequacy of funding for public education, teacher salaries and morale, and maintaining academic freedom in higher education.

9.5. Health

Hungary maintains a universal health care system, largely financed by government-administered national health insurance contributions (social security). According to the OECD, 100% of the population is covered by this universal health insurance. Access to care is, in principle, free for eligible individuals, including children, students, pensioners, people with low income, individuals with disabilities, and registered church employees. Hungary spends approximately 7.2% of its GDP on healthcare. In terms of per capita spending, this amounted to around 2.04 K USD in the mid-2010s, with about 1.36 K USD of that being government expenditure.
Hungary is a significant destination for medical tourism in Europe, particularly for dentistry. It holds a substantial share of the European dental tourism market (estimated at 42%) and a notable global share (21%). Plastic surgery is another key sector attracting international patients (around 30% of clients). The country is also well-known for its spa culture, with numerous medicinal thermal spas attracting "spa tourism" for therapeutic and wellness purposes.
Key public health indicators and challenges include:

• Leading causes of death**: Cardiovascular disease is the primary cause of mortality, accounting for 49.4% (62,979) of all deaths in 2013. However, this rate peaked in 1985 (79,355 deaths) and has been declining since the fall of Communism. Cancer is the second leading cause, responsible for 26.2% (33,274) of deaths in 2013, a figure that has remained relatively stagnant since the 1990s.
• Accidents and Suicides**: Deaths from accidents decreased from 8,760 in 1990 to 3,654 in 2013. The suicide rate, historically high, has declined significantly from 4,911 in 1983 to 2,093 in 2013 (21.1 per 100,000 people), the lowest rate since 1956.
• Health Disparities**: Considerable health disparities exist between the western and eastern parts of Hungary. Heart disease, hypertension, stroke, and higher suicide rates are more prevalent in the largely agricultural and lower-income Great Plain region in the east. In contrast, these are less frequent in the higher-income, more middle-class areas of Western Transdanubia and Central Hungary.
• Smoking**: Smoking has been a leading cause of preventable death, although rates have been declining. The proportion of adult smokers fell from 28% in 2012 to 19% in 2013, partly due to stricter regulations such as a nationwide smoking ban in all indoor public places and the restriction of tobacco sales to state-controlled "National Tobacco Shops."

From a center-left/social liberalism perspective, critical issues in the Hungarian healthcare system include ensuring equitable access to and quality of medical services for all citizens, regardless of socio-economic status or geographic location. Addressing health disparities, reducing waiting lists for certain procedures, tackling shortages of medical staff (due to emigration and underfunding), improving public health initiatives and preventative care, and ensuring the long-term financial sustainability of the universal healthcare system are ongoing challenges. The role and regulation of the private healthcare sector within the universal system is also a subject of debate.

10.1. Architecture

Hungarian architecture showcases a rich tapestry of styles reflecting its long history and diverse cultural influences. Notable examples span from Roman ruins to contemporary designs.
Key historical periods and styles include:

• Roman Period**: Ruins of Roman settlements like Aquincum in Óbuda (Budapest) provide glimpses into early architectural forms. The Early Christian Necropolis of Pécs (Sopianae), a UNESCO World Heritage site, is the largest outside Italy.
• Romanesque**: Characterized by solid, massive structures, round arches, and decorative carvings. The Abbey Church of Ják (consecrated 1256) is a prominent example. The Pannonhalma Archabbey (UNESCO World Heritage site), founded in 996, has Romanesque elements from its early construction phases.
• Gothic**: Flourished from the 13th century, featuring pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and large stained-glass windows. Examples include the Matthias Church in Budapest (extensively rebuilt in the 19th century but with Gothic origins) and castles like Diósgyőr Castle.
• Renaissance**: Influenced by Italy, particularly during the reign of King Matthias Corvinus (15th century). Palaces like the one in Visegrád and parts of Buda Castle reflected Renaissance ideals.

• Baroque**: Became dominant in the 17th and 18th centuries after the Ottoman period, under Habsburg influence. Characterized by grandeur, ornate decoration, and dynamism. Numerous churches, palaces, and townhouses were built or rebuilt in this style, such as the Eszterháza Palace in Fertőd and many buildings in Győr and Eger.
• Classicism and Historicism**: In the 19th century, Classicism (e.g., the Hungarian National Museum by Mihály Pollack) and later Historicist styles (neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance) became popular. The Hungarian Parliament Building (Imre Steindl) is a prime example of neo-Gothic architecture, while the Hungarian State Opera House (Miklós Ybl) showcases neo-Renaissance style.
• Art Nouveau (Szecesszió)**: At the turn of the 20th century, Hungarian Art Nouveau developed a distinctive national character.
  • Ödön Lechner is considered the father of this style, incorporating Hungarian folk motifs and Eastern influences (e.g., Indian, Syrian) into his designs, creating a unique synthesis. Notable works include the Museum of Applied Arts and the former Postal Savings Bank (now Treasury) in Budapest, and the Town Hall in Kecskemét.
  • Other architects like Károly Kós and the "Young People" (Fiatalok_{Young People}^Hungarian) group drew inspiration from traditional Hungarian and Transylvanian folk architecture.
  • Influences from Viennese Secession, German Jugendstil, and Belgian/French Art Nouveau are also visible. Béla Lajta and István Medgyaszay developed their own distinct styles within this movement.

  

  • Modern and Contemporary**: The 20th and 21st centuries saw the adoption of various modern and contemporary architectural trends, including Bauhaus influences, Socialist Realism during the communist era, and diverse post-modern and contemporary designs. Notable 20th-century buildings include the Széchenyi Medicinal Bath (1913, in a modern Renaissance/neo-Baroque style) in Budapest. The Dohány Street Synagogue (1859), the largest in Europe, is an example of Moorish Revival architecture.

  Many buildings in downtown Budapest date from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, often featuring thick walls, high ceilings, and ornate facades.

10.2. Music

Hungarian music comprises a rich tapestry of traditional Hungarian folk music (Magyar népzene_{Hungarian folk music}^Hungarian) and significant contributions to classical music by world-renowned composers.
Traditional Folk Music is a vital part of Hungary's national identity. It often features a strong dactylic rhythm, reflecting the Hungarian language's characteristic stress on the first syllable of each word. This music has diverse regional variations and has been influential on neighboring countries. Notable areas for folk traditions include Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg County and southwestern Transdanubia. Events like the Busójárás carnival in Mohács prominently feature folk music. The collection and study of folk music by composers like Bartók and Kodály were crucial for its preservation and integration into classical forms. The Csárdás (csárdás_Csárdás^Hungarian) is a well-known traditional Hungarian folk dance and musical style, characterized by a slow section (lassú_{lassú (slow section)}^Hungarian) followed by a fast, energetic section (friss_{friss (fast section)}^Hungarian).
Classical Music: Hungary has produced numerous internationally acclaimed composers:

• Franz Liszt (Liszt Ferenc_{Franz Liszt}^Hungarian; 1811-1886): A towering figure of the Romantic era, Liszt was a virtuoso pianist and innovative composer. His works, such as the Hungarian Rhapsodies and Coronation Mass, often drew inspiration from Hungarian themes. He co-founded the Liszt Ferenc Academy of Music in Budapest with Ferenc Erkel.

• Béla Bartók (1881-1945): One of the most significant composers of the 20th century, Bartók was also a pioneering ethnomusicologist. He extensively collected and studied Hungarian and other regional folk music, synthesizing these elements with modernist techniques into his distinctive style. Major works include the opera Bluebeard's Castle, the ballet The Wooden Prince, and numerous orchestral and chamber pieces.
• Zoltán Kodály (1882-1967): A close associate of Bartók, Kodály was instrumental in developing a distinctively Hungarian musical idiom. He also made profound contributions to music education through the "Kodály Method." His compositions include Psalmus Hungaricus and the opera Háry János.

Other renowned Hungarian composers include Ernst von Dohnányi, Franz Schmidt (Austrian-Hungarian), Franz Lehár (operettas), Imre Kálmán (operettas), Miklós Rózsa (film scores), Sándor Veress, and László Lajtha. Contemporary classical composers who gained international recognition include György Ligeti, György Kurtág, and Péter Eötvös.
Hungary has also produced many world-class conductors (e.g., George Szell, Eugene Ormandy, Georg Solti, Fritz Reiner, Ferenc Fricsay, István Kertész) and pianists (e.g., Annie Fischer, Géza Anda, András Schiff, Zoltán Kocsis).
Popular Music: During the communist era, popular music was subject to state censorship via a "Song Committee." Since 1989, the Hungarian music industry has diversified. Jazz has a notable presence with artists like trumpeter Rudolf Tomsits and pianist-composer Károly Binder. Modernized forms of Hungarian folk music are performed by artists such as Ferenc Sebő and Márta Sebestyén. Hungarian rock music also has a strong tradition, with bands like Illés, Metró, and Omega achieving lasting popularity, with Omega also gaining a following in Germany and beyond. Underground bands from the 1980s, such as Beatrice, also retain a following.

10.3. Cuisine

Hungarian cuisine is known for its rich flavors, extensive use of paprika, and hearty dishes. It reflects a blend of ancient Magyar traditions with Central European (especially Austrian and German) and Ottoman influences.

• Key Ingredients and Flavors:**
  • Paprika**: Ground red peppers are a hallmark of Hungarian cooking, used in various forms from sweet to spicy. It's a Hungarian innovation that defines many dishes.
  • Sour Cream** (tejföl_{tejföl (sour cream)}^Hungarian): A thick, heavy sour cream frequently used to enrich sauces, soups, and stews, or as a topping.
  • Onions and Garlic**: Fundamental aromatics in many recipes.
  • Lard**: Traditionally used for cooking, contributing to the richness of some dishes.
• Iconic Dishes:**
  • Goulash** (gulyás_goulash^Hungarian): Perhaps the most famous Hungarian dish, typically a rich soup or stew made with beef, onions, paprika, and often potatoes and carrots.
  • Fisherman's soup** (halászlé_{fisherman's soup}^Hungarian): A spicy hot soup made with freshwater fish (often carp, catfish, or pike), heavily seasoned with paprika. Regional variations exist, particularly between those made along the Danube and Tisza rivers.
  • Chicken Paprikash** (csirkepaprikás_{chicken paprikash}^Hungarian): Chicken simmered in a creamy paprika sauce, often served with nokedli_{nokedli (egg dumplings)}^Hungarian (small egg dumplings similar to spätzle).
  • Pörkölt**: A meat stew (beef, pork, lamb, or game) with onions and paprika, thicker than goulash soup.
  • Foie gras** (libamáj_{foie gras}^Hungarian): Goose liver is a Hungarian delicacy, often pan-seared or made into pâté.
  • Lángos**: A deep-fried flatbread, typically topped with garlic, sour cream, and grated cheese.
  • Hortobágyi palacsinta** (Hortobágyi palacsinta_{Hortobágyi pancake}^Hungarian): Savory crêpes filled with minced meat (usually veal) in a paprika sauce, baked with sour cream.
• Desserts and Pastries:**
  • Dobos torte** (Dobos-torta_{Dobos torte}^Hungarian): A famous five to seven-layer sponge cake with chocolate buttercream filling, topped with a thin caramel glaze.
  • Strudel** (rétes_strudel^Hungarian): Thin pastry filled with ingredients like apple, cherry, poppy seed, quark cheese, or cabbage.
  • Gundel pancake** (Gundel-palacsinta_{Gundel pancake}^Hungarian): Crêpes filled with ground walnuts, raisins, and rum, served with a dark chocolate-rum sauce.
  • Somlói galuska**: A trifle-like dessert made with sponge cake, chocolate sauce, walnuts, raisins, and whipped cream.
  • Plum Dumplings** (szilvás gombóc_{plum dumplings}^Hungarian): Sweet dumplings made from potato dough, filled with plums, and coated in toasted breadcrumbs.
  • Chimney Cake** (kürtőskalács_{chimney cake}^Hungarian): A sweet, spit-roasted pastry coated in sugar and often nuts or cinnamon.
  • Kifli** and **Perec**: Popular baked goods.

  

  • Beverages:**
    • Wine**: Hungary has a long winemaking tradition with several distinct wine regions.
      • Tokaji Aszú**: A world-renowned sweet dessert wine from the Tokaj region, made from grapes affected by noble rot. It was famously called "Wine of Kings, King of Wines" by Louis XIV of France.
      • Egri Bikavér** ("Bull's Blood of Eger"): A full-bodied red blend from the Eger region.
    • Other notable wines come from regions like Villány (robust reds), Szekszárd (reds), and areas around Lake Balaton (whites like Olaszrizling and Szürkebarát/Pinot Gris). Common grape varieties also include Furmint, Hárslevelű, Kékfrankos, and Kadarka.
    • Pálinka**: A traditional fruit brandy, distilled from various fruits such as plum (szilva_plum^Hungarian - most popular), apricot (barack_apricot^Hungarian), cherry (cseresznye_cherry^Hungarian), or pear (körte_pear^Hungarian).
    • Unicum**: A bitter, dark herbal liqueur made from over forty herbs and spices, often consumed as an apéritif or digestif.
    • Beer**: Popular local brands include Dreher, Borsodi, Soproni, and Arany Ászok.
  • Culinary Practices:**

  Food culture includes various types of eateries: the traditional csárda (country inn), borozó (wine tavern), söröző (pub), cukrászda (confectionery), and more. Hungarian meals often start with soup. The use of pork fat (lard) and smoked meats (like csabai kolbász (csabai kolbász_{Csabai salami}^Hungarian) salami) is common. Pickled vegetables (savanyúság_{pickled vegetables}^Hungarian) are a frequent accompaniment to meals.

10.4. Sport

Hungarians have a strong tradition and notable achievements in various sports, particularly at the Olympic Games.

• Olympic Success**: Hungary ranks 9th in the all-time Summer Olympic Games medal count with a total of 511 medals (as of 2021). The country boasts one of the highest numbers of Olympic medals and gold medals per capita in the world.
  • Water Sports**: Hungary has excelled in water sports.
    • Water Polo: The men's national team is historically the most successful in Olympic history.
    • Swimming: Hungarian swimmers have consistently won Olympic medals.
    • Canoeing and Kayaking: Hungary is a leading nation in these disciplines.
  • Fencing**: Sabre fencing, in particular, has a long history of Hungarian dominance.
  • Modern Pentathlon**: Hungarians have frequently been among the top contenders.
  • Winter Olympics**: Hungary won its first Winter Olympic gold medal in 2018 in men's short track speed skating (5000m relay team: Csaba Burján, Shaolin Sándor Liu, Shaoang Liu, and Viktor Knoch).

  

  • Football (Soccer)**:

10.5. World Heritage sites

Hungary is home to several sites inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List, recognizing their outstanding universal value. These sites reflect Hungary's rich cultural and natural heritage:
1. Budapest, including the Banks of the Danube, the Buda Castle Quarter and Andrássy Avenue (Cultural, 1987, extended 2002): This extensive site encompasses the historic core of the Hungarian capital. It includes the Buda Castle complex (Royal Palace, Matthias Church, Fisherman's Bastion), the panoramic views from both banks of the Danube River, and Andrássy Avenue, a grand boulevard lined with Neo-Renaissance mansions and public buildings, including the Hungarian State Opera House, terminating at Heroes' Square and the City Park. The Millennium Underground Railway, the first on continental Europe, is also part of this inscription.
2. Old Village of Hollókő and its Surroundings (Cultural, 1987): This is an exceptionally well-preserved traditional Palóc rural settlement from the 17th and 18th centuries. It provides a vivid example of pre-20th-century village life and folk architecture, with its characteristic wooden houses and unique cultural traditions.
3. Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst (Natural, 1995, extended 2000, shared with Slovakia): This site features a remarkable diversity of cave formations within a typical temperate-zone karst system. The extensive network of over 1,000 caves includes the Baradla-Domica cave system, one of the longest stalactitic caves in Europe.
4. Millenary Benedictine Abbey of Pannonhalma and its Natural Environment (Cultural, 1996): Founded in 996, this Benedictine monastery is one of the oldest historical monuments in Hungary. It has been a continuous center of culture and education for over a thousand years, with its buildings showcasing Romanesque, Gothic, and later architectural styles.
5. Hortobágy National Park - the Puszta (Cultural, 1999): This vast expanse of plains and wetlands is Europe's largest continuous natural grassland (puszta). It preserves traditional forms of land use, such as pastoralism with indigenous animal breeds (Hungarian Grey cattle, Racka sheep), and is a haven for diverse birdlife.
6. Early Christian Necropolis of Pécs (Sopianae) (Cultural, 2000): Located in the city of Pécs, this site contains a series of decorated underground burial chambers and chapels from the 4th century AD, when Pécs was the Roman town of Sopianae. The murals are outstanding examples of early Christian funerary art.
7. Fertő / Neusiedlersee Cultural Landscape (Cultural, 2001, shared with Austria): This unique landscape surrounding Lake Fertő/Neusiedlersee, a large shallow steppe lake, has been shaped by human interaction with the natural environment over eight millennia. It reflects diverse cultures and is an important habitat for migratory birds.
8. Tokaj Wine Region Historic Cultural Landscape (Cultural, 2002): This region in northeastern Hungary is renowned for its centuries-old tradition of producing Tokaji Aszú wines, the world's oldest botrytized wine. The landscape, with its vineyards, farms, villages, and cellars, illustrates the evolution of this unique winemaking culture.

These sites highlight Hungary's contributions to European history, art, architecture, and its diverse natural environments.

10.6. Festivals and public holidays

Hungary observes several national holidays and hosts a variety of traditional folk festivals and contemporary cultural events throughout the year, reflecting its rich history and vibrant cultural life.

• Public Holidays:**

The following are official public holidays in Hungary:

• January 1**: New Year's Day (Újév_{New Year's Day}^Hungarian)
• March 15**: 1848 Revolution and Freedom War Memorial Day (Nemzeti ünnep_{National Holiday}^Hungarian). Commemorates the outbreak of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 against Habsburg rule. It is a major national day with official ceremonies and public gatherings.
• Good Friday** (Nagypéntek_{Good Friday}^Hungarian): Moveable holiday.
• Easter Monday** (Húsvéthétfő_{Easter Monday}^Hungarian): Moveable holiday.
• May 1**: Labour Day (A munka ünnepe_{Labour Day}^Hungarian)
• Pentecost Monday** (Pünkösdhétfő_{Pentecost Monday}^Hungarian): Moveable holiday, the day after Pentecost (Pünkösdvasárnap_{Pentecost Sunday}^Hungarian).
• August 20**: Foundation Day / Saint Stephen's Day (Szent István ünnepe_{Saint Stephen's Day}^Hungarian or Az államalapítás ünnepe_{Foundation Day}^Hungarian). Commemorates the foundation of the Hungarian state by King Saint Stephen I around 1000 AD and his canonization. It is celebrated with fireworks, processions, and cultural events, including the "blessing of the new bread."
• October 23**: 1956 Revolution and Republic Proclamation Day (Az 1956-os forradalom és szabadságharc ünnepe, valamint A köztársaság kikiáltásának napja_{1956 Revolution and Freedom War Memorial Day, and Republic Proclamation Day}^Hungarian). Commemorates the outbreak of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 against Soviet domination and the proclamation of the Third Hungarian Republic in 1989.
• November 1**: All Saints' Day (Mindenszentek_{All Saints' Day}^Hungarian)
• December 25**: Christmas Day (Karácsony_{Christmas Day}^Hungarian)
• December 26**: Second Day of Christmas (Karácsony másnapja_{Second Day of Christmas}^Hungarian)