Hans-Ulrich Rudel

3.1. Training and Early Service

As a junior officer, Rudel participated in the Polish campaign in 1939 as an air observer in the 2nd Army District Reconnaissance Battalion of the 121st Army, based in Prenzlau. He flew long-range reconnaissance missions over Poland and was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class on 11 October 1939. In May 1940, during the Battle of France, Rudel was stationed in Vienna as an adjutant for the 43rd Aviators Training Regiment, preventing him from participating in combat. As the French campaign concluded, he was finally transferred to the I./Stuka-Geschwader 3 in Caen. However, he was undergoing conversion training as a dive bomber pilot during the Battle of Britain, thus missing that major operation. He was initially considered an unskilled pilot and was temporarily sent back to Graz for further dive bomber training. Even during the Balkan Campaign in April 1941 and the subsequent Battle of Crete, he remained a reserve pilot on standby, unable to participate in combat. This frustration, as he described in his book Stuka Pilot, deeply affected him and led to his later insistence on flying as many missions as possible, often disregarding orders for leave.

3.2. Eastern Front Operations

Rudel's first combat mission as a dive bomber pilot occurred on 23 June 1941, at the onset of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union. He flew four missions within 18 hours. On 18 July 1941, he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class. On 21 September 1941, Rudel participated in an attack on the Soviet battleship Marat of the Baltic Fleet in Kronstadt harbor. The Marat was sunk on 23 September 1941 after being hit by a 2.2 K lb ^{(1.00 K kg)} bomb near its forward superstructure, which caused an explosion in the forward magazine, destroying the superstructure and the front part of the hull. While Rudel is commonly credited with sinking the Marat, he dropped only one of the two bombs that contributed to its sinking. The ship settled in 36 ft ^{(11 m)} of water, killing 326 men. His unit then participated in Operation Typhoon, the Army Group Centre's attempt to capture Moscow.

From October 1941, Erwin Hentschel became Rudel's dedicated gunner, serving with him for the next two and a half years and completing 1,400 sorties. Both men earned the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross during this period. In early 1942, Rudel married Ursula Bergmann, nicknamed "Hanne," while on leave. Later that year, he participated in the Battle of Stalingrad. By February 1943, Rudel had completed his 1,000th combat mission, elevating him to national hero status. He then took part in experiments with the Ju 87 G in the anti-tank role. This anti-tank unit participated in operations against the Soviet Kerch-Eltigen Operation. Footage from an onboard gun camera of these operations was featured in Die Deutsche Wochenschau, a Reich Ministry of Propaganda newsreel. In April 1943, Rudel received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves directly from Adolf Hitler in Berlin.

Rudel participated in the Battle of Kursk with the same unit. On the first day of the German offensive, 5 July 1943, he flew a Ju 87G, marking its combat debut. This Stuka^German was equipped as an anti-tank aircraft with two 1.5 in ^{(37 mm)} Bordkanone BK 3,7 cannons mounted in under-wing gun pods, a concept proposed by Rudel himself, which proved highly successful. On 12 July 1943, he claimed 12 Soviet tanks destroyed in a single day. Senior German general Ferdinand Schörner famously commented, "Rudel alone replaces a whole division." The slow-moving Stukas^German were vulnerable and suffered high casualty rates, making Rudel's survival remarkable. In October 1943, Rudel was credited with the destruction of his 100th tank and was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords on 25 November, one of only 160 awarded.

On 22 February 1944, Rudel was appointed Gruppenkommandeur (Group Commander) of III. Gruppe. On 20 March, Rudel performed a forced landing behind Soviet lines. He and Erwin Hentschel, his long-time gunner, attempted to swim across the Dniester River to reach German lines, but Hentschel drowned. This incident deeply affected Rudel, who was reportedly devastated by the loss of his comrade. Upon his return, Ernst Gadermann, previously the troop doctor of III. Gruppe, joined Rudel as his new radio operator and air gunner. On 29 March 1944, Rudel was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds, becoming the tenth member of the Wehrmacht to receive this award, which was presented by Hitler personally.

Rudel was promoted to Oberstleutnant (Lieutenant Colonel) on 1 September 1944, and appointed leader of SG 2, replacing Stepp, on 1 October 1944. On 22 December 1944, Rudel completed his 2,400th combat mission, and the next day, he reported his 463rd tank destroyed. On 29 December 1944, Rudel was promoted to Oberst (Colonel) and was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds, becoming the only person to receive this decoration. This award, intended as one of 12 post-war victory awards for Nazi Germany, was presented to him by Hitler on 1 January 1945, just four months before Nazi Germany's defeat.

3.3. Combat Achievements

Rudel's combat record is exceptional, though some figures are based on his own claims and the official records, which may not fully capture his total achievements due to his practice of sometimes attributing kills to other pilots to help them earn leave, or flying unauthorized missions. His official achievements include:

• Missions flown:** 2,530 combat missions, primarily on the Eastern Front.
• Tanks destroyed:** 519. This number is often equated to destroying an entire tank corps.
• Vehicles destroyed:** Over 800 armored and soft-skinned vehicles.
• Artillery/Anti-tank/Anti-aircraft positions destroyed:** Over 150.
• Armored trains destroyed:** 4.
• Ships destroyed/damaged:**
  • Battleship: 1 (the Soviet battleship Marat, severely damaged and sunk).
  • Cruiser: 1 (the incomplete and heavily damaged Petropavlovsk).
  • Destroyer: 1 (the Soviet destroyer Minsk).
  • Landing craft: Over 70.
• Aerial victories:** 9, including 7 fighter aircraft and 2 Ilyushin Il-2s. One of these victories was achieved with the Ju 87G's 1.5 in ^{(37 mm)} cannon.
• Shot down/Forced to land:** 30 times due to anti-aircraft artillery (he was never shot down by enemy aircraft).
• Wounded:** 5 times.
• Aircrew rescued:** 6 stranded aircrew from enemy-held territory.

3.4. Aircraft Flown

Rudel primarily flew two types of aircraft during his extensive combat career:

• Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka"**: This dive bomber was his main aircraft for the majority of his 2,530 missions. He was particularly instrumental in the development and effective use of the anti-tank variant, the **Ju 87 G-1**, nicknamed "Panzerknacker" (Tank Cracker) or "Kanonenvogel" (Cannon Bird). This variant was armed with two 1.5 in ^{(37 mm)} Bordkanone BK 3,7 cannons in under-wing gun pods, allowing him to devastatingly attack Soviet tanks, especially from the rear where their armor was weakest.
• Focke-Wulf Fw 190**: In the later stages of the war, Rudel also flew approximately 430 missions in ground-attack variants of the Fw 190, adapting his tactics to this more powerful and versatile fighter-bomber.

3.5. Awards and Decorations

Hans-Ulrich Rudel was the most decorated German serviceman of World War II. His awards include:

• Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds**:
  • Knight's Cross: 6 January 1942, as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 9./Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 (for 400 sorties and sinking the battleship Marat).
  • 229th Oak Leaves: 14 April 1943, as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 1./Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 "Immelmann" (for 1,000 sorties).
  • 42nd Swords: 25 November 1943, as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the III./Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 "Immelmann" (for 1,600 sorties).
  • 10th Diamonds: 29 March 1944, as Major and Gruppenkommandeur of the III./Schlachtgeschwader 2 "Immelmann" (for 1,800 sorties and 200 tanks destroyed).
  • 1st, and only, Golden Oak Leaves: 29 December 1944, as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of Schlachtgeschwader 2 "Immelmann" (for 2,400 sorties and 463 tanks destroyed). This unique award was specifically created for him, intended as one of 12 post-war victory awards.

  Other significant decorations include:

  • Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe (20 October 1941)
  • Iron Cross (1939) 2nd Class (10 November 1939) & 1st Class (15 July 1941)
  • Pilot/Observer Badge In Gold with Diamonds
  • Wound Badge In Gold
  • German Cross In Gold (2 December 1941)
  • Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Diamonds and a badge for 2,000 missions
  • Wehrmacht Long Service Award 4th class
  • Sudetenland Medal
  • Eastern Front Medal
  • Silver Medal of Military Valor (Italy)
  • 8th (1st and only foreign) Hungarian Gold Medal of Bravery (14 January 1945)

3.6. Injuries and Resilience

Rudel sustained multiple severe injuries during his combat career, yet consistently demonstrated remarkable resilience and a determination to return to duty. He was wounded five times and was shot down or forced to land 30 times due to anti-aircraft fire.

His most significant injury occurred on 8 February 1945, near Frankfurt (Oder), when a 1.6 in ^{(40 mm)} Soviet anti-aircraft shell struck his right foot. Despite the severe wound, he managed to land his aircraft within German lines, guided by his radio operator, Ernst Gadermann, who reportedly shouted, "If you have time to faint, pull the stick!" Rudel's leg was subsequently amputated below the knee. Even while recovering in the hospital, he expressed deep frustration at being unable to attack Soviet forces, reportedly shedding tears over his inability to fly. He quickly recovered, managing to leave the hospital before his full recovery period, and returned to flying on 25 March 1945, equipped with a specially made prosthesis. He continued to fly combat missions, claiming an additional 26 tanks destroyed by the end of the war, bringing his total to 519.

3.7. Summary of Military Career

Hans-Ulrich Rudel's military career was characterized by an unparalleled record of ground-attack missions and destruction on the Eastern Front.

He flew a total of 2,530 combat missions, predominantly in the Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka" dive bomber, with approximately 430 missions flown in ground-attack variants of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190. His official credited achievements include:

• Destruction of 519 tanks.
• Destruction of over 800 armored and soft-skinned vehicles.
• Destruction of over 150 artillery, anti-tank, or anti-aircraft positions.
• Destruction of 4 armored trains.
• Sinking or severe damage to multiple Soviet naval vessels: the battleship Marat, the cruiser Petropavlovsk, the destroyer Minsk, and over 70 landing craft.
• 9 aerial victories, consisting of 7 fighter aircraft and 2 Ilyushin Il-2s.

Throughout his service, Rudel was shot down or forced to land 30 times due to anti-aircraft artillery, was wounded five times, and personally rescued six stranded aircrew from enemy-held territory. His records are often considered conservative, as he sometimes allowed comrades to claim his kills to help them earn leave, and he also flew unauthorized missions. For instance, after his leg amputation in February 1945, he is believed to have destroyed over 30 tanks, but only 3 were officially credited.

His unwavering commitment and effectiveness earned him immense respect from his superiors and comrades. Ferdinand Schörner, a senior German general, famously stated that "Rudel alone replaces a whole division". French fighter ace Pierre Clostermann lamented, "How regrettable that he was not on our side!" After the war, Clostermann and Rudel became close friends, with Clostermann becoming the godfather to Rudel's son, Christoph. Even Erich Hartmann, the highest-scoring fighter ace in history, acknowledged Rudel's unique achievements, stating that while he could emulate Rudel's success with a team, no one could replicate Rudel's individual feats.

Rudel's last flight in a Ju 87 occurred on 7 May 1945. Leading the remaining operational aircraft of SG 2, which included three Ju 87s and four Fw 190s, he flew westward from an airfield near Prague to surrender to American forces at the Kitzingen airfield in Bavaria, avoiding capture by the Soviet Red Army. To prevent the Americans from using their aircraft, Rudel and his pilots intentionally broke the landing gear upon landing, except for one Ju 87 which carried a civilian woman and landed normally.

The aircraft in Rudel's final flight formation included:

In addition to these, another individual was aboard one of the Fw 190s (likely the 585 584). The escape party consisted of six officers, six non-commissioned officers, and one civilian.

4.1. Escape and Life in South America

Following his surrender to US forces on 8 May 1945, Rudel was interned. He was released in April 1946 and initially engaged in private business in Gersfeld, Westphalia. In 1948, he emigrated to Argentina via the infamous ratlines, a network used by former Nazis to escape justice. His journey involved traveling through the Austrian Zillertal to Italy. In Rome, with the assistance of South Tyrolean smugglers and the Austrian bishop Alois Hudal, he acquired a fake Red Cross passport under the cover name "Emilio Meier." He then took a flight from Rome to Buenos Aires, arriving on 8 June 1948.

Upon his arrival in Argentina, Rudel quickly became a close friend and confidant of the then-President of Argentina, Juan Perón, and later of Paraguay's dictator, Alfredo Stroessner. He settled in Villa Carlos Paz, approximately 22 mile ^{(36 km)} from Córdoba City, where he rented a house and operated a brickworks. During this period, he was appointed as a consultant to the Argentine aerospace industry and worked at the Aeronautical Technical Institute (Instituto Aerotécnico) in Córdoba. He also became an instructor at the nascent Argentine Air Force's officer academy, teaching piloting techniques and low-altitude air combat. While some narratives suggest his teachings influenced Argentine pilots in the Falklands War, particularly regarding low-altitude missile attacks, the naval pilots who achieved success with Exocet missiles in that conflict received their training in France.

4.2. Founding of Kameradenwerk

In Argentina, Rudel established the "Kameradenwerk" (lit. "comrades' agency"), a relief organization specifically designed to aid and protect Nazi war criminals. This organization maintained close contact with other internationally wanted fascists, such as Ante Pavelić and Carlo Scorza. Prominent members of Kameradenwerk included SS officer Ludwig Lienhardt, whose extradition from Sweden had been sought by the Soviet Union for war crimes, Kurt Christmann, a Gestapo member sentenced for war crimes in Krasnodar, Austrian war criminal Fridolin Guth, and German spy August Siebrecht. Beyond assisting those who fled to Argentina, Kameradenwerk also provided support to Nazi criminals imprisoned in Europe, such as Rudolf Hess and Karl Dönitz, by sending food parcels from Argentina and sometimes covering their legal fees.

Rudel's connections extended to some of the most infamous figures of the Nazi regime. In Argentina, he became acquainted with Josef Mengele, the notorious concentration camp doctor and war criminal, often referred to as the "Angel of Death." Rudel and Willem Sassen, a former Waffen-SS member and war correspondent who initially worked as Rudel's driver, were instrumental in helping Mengele relocate to Brazil by introducing him to another Nazi sympathizer, Wolfgang Gerhard. In 1957, Rudel and Mengele even traveled together to Chile to meet with Walter Rauff, the inventor of the mobile gas chamber. Mengele reportedly called Rudel "Uli," a testament to their close relationship, and Rudel maintained contact with Mengele throughout his life.

4.3. Arms Dealing and Political Involvement

With the support of Juan Perón, Rudel secured lucrative contracts with the Brazilian military. He also actively served as a military advisor and arms dealer for various right-wing and authoritarian regimes in South America, including those of Bolivia, Augusto Pinochet in Chile, and Alfredo Stroessner in Paraguay. These activities placed him under observation by the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).

Rudel was also in contact with Werner Naumann, a former State Secretary in Goebbels' Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda in Nazi Germany. Following the Revolución Libertadora in 1955, a military and civilian uprising that ended Perón's second presidential term, Rudel was forced to leave Argentina and relocate to Paraguay. In the subsequent years in South America, Rudel frequently acted as a foreign representative for several prominent German companies, including Salzgitter AG, Dornier Flugzeugwerke, Focke-Wulf, Messerschmitt, Siemens, and Lahmeyer International, a German consulting engineering firm.

According to historian Peter Hammerschmidt, based on files from the German Federal Intelligence Service (BND) and the US CIA, the BND, operating through a cover company named "Merex," maintained close contact with former SS and Nazi Party members. In 1966, Merex, represented by Walter Drück, a former Generalmajor in the Wehrmacht and a BND agent, leveraged contacts established by Rudel and Sassen to sell discarded equipment from the Bundeswehr (German Federal armed forces) to various dictators in Latin America. Hammerschmidt asserts that Rudel facilitated contact between Merex and Friedrich Schwend, a former member of the Reich Security Main Office involved in Operation Bernhard, who had strong ties with the military services of Peru and Bolivia. In the early 1960s, Rudel, Schwend, and Klaus Barbie founded a company called "La Estrella" (The Star), which employed numerous former SS officers who had fled to Latin America. Through La Estrella, Rudel also maintained contact with Otto Skorzeny, who ran his own network of former SS and Wehrmacht officers.

Rudel returned to West Germany in 1953 and became a leading member of the far-right neo-Nazi political party, the German Reich Party (Deutsche Reichspartei or DRP), which was founded in 1950. In the West German federal election of 1953, Rudel was the top candidate for the DRP but was not elected to the Bundestag. During his political speeches, Rudel controversially argued that Western countries should have supported Germany in its war against the Soviet Union. Josef Müller-Marein, then editor-in-chief of Die Zeit, published a scathing article criticizing Rudel as an "egocentric" character and a "squadron commander without a squadron," noting his criticism of the Western Allies for not supporting Germany against the Soviet Union. In 1977, Rudel became a spokesman for the German People's Union, a nationalist political party founded by Gerhard Frey.

4.4. Public Scandals and Controversies

In October 1976, Rudel inadvertently triggered a series of events that became known as the "Rudel Scandal" (Rudel-Affäre). The German 51st Reconnaissance Wing, which carried the honorary name "Immelmann," planned a reunion for its members, including those from World War II. The Secretary of State in the Federal Ministry of Defence, Hermann Schmidt, initially authorized the event. However, fearing that Rudel would spread Nazi propaganda on the German Air Force airbase in Bremgarten near Freiburg, Schmidt ordered that the meeting could not be held there. This decision reached Generalleutnant Walter Krupinski, then commanding general of NATO's Second Allied Tactical Air Force and a former World War II fighter pilot. Krupinski contacted Gerhard Limberg, Inspector of the Air Force, requesting that the meeting be allowed at the airbase. Limberg subsequently confirmed Krupinski's request, and the meeting was held on Bundeswehr premises, a decision Schmidt had not agreed to. Rudel attended the meeting, where he signed his book and gave autographs but refrained from making political statements.

During a routine press event, journalists, who had been briefed by Schmidt, questioned Krupinski and his deputy Karl Heinz Franke about Rudel's presence. In this interview, the generals controversially compared Rudel's past as a Nazi and neo-Nazi supporter to the career of prominent Social Democrat leader Herbert Wehner, who had been a member of the German Communist Party in the 1930s and lived in Moscow during World War II, allegedly involved in NKVD operations. Calling Wehner an "extremist," they described Rudel as an honorable man who "hadn't stolen the family silver or anything else." When these remarks became public, the Federal Minister of Defense, Georg Leber, a member of the SPD, ordered the generals into early retirement as of 1 November 1976, in compliance with §50 of the Soldatengesetz^German (Military Law). Leber faced heavy criticism from the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) opposition, and the scandal contributed to his own retirement in early 1978. On 3 February 1977, the German Bundestag debated the scandal and its consequences. The Rudel Scandal subsequently sparked a broader discussion on military tradition, which Federal Minister of Defense Hans Apel concluded with the introduction of "Guidelines for Understanding and Cultivating Tradition" on 20 September 1982.

Rudel's controversial public appearances were not limited to military reunions. During the 1978 World Cup held in Argentina, Rudel visited the Germany national team at their training camp in Ascochinga. The German media heavily criticized the German Football Association, viewing Rudel's visit as an endorsement of the military dictatorship that ruled Argentina. Similarly, during the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden, he visited the German team in Malmö and was welcomed by team manager Sepp Herberger.

8.1. Positive Assessments

Within military circles, particularly among those who valued combat effectiveness, Rudel was widely regarded as a heroic and exceptionally skilled pilot. His bravery, tactical innovation (especially in anti-tank warfare), and sheer number of combat missions were unparalleled. His superiors, like Field Marshal Ferdinand Schörner, held him in the highest esteem, famously declaring that "Rudel alone replaces a whole division." This sentiment underscored the critical impact of his individual actions on the battlefield.

His resilience in the face of severe injuries, including the loss of his leg and his swift return to active duty, further cemented his legendary status among his comrades. Even Allied pilots recognized his unique abilities; French ace Pierre Clostermann expressed regret that Rudel was not on the Allied side, and the two became close friends after the war. Erich Hartmann, the top-scoring fighter ace, acknowledged Rudel's singular achievement, stating that while he could emulate Rudel's success with a team, no one could replicate Rudel's individual feats. These assessments largely focus on his military achievements, portraying him as a fearless and effective warrior.

8.2. Criticism and Controversy

Despite his military achievements, Rudel's legacy is overwhelmingly overshadowed by his fervent and unrepentant adherence to Nazism and his active involvement in neo-Nazi movements after World War II. He remained a staunch admirer of Adolf Hitler and openly propagated Nazi ideology, including the justification of Germany's war as a "defensive crusade." This unwavering commitment to a genocidal regime and its principles makes his military record inseparable from his deeply problematic political stance.

His post-war activities, particularly his role in establishing the "Kameradenwerk" to aid and shelter Nazi war criminals, including the infamous Josef Mengele, demonstrate a profound disregard for human rights and justice. His involvement in arms dealing and advising authoritarian regimes in South America further linked him to oppressive systems that violated democratic values.

Public controversies, such as the "Rudel Scandal" in 1976, highlighted the deep divisions in post-war Germany regarding how to confront its Nazi past. The debate over his presence at military reunions and the subsequent forced retirements of generals who defended him underscored the German government's efforts to distance the modern Bundeswehr from the traditions of the Wehrmacht and any association with Nazism. His funeral, marked by Nazi salutes and wartime songs, served as a stark reminder of the continued presence of neo-Nazi elements who revered him as a symbol.

The widespread urban legend that Joseph Stalin personally placed a 100.00 K RUB bounty on Rudel's head, labeling him "Enemy Number One of the Soviet People," while unverified, reflects the intense fear and respect he commanded on the Eastern Front. However, this narrative often inadvertently glorifies his actions without acknowledging the immense human cost and suffering inflicted by the Nazi regime he so ardently supported. Rudel's legacy, therefore, serves as a stark reminder of the ethical complexities of military heroism when intertwined with a morally reprehensible ideology.