Romania

3.1. Ancient Dacia and Roman Era

Human settlement in the territory of modern Romania dates back to the Lower Paleolithic. The oldest Homo sapiens remains in Europe, dated to approximately 42,000 years ago, were discovered in the Peștera cu Oase ("Cave with Bones") in southwestern Romania. Written records first mention the peoples of this region in the 5th century BC, when Herodotus described the Getae tribes. The Dacians, closely related to or a part of the Getae, were Thracian tribes inhabiting Dacia, an area encompassing much of present-day Romania, Moldova, and northern Bulgaria. According to Strabo, the Getae and Dacians spoke the same Thracian language.

The first centralized Dacian Kingdom was established around 82 BC under the rule of King Burebista, who was assisted by the high priest Deceneus. Burebista unified the Dacian tribes and expanded his kingdom significantly. However, he was assassinated in 44 BC, and his kingdom fragmented into several smaller states. The core of the Dacian state remained in the Șureanu Mountains, where successive rulers like Deceneus, Comosicus, and Coryllus held power. The Dacian state reached its peak of development under King Decebalus (reigned 87-106 AD).

The expanding Roman Empire came into conflict with the Dacians. After Dacia attacked the Roman province of Moesia in 87 AD, Emperor Trajan launched two major campaigns, known as Trajan's Dacian Wars (101-102 AD and 105-106 AD). Decebalus was defeated, and a significant part of Dacia was conquered and transformed into the Roman province of Roman Dacia in 106 AD. The region was rich in resources, particularly gold and silver, which attracted Roman colonists. This period led to intense Romanization, as Roman culture, administration, and, crucially, Vulgar Latin were introduced. Vulgar Latin spoken in Dacia formed the basis for the development of the Romanian language.

However, continuous pressure from migratory tribes, such as the Goths and Carpians, and the empire's overstretched resources led the Romans to withdraw their administration and legions from Dacia between 271 and 275 AD under Emperor Aurelian. Dacia was the first major province to be formally abandoned by the Roman Empire, although a Romanized population remained.

3.2. Medieval Principalities and Phanariot Era

Following the Roman withdrawal, the territory of present-day Romania became a pathway and often a temporary settlement for various migratory peoples. These included the Goths (3rd-4th centuries), Huns (4th century), Gepids (5th century), Avars (6th century), and Slavs (beginning in the 7th century), who had a lasting linguistic and cultural impact. Later came the Magyars (9th century), Pechenegs, Cumans, Uzes, and Alans (10th-12th centuries), and the Tatars (13th century). Despite these migrations, a Daco-Roman population persisted, gradually evolving into the Romanian people.

By the 13th century, small Romanian political entities known as knezate and voivodeships are attested south of the Carpathian Mountains. Amidst weakening Hungarian royal pressure and diminishing Tatar dominance, two major autonomous feudal states emerged:

• Wallachia (Țara Românească_{The Romanian Land}^Romanian - "The Romanian Land"), founded traditionally by Basarab I around 1310.
• Moldavia (Moldova_Moldova^Romanian), founded traditionally by Bogdan I around 1359.

Transylvania, historically inhabited by Romanians, Dacians, and later various Germanic tribes, came under Hungarian rule from the 11th century and was governed by voivodes within the Kingdom of Hungary. After the Battle of Mohács in 1526, which led to the collapse of the medieval Hungarian Kingdom, Transylvania became a self-governing principality under Ottoman suzerainty, later passing to Habsburg control.

Notable medieval Romanian rulers who played significant roles in defending their lands and shaping their identity include Mircea the Elder, Vlad the Impaler (the historical figure who inspired the Dracula legend), Michael the Brave (Mihai Viteazul), and Constantin Brâncoveanu in Wallachia; and Alexander the Good, Stephen the Great (Ștefan cel Mare), Petru Rareș, and Dimitrie Cantemir in Moldavia. John Hunyadi (Iancu de Hunedoara), of Romanian origin, was a key figure in the defense of Hungary and Transylvania against the Ottomans.

From the late 15th century, both Wallachia and Moldavia increasingly fell under the influence of the powerful Ottoman Empire, eventually becoming vassal states. They retained internal autonomy but paid tribute and were subject to Ottoman foreign policy. At the turn of the 17th century (1600-1601), Michael the Brave, Prince of Wallachia, briefly united Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania under his rule, an event later seen as a precursor to modern Romania.

The 18th century marked the beginning of the Phanariot era in Wallachia (from 1716) and Moldavia (from 1711). The Ottoman Sultans, distrustful of native Romanian princes after some had allied with Russia or the Habsburgs, began appointing rulers from prominent Greek families residing in the Phanar district of Constantinople. This period was often characterized by heavy taxation, corruption, and political instability, although some Phanariot rulers also introduced Enlightenment-era reforms. Transylvania, after being under Habsburg rule, was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary following the Ausgleich of 1867, losing its remaining political autonomy.

3.3. Early Modern Period and National Awakening

The early modern period in the Romanian lands was marked by continued Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, and Habsburg rule in Transylvania, alongside growing national consciousness and the first steps towards modernization and self-determination.

After the collapse of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary in 1541, the Principality of Transylvania emerged, nominally under Ottoman suzerainty but often acting with considerable autonomy. The Protestant Reformation had a significant impact in Transylvania, with Calvinism, Lutheranism, and Unitarianism being officially recognized alongside Roman Catholicism by the Diet of Torda in 1568. The Orthodox faith of the Romanian majority, however, remained merely tolerated.

In 1594, the princes of Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia joined the Holy League against the Ottoman Empire. Michael the Brave (Mihai Viteazul), Prince of Wallachia, famously united the three principalities under his rule in May 1600. Although his union was short-lived, as neighboring powers forced him to abdicate in September of the same year, Michael became a potent symbol of Romanian unity for 19th-century nationalists. Despite continued Ottoman tribute, capable princes like Gabriel Bethlen of Transylvania, Matei Basarab of Wallachia, and Vasile Lupu of Moldavia managed to strengthen their principalities' autonomy and foster cultural development.

The Great Turkish War saw the Holy League expel Ottoman forces from Central Europe between 1684 and 1699, leading to the integration of the Principality of Transylvania into the Habsburg Monarchy. The Habsburgs promoted a church union in 1699, persuading some Orthodox Romanian clergy to unite with the Roman Catholic Church, forming the Romanian Church United with Rome (Greek Catholic). This union reinforced Romanian intellectuals' awareness of their Roman heritage. The Orthodox Church was officially restored in Transylvania only after popular revolts in 1744 and 1759. The establishment of the Transylvanian Military Frontier also caused unrest, particularly among the Székelys in 1764 (known as the Siculicidium).

The Phanariot era began in Moldavia in 1711 and Wallachia in 1716 after Princes Dimitrie Cantemir and Constantin Brâncoveanu, respectively, were deposed for allying with Russia and the Habsburgs against the Ottomans. Phanariot rule was characterized by heavy taxation and political instability, weakening the principalities. Neighboring empires capitalized on this: the Habsburg Monarchy annexed Bukovina (northwestern Moldavia) in 1775, and the Russian Empire seized Bessarabia (eastern Moldavia) in 1812.

In Transylvania, despite a 1733 census showing Romanians as the most numerous ethnic group, they continued to be marginalized politically. Bishop Inocențiu Micu-Klein's demands for recognition of Romanians as a fourth privileged "nation" led to his exile. In 1791, Uniate and Orthodox Romanian leaders jointly submitted the Supplex Libellus Valachorum, a petition for political and civil rights, to Emperor Leopold II, but it was rejected.

The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) allowed Russia to act as a protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire, increasing Russian influence in the Danubian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia). The Greek War of Independence inspired Tudor Vladimirescu, a Wallachian lesser nobleman, to lead an anti-Ottoman and anti-Phanariot revolt in 1821. Although Vladimirescu was eventually murdered, his revolt contributed to the end of Phanariot rule and the restoration of native Romanian princes. The Treaty of Adrianople (1829), following a Russo-Turkish war, further strengthened the autonomy of the Danubian Principalities, though they remained under Ottoman suzerainty and increasing Russian protectorship.

The Revolutions of 1848 swept through Moldavia and Wallachia, led by figures like Mihail Kogălniceanu and Nicolae Bălcescu. Revolutionaries demanded reforms such as the emancipation of peasants, broader civil rights, and the union of the two principalities. The Wallachian revolutionaries adopted the blue, yellow, and red tricolour as the national flag. However, Russian and Ottoman forces crushed these uprisings. In Transylvania, most Romanians, under leaders like Avram Iancu and Bishop Andrei Șaguna, supported the Habsburg imperial government against the Hungarian revolutionaries who sought to unite Transylvania with Hungary without recognizing Romanian rights. Șaguna proposed unifying the Romanians of the Habsburg Monarchy into a separate duchy, but this was refused. These events, despite their failure, fueled the growing national awakening and desire for self-determination among Romanians.

3.4. Unification and Kingdom of Romania

The mid-19th to early 20th century was a transformative period for the Romanian lands, marked by the unification of Moldavia and Wallachia, the achievement of full independence, and the establishment of the Kingdom of Romania, culminating in the creation of Greater Romania after World War I. This era laid the groundwork for modern Romania, navigating complex geopolitical currents and fostering national development.

3.4.1. Union of Principalities and Pre-World War I

The modern Romanian state emerged from the union of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859. This "Little Union" was achieved through the election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince of both principalities, a move tacitly accepted by the Great Powers through the Paris Convention of 1858. Cuza's reign (1859-1866) was pivotal; he implemented a series of sweeping reforms that laid the foundations for a modern state, including land reform, secularization of monastic estates, adoption of new civil and penal codes, and establishment of a national education system. However, his authoritarian tendencies and the opposition from conservative landowners and some liberal factions led to his forced abdication in 1866 by a broad coalition known as the "Monstrous coalition".

To consolidate the union and provide stability, Romanian political leaders sought a foreign prince. They chose Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became Prince Carol I in May 1866. He adopted a new liberal constitution, one of the most advanced in Southeastern Europe at the time. Under Carol I, Romania pursued full independence from the Ottoman Empire. This was achieved through Romania's participation on the Russian side in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. Romanian troops fought bravely, particularly at the Siege of Pleven. Romania's independence was formally proclaimed on May 10, 1877, and internationally recognized by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). As part of the treaty's arrangements, Romania ceded southern Bessarabia to Russia but gained Northern Dobruja, including the port of Constanța.

On March 14, 1881 (May 10 by the Old Style calendar, a date of great significance), Romania was proclaimed a kingdom, and Prince Carol I was crowned King. His long reign (1866-1914) was characterized by political stability, economic development, and modernization of infrastructure. In 1913, Romania participated in the Second Balkan War against Bulgaria, and as a result, acquired Southern Dobruja (the Quadrilateral) under the Treaty of Bucharest. King Carol I died in 1914, and was succeeded by his nephew, Ferdinand I.

3.4.4. World War II

Romania's involvement in World War II was marked by shifting alliances, significant territorial losses and regains, participation in major military campaigns, and ultimately, the onset of Soviet influence.

As international tensions rose in the late 1930s, Romania found itself in a precarious geopolitical position. Following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939 between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, which contained secret protocols assigning Romania's eastern territories to the Soviet sphere of influence, Romania faced immense pressure. In June 1940, the Soviet Union issued an ultimatum, forcing Romania to cede Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region to the USSR.

King Carol II, attempting to secure an alliance with Nazi Germany to counter further threats, appointed a pro-Axis government under Ion Gigurtu. Gigurtu declared that Romania would pursue a Nazi-aligned, antisemitic, and fascist-totalitarian policy. However, this did not prevent further territorial losses. Under Axis pressure, Romania was compelled to:

• Cede Northern Transylvania, including the city of Cluj and significant natural resources, to Hungary through the Second Vienna Award arbitrated by Germany and Italy on August 30, 1940.
• Cede Southern Dobruja (the Quadrilateral) to Bulgaria through the Treaty of Craiova on September 7, 1940.

These substantial territorial losses, achieved without a fight, led to widespread public discontent and protests. In response, King Carol II suspended the 1938 Constitution and appointed General Ion Antonescu as Prime Minister with full powers on September 4, 1940. Supported by the Iron Guard, Antonescu forced Carol II to abdicate in favor of his young son, Michael I, on September 6. Antonescu then declared himself "Conducător" (Leader) of the state and established a military dictatorship, initially in partnership with the Iron Guard. In January 1941, Antonescu suppressed a violent rebellion by the Iron Guard and consolidated his sole control.

In June 1941, Romania joined Nazi Germany and the other Axis powers in the invasion of the Soviet Union, aiming to recover Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Romanian forces participated in heavy fighting on the Eastern Front, including the Siege of Odessa and the Battle of Stalingrad. Romania also became a crucial supplier of oil to Germany. The Antonescu regime was responsible for the persecution and murder of hundreds of thousands of Jews and Roma in Romanian-controlled territories, particularly in Bessarabia, Bukovina, and Transnistria.

As the tide of the war turned against the Axis powers, particularly after the defeat at Stalingrad, opposition to Antonescu's regime grew within Romania. On August 23, 1944, with Soviet forces advancing into Romanian territory, King Michael I, supported by a coalition of political parties, staged a coup d'état. Antonescu was arrested, and Romania switched sides, declaring war on Germany and joining the Allies of World War II. The Romanian army then fought alongside the Soviet Red Army against German and Hungarian forces in Transylvania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Austria until the end of the war in Europe.

Despite its significant contribution to the Allied victory in the final year of the war, Romania was treated as a defeated enemy nation at the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. The treaties confirmed the return of Northern Transylvania to Romania but also reaffirmed the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Southern Dobruja remained with Bulgaria. The immediate post-war period saw the increasing dominance of the Romanian Communist Party, backed by the Soviet occupying forces.

3.5. Socialist Republic of Romania

Following World War II and under Soviet occupation, Romania transitioned into a communist state, a period that profoundly shaped its social, economic, and political landscape for over four decades.

The Romanian Communist Party (initially the Romanian Workers' Party), though small before the war, rapidly consolidated power with Soviet backing. In 1947, King Michael I was forced to abdicate, and the Romanian People's Republic was proclaimed on December 30. The regime implemented Stalinist policies, including the nationalization of industry, banking, and transportation, and the forced collectivization of agriculture. Political opposition was ruthlessly suppressed through the Securitate, the powerful secret police force. Thousands of perceived enemies of the state-politicians from historical parties, intellectuals, clergy, military officers, and ordinary citizens-were imprisoned, sent to labor camps, or executed. This period was characterized by severe human rights abuses and a lack of democratic freedoms.

In the early 1960s, under the leadership of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Romania began to assert a degree of independence from the Soviet Union in its foreign policy. This included establishing diplomatic and economic ties with Western countries and taking a neutral stance in the Sino-Soviet split. Domestically, however, repressive policies continued.

After Gheorghiu-Dej's death in 1965, Nicolae Ceaușescu became the General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party. Initially, he continued the policy of relative foreign policy independence, famously condemning the 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, which earned him temporary popularity both at home and in the West. In 1965, the country's name was changed to the Socialist Republic of Romania. Ceaușescu became President of the State Council in 1967 and President of the Republic in 1974.

Over his long rule, Ceaușescu's regime became increasingly authoritarian and personalistic, centered around a pervasive cult of personality for himself and his wife, Elena Ceaușescu. In the 1970s, Romania pursued ambitious industrialization projects financed by Western loans. However, poor economic management and the global oil crises led to a severe debt crisis in the early 1980s. To repay the foreign debt, Ceaușescu imposed drastic austerity measures, leading to severe shortages of food, heating, electricity, and basic necessities for the population. This caused immense hardship and a sharp decline in living standards.

Socially, the regime implemented policies aimed at increasing the population, such as banning abortion and contraception (Decree 770), which had devastating consequences for women's health and led to a large number of children ending up in state-run orphanages under horrific conditions. Grandiose construction projects, like the Palace of the Parliament in Bucharest, involved the demolition of historic neighborhoods and further strained the economy. Human rights were systematically violated, with pervasive surveillance, censorship, and suppression of any form of dissent. The impact on democratic values was profound, creating a society characterized by fear and conformity. By the late 1980s, Ceaușescu's Romania was one of the most isolated and oppressive regimes in the Eastern Bloc.

3.6. Romania since 1989

The period since 1989 in Romania has been defined by the dramatic overthrow of the communist dictatorship, a challenging transition to democracy and a market economy, and efforts towards European integration, marked by both significant progress and persistent societal issues.

The Romanian Revolution began in mid-December 1989 in Timișoara with protests against the government's attempt to evict Hungarian Reformed pastor László Tőkés. These protests quickly escalated into a nationwide uprising against Nicolae Ceaușescu's regime. After days of violent clashes and mass demonstrations, Ceaușescu and his wife Elena fled Bucharest on December 22 but were captured, summarily tried, and executed on December 25, 1989. An interim government, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, a former high-ranking communist official, took power.

The FSN government reversed many of the Ceaușescu regime's most oppressive policies. The first free multi-party elections were held in May 1990, which Iliescu won decisively, and the FSN gained a large majority in Parliament. Petre Roman became Prime Minister. However, the early post-revolutionary period was tumultuous, marked by social unrest, including the Golaniad protests in Bucharest and violent interventions by miners (the Mineriads), which were seen by many as undemocratic. The September 1991 Mineriad led to Roman's resignation, and Theodor Stolojan became Prime Minister.

Throughout the 1990s, Romania struggled with economic reforms, high inflation, and political instability. The FSN split into several factions, most notably the Social Democratic Party (PSD) and the Democratic Party (PD). Ion Iliescu served as president for most of this period (1990-1996 and 2000-2004), with a centrist coalition led by Emil Constantinescu holding power from 1996 to 2000.

The 2000s saw Romania accelerate its integration efforts with Western institutions. Traian Băsescu was elected president in 2004 and re-elected in 2009. Romania joined NATO in March 2004 and the European Union on January 1, 2007. EU membership spurred further reforms, particularly in the judiciary and in combating corruption, though progress has been uneven. The economy experienced a period of high growth in the mid-2000s, sometimes referred to as the "Tiger of Eastern Europe," but was hit hard by the Great Recession in 2008-2009, requiring an IMF-led bailout.

Corruption has remained a significant challenge. The National Anticorruption Directorate (DNA) was established in 2002 and gained prominence for prosecuting high-level officials. However, attempts by ruling parties to weaken anti-corruption legislation and judicial independence led to massive street protests, notably in 2015 after the Colectiv nightclub fire (leading to Prime Minister Victor Ponta's resignation) and during 2017-2019 against the PSD-ALDE government's judicial reforms.

Klaus Iohannis was elected president in November 2014, defeating Victor Ponta, and was re-elected in a landslide in 2019. His presidency has often focused on strengthening the rule of law and maintaining a pro-Western orientation. The post-1989 era also saw significant deindustrialization as many state-owned enterprises from the communist period were closed or privatized, often controversially.

Contemporary Romania continues to navigate the complexities of democratic consolidation, economic development, and social justice. Efforts to improve governance, strengthen institutions, uphold human rights, and ensure the rights of minorities, including the Roma population, are ongoing. The country plays an active role in NATO and the EU, contributing to regional stability and international cooperation.

4.1. Topography

Romania's landscape is dominated by the Carpathian Mountains, which form an arc through the center of the country. There are 14 mountain ranges reaching altitudes above 6.6 K ft ^{(2.00 K m)}, with the highest point being Moldoveanu Peak at 8.3 K ft ^{(2.54 K m)} in the Făgăraș Mountains. The Carpathians are divided into three main ranges: the Eastern Carpathians, the Southern Carpathians (or Transylvanian Alps), and the Western Carpathians.

These mountains encircle the Transylvanian Plateau in the central and western part of the country. To the east and south of the Carpathians lie large plains: the Moldavian Plateau to the east, and the Wallachian Plain (or Romanian Plain) to the south, which extends to the Danube River. The westernmost part of Romania includes a portion of the Pannonian Plain.

A significant geographical feature is the Danube Delta, located where the Danube River empties into the Black Sea. It is Europe's second-largest and best-preserved river delta, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and a crucial biosphere reserve. With an area of approximately 2.2 K mile^{2 (5.80 K km2)}, it is the largest continuous marshland in Europe and is characterized by a network of channels, lakes, reed beds, and islands.

4.2. Climate

Romania has a climate that is primarily continental, characterized by four distinct seasons. Its position on the southeastern portion of the European continent and its distance from the open sea are major influences.

The average annual temperature is 51.8 °F ^{(11 °C)} in the south and 46.4 °F ^{(8 °C)} in the north. Summers are generally warm to hot, with average maximum temperatures in Bucharest reaching around 82.4 °F ^{(28 °C)}. Temperatures exceeding 95 °F ^{(35 °C)} are common in the lower-lying areas, particularly in the Wallachian Plain. Winters are cold, with average maximum temperatures often below 35.6 °F ^{(2 °C)}, and much lower in the mountainous regions. The lowest recorded temperature was -37.3 °F ^{(-38.5 °C)} in Bod in 1942, and the highest was 112.1 °F ^{(44.5 °C)} at Ion Sion in 1951.

Precipitation varies across the country. The highest western mountains receive over 30 in ^{(750 mm)} annually, while in Bucharest, the average is approximately 22 in ^{(570 mm)}. The Danube Delta is the driest region, with annual precipitation around 15 in ^{(370 mm)}.

Regional climate variations exist:

• Western Romania, particularly the Banat region, experiences a milder climate with some Mediterranean influences.
• Eastern Romania has a more pronounced continental climate.
• Dobruja, the region between the lower Danube and the Black Sea, is influenced by the maritime climate of the Black Sea, resulting in milder winters and cooler summers compared to the inland plains.

The Carpathian Mountains also play a significant role in moderating the climate, with distinct alpine conditions at higher altitudes.

4.3. Ecosystems and Natural Environment

Romania boasts a rich biodiversity and a variety of ecosystems, thanks to its diverse topography and climate. Approximately 47% of the country's land area is covered by natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe, covering about 27% of its territory. The country's Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score was 5.95/10 in 2019, ranking it 90th globally out of 172 countries.

There are six main terrestrial ecoregions in Romania: Balkan mixed forests, Central European mixed forests, East European forest steppe, Pannonian mixed forests, Carpathian montane conifer forests, and Pontic steppe.

Romania has a significant network of protected areas, covering almost 3.9 K mile^{2 (10.00 K km2)} (about 5% of the total area). This includes 13 national parks and three biosphere reserves: the Danube Delta, Retezat National Park, and Rodna Mountains National Park. The Danube Delta is particularly noteworthy, supporting 1,688 different plant species alone and serving as a vital habitat for migratory birds.

The country's flora is diverse, with approximately 3,700 plant species identified. Of these, 23 have been declared natural monuments, 74 are considered extinct, 39 endangered, 171 vulnerable, and 1,253 rare. The fauna of Romania is equally rich, comprising 33,792 species of animals, of which 33,085 are invertebrates and 707 are vertebrates. Romania is home to almost 400 unique species of mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. Notably, it hosts about 50% of Europe's (excluding Russia) brown bear population and 20% of its wolves, primarily in the Carpathian Mountains.

Environmental challenges include deforestation, soil erosion, and water and air pollution in some industrial areas. Conservation efforts are ongoing, often supported by EU initiatives, to protect Romania's valuable natural heritage.

5.1. Government Structure

The Romanian government is structured with distinct executive, legislative, and judicial branches, designed to provide checks and balances, although the interplay between the President and the Prime Minister can sometimes lead to political cohabitation or tension.

The executive branch is led by the President of Romania and the Prime Minister.

• The President is the head of state, directly elected by popular vote for a maximum of two five-year terms. The President represents Romania in international affairs, safeguards the constitutional order, acts as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and mediates between state powers and between the state and society. The President nominates the Prime Minister, promulgates laws, and can call for referendums. The official residence of the President is the Cotroceni Palace.
• The Prime Minister is the head of government. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, usually from the party or coalition holding a majority in Parliament, and must be confirmed by a vote of confidence from the Parliament. The Prime Minister, along with the Cabinet (Council of Ministers), is responsible for implementing domestic and foreign policies and managing public administration. The Prime Minister and the Government are accountable to Parliament. The seat of the government is Victoria Palace.

The legislative branch is the Parliament (Parlamentul României_{Parlamentul României}^Romanian), which is bicameral, consisting of:

• The Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaților_{Camera Deputaților}^Romanian), the lower house.
• The Senate (Senatul_Senatul^Romanian), the upper house.

Members of both chambers are elected every four years through a system based on proportional representation in multi-member constituencies. The Parliament enacts laws, approves the state budget, and oversees the government's activities. The Parliament resides in the Palace of the Parliament.

Democratic processes, including regular elections and the functioning of political parties, are central to Romania's governance. However, issues such as political clientelism, legislative instability, and attempts to undermine judicial independence have been recurring concerns impacting the quality of democracy.

5.2. Judiciary

The judiciary is, according to the Constitution, independent of the other branches of government. The judicial system is based on civil law, influenced by the French model, and has an inquisitorial nature.
The structure of the judicial system includes:

• The High Court of Cassation and Justice (Înalta Curte de Casație și Justiție_{Înalta Curte de Casație și Justiție}^Romanian), which is the supreme court of Romania. It ensures the uniform interpretation and application of law by all other courts.
• Courts of Appeal (curți de apel_{curți de apel}^Romanian)
• Tribunals (tribunale_tribunale^Romanian) - county-level courts
• Local courts or first-instance courts (judecătorii_judecătorii^Romanian)

The Constitutional Court (Curtea Constituțională_{Curtea Constituțională}^Romanian) stands apart from the regular judicial system. It is responsible for adjudicating the constitutionality of laws before their promulgation and resolving constitutional conflicts between public authorities.

Since Romania's accession to the European Union in 2007, significant emphasis has been placed on judicial reform, strengthening the rule of law, and combating corruption. The EU's Cooperation and Verification Mechanism (CVM) was established to monitor progress in these areas. While some progress has been made, including the prosecution of high-level corruption cases by the National Anticorruption Directorate (DNA), concerns about political interference in the judiciary, the effectiveness of reforms, and the independence of judges remain. Public protests have often erupted in response to perceived threats to judicial independence.

6.1. Major Cities

Romania has several major urban centers that are significant for their demographic size, economic activity, cultural heritage, and educational institutions.

• Bucharest (București_București^Romanian): The capital and largest city of Romania, Bucharest is the country's primary political, economic, and cultural center. With a city proper population of over 1.7 million (2021 census) and a metropolitan area population approaching 2.2 million, it is one of the largest cities in Southeastern Europe. Bucharest is known for its wide boulevards, Belle Époque architecture, and significant landmarks like the Palace of the Parliament.
• Cluj-Napoca: Often considered the historical capital of Transylvania, Cluj-Napoca is a major academic, cultural, and business hub. It has a large student population and a vibrant IT sector. Its rich history is reflected in its diverse architecture and numerous museums.
• Timișoara: Located in western Romania (Banat region), Timișoara is a multicultural city known for its Baroque architecture and its pivotal role in the 1989 Romanian Revolution. It is an important industrial and technological center.
• Iași: The historical capital of Moldavia, Iași is a significant cultural and educational center in northeastern Romania. It is home to the oldest university in Romania and numerous historical monuments and monasteries.
• Constanța: Romania's largest seaport on the Black Sea coast, Constanța is an ancient city (formerly Tomis) with a rich history dating back to Greek and Roman times. It is a key commercial and tourist hub.
• Craiova: A major city in the Oltenia region of southwestern Romania, Craiova is an important industrial, commercial, and cultural center.
• Brașov: Situated in central Romania in the Transylvania region, Brașov is a popular tourist destination known for its medieval old town, proximity to mountain resorts, and landmarks like the Black Church.
• Galați: A port city on the Danube River in eastern Romania, Galați is an industrial center with a significant shipyard and steel plant.
• Ploiești: Located north of Bucharest, Ploiești is a major center for Romania's oil and gas industry.
• Oradea: Situated in northwestern Romania near the Hungarian border, Oradea is known for its Art Nouveau architecture and thermal baths.

These cities, along with others like Sibiu, Arad, Pitești, and Bacău, contribute significantly to Romania's national identity and development. Many have established metropolitan areas to better coordinate regional development and services.

9.1. Economic Structure and Major Industries

Romania's economy has a diversified structure, with services being the largest contributor to GDP, followed by industry and agriculture. The country has several major industries that are significant both domestically and for export.

Services: This sector accounts for over half of Romania's GDP and employment. Key service industries include:

• Information Technology (IT) and Software Development: Romania has a rapidly growing IT sector, with a strong pool of skilled professionals. Cities like Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, and Iași are major IT hubs, hosting numerous local and international tech companies. The country is known for software development, cybersecurity, and IT outsourcing.
• Retail and Wholesale Trade: This sector has expanded significantly with increased consumer spending and the entry of international retail chains.
• Finance and Banking: The banking sector is largely privatized and includes major European banking groups.
• Tourism: A growing contributor to the economy (covered in a separate section).
• Transportation and Logistics: Benefiting from Romania's strategic location.

Industry: Accounting for around 30% of GDP, Romania's industrial sector includes:

• Automotive Manufacturing: This is a flagship industry, with major plants operated by Dacia (owned by Renault) and Ford. Romania is a significant vehicle and automotive parts exporter.
• Oil and Gas: Romania has a long history of oil production and possesses refining capacities. OMV Petrom is a major player. While production of traditional reserves has declined, there is ongoing exploration for new sources, including offshore Black Sea gas.
• Manufacturing: Besides automotive, this includes machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, and metal products.
• Textiles and Clothing: A traditional industry that remains an important employer and exporter, though facing competition.
• Energy Production: Diverse sources including hydro, nuclear (Cernavodă plant), coal, and increasingly, renewables like wind and solar.
• Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals.

Agriculture: While its share of GDP has decreased to around 4-5%, agriculture remains important, employing a substantial part of the population. Romania has significant agricultural potential due to its fertile land. Key products include cereals (wheat, corn), oilseeds (sunflower, rapeseed), vegetables, fruits, and livestock. Challenges include land fragmentation and the need for modernization.

Considerations of labor rights and environmental sustainability are increasingly important across all sectors. EU membership has brought stricter regulations and standards in these areas. Trade unions are active, advocating for workers' rights, while environmental concerns related to industrial pollution, deforestation, and sustainable resource management are part of the national discourse.

9.2. Infrastructure

Romania's infrastructure has undergone significant development and modernization, particularly since its accession to the European Union, though challenges remain in certain areas.

Transportation Network:

• Roads: According to the National Institute of Statistics (INS), Romania's total road network was estimated at 53 K mile ^{(86.08 K km)} in 2015. This includes national roads, county roads, and communal roads. The development of motorways (autostrăzi_autostrăzi^Romanian) and expressways has been a priority, with EU funds contributing significantly. Key corridors, such as those part of the Pan-European transport network, are being upgraded.
• Railways: Romania has one of the largest railway networks in Europe, estimated by the World Bank at 14 K mile ^{(22.30 K km)} of track. The state-owned Căile Ferate Române (CFR) is the main operator. After a period of decline post-1989, efforts are underway to modernize railway lines and rolling stock, particularly on major European corridors. Rail transport accounts for a significant portion of passenger and freight movement. The Bucharest Metro, opened in 1979, is the country's only underground railway system, serving the capital with a network of 50 mile ^{(80.01 km)} and carrying hundreds of thousands of passengers daily.
• Airports: Romania has sixteen international commercial airports. The largest is Henri Coandă International Airport in Bucharest (Otopeni), which handled over 12.8 million passengers in 2017. Other important international airports are located in Cluj-Napoca, Timișoara, Iași, and Sibiu.
• Ports: The Port of Constanța on the Black Sea is the largest port in Romania and one of the most important in the region, serving as a key gateway for trade. Danube river ports also play a role in freight transport.

Energy Infrastructure:

• Electricity: Romania has a diverse electricity generation mix. In 2015, sources included hydropower (around 30%), nuclear power (from the Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant, around 18%), coal (around 28%), and hydrocarbons (around 14%), with a growing share from renewable sources like wind and solar. Romania is a net exporter of electrical energy.
• Oil and Natural Gas: Romania has a long history of oil and gas production and possesses significant refining capacity. While traditional onshore production has declined, there is active exploration and development of new resources, particularly offshore natural gas reserves in the Black Sea. The country has one ofthe largest reserves of crude oil and shale gas in Europe, contributing to its relative energy independence within the EU.
• Renewable Sources: Investment in renewable energy, particularly wind power in Dobruja and solar power, has increased, supported by EU targets and national schemes.

Telecommunications Infrastructure:

• Internet: Romania has a well-developed internet infrastructure, with widespread broadband access. As of June 2014, there were almost 18.3 million internet connections. The country is often cited for having some of the fastest average internet speeds globally, particularly for fixed broadband. Cities like Timișoara have ranked among the highest in the world for internet download speeds.
• Mobile Telephony: Mobile phone penetration is high, with extensive 4G and growing 5G network coverage.

Overall, while significant progress has been made, continued investment is needed to further modernize Romania's infrastructure to meet EU standards and support sustained economic growth.

9.3. Tourism

Tourism is a significant and growing sector in the Romanian economy, contributing approximately 5% to the GDP and employing a substantial number of people. The country's diverse attractions, ranging from natural landscapes and historical sites to rich cultural heritage, draw millions of visitors annually. In 2016, Romania received 9.33 million foreign tourists, with a steady increase in numbers observed in the years prior and following. A majority of foreign visitors, over 60% as of 2007, come from other EU countries.

Key tourist attractions and destinations include:

• Natural Landscapes:
  • The Danube Delta: A UNESCO World Heritage site, offering unique biodiversity, birdwatching opportunities, and boat tours.
  • The Carpathian Mountains: Providing opportunities for hiking, skiing, and exploring scenic routes like the Transfăgărășan and Transalpina highways. Popular skiing resorts include those in Valea Prahovei (e.g., Sinaia, Bușteni, Predeal) and Poiana Brașov.
  • National Parks and Protected Areas: Such as Retezat National Park, Piatra Craiului National Park, and the Apuseni Mountains with their caves (e.g., Scărișoara Ice Cave).

  

  

  • Historical and Cultural Sites:
    • Medieval Cities and Towns in Transylvania: Including Sibiu (a former European Capital of Culture), Brașov, Sighișoara (a UNESCO World Heritage site and the birthplace of Vlad Țepeș), Cluj-Napoca, and Alba Iulia. These cities boast well-preserved medieval architecture, fortified churches, and vibrant cultural scenes.
    • Castles and Fortifications: Bran Castle (often associated with the Dracula legend), Peleș Castle (a stunning royal palace in Sinaia), Pelișor Castle, Corvin Castle (a Gothic masterpiece in Hunedoara), and numerous other fortresses and citadels.
    • Painted Monasteries of Northern Moldavia: UNESCO World Heritage sites like Voroneț, Sucevița, and Moldovița, famous for their exterior frescoes.
    • Wooden churches of Maramureș: UNESCO World Heritage sites showcasing unique timber architecture in the Maramureș region.
    • Villages with fortified churches in Transylvania: UNESCO World Heritage sites representing the Saxon heritage of the region.
    • Sculptural Ensemble of Constantin Brâncuși at Târgu Jiu: A significant outdoor monument by the internationally renowned sculptor.
    • Black Sea Resorts: Popular summer destinations like Mamaia, Vama Veche, Costinești, and Eforie Nord, offering beaches, nightlife, and spas.
    • Rural Tourism and Agrotourism: Growing in popularity, this focuses on authentic experiences of Romanian village life, traditions, folklore, and cuisine. Regions like Maramureș, Bukovina, and parts of Transylvania are well-known for this. The Via Transilvanica, a long-distance hiking and cycling trail, further promotes rural and slow tourism.

    The tourism industry attracted 400.00 M EUR in investments in 2005, and in 2014, Romania had 32,500 companies active in the hotel and restaurant industry, with a total turnover of 2.60 B EUR. The government and private sector continue to invest in developing tourism infrastructure and promoting Romania as a diverse and attractive travel destination.

9.4. Science and Technology

Romania has a notable history of contributions to science and technology, with several Romanian researchers and inventors achieving international recognition.
Historically, prominent figures include:

• Traian Vuia: An aviation pioneer who designed, built, and tested one of the first monoplanes capable of taking off under its own power in 1906.
• Aurel Vlaicu: Another aviation pioneer who built and flew some of the earliest successful aircraft in Romania.
• Henri Coandă: Discovered the Coandă effect related to fluid dynamics and built an early jet-propelled aircraft.
• Victor Babeș: A physician and bacteriologist who made significant contributions to the study of rabies, leprosy, and diphtheria, discovering more than 50 types of bacteria.
• Nicolae Paulescu: A physiologist and professor of medicine credited by some Romanians with the discovery of an early form of insulin (which he called "pancreine"), demonstrating its effect on lowering blood sugar in diabetic dogs.
• George Emil Palade: A cell biologist who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974 for his discoveries concerning the functional organization of the cell, particularly ribosomes and the endoplasmic reticulum.
• Lazăr Edeleanu: A chemist who was the first to synthesize amphetamine and invented a process for refining petroleum using selective solvents.
• Other notable figures include mathematician Spiru Haret, physicist and inventor Ștefan Odobleja (a pioneer of cybernetics), and engineer Anghel Saligny (designer of the Cernavodă Bridge).

In the post-communist era (1990s and 2000s), the development of research and development (R&D) in Romania was hampered by factors such as low funding, corruption, and a significant "brain drain" of scientists and engineers. Romania's R&D spending as a percentage of GDP has historically been among the lowest in the European Union, standing at roughly 0.5% in 2016 and 2017, substantially below the EU average.

However, there have been efforts to revitalize the sector. In the early 2010s, the situation for science in Romania was described as "rapidly improving," albeit from a low base. In January 2011, the Romanian Parliament passed a law aimed at enforcing stricter quality control on universities and introducing tougher rules for funding evaluation and peer review. Romania was ranked 48th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

Romania has increased its participation in international scientific collaborations. It became a member of the European Space Agency (ESA) in 2011 and a full member of CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) in 2016. However, in 2018, Romania temporarily lost its voting rights in the ESA due to unpaid membership contributions, highlighting ongoing funding challenges.

A significant recent development is Romania's hosting of a major component of the Extreme Light Infrastructure (ELI) project, specifically the ELI-Nuclear Physics (ELI-NP) facility in Măgurele. This facility is designed to be the world's most powerful laser system. In early 2012, Romania launched its first satellite, Goliat, from the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana. Starting in December 2014, Romania became a co-owner of the International Space Station through its ESA membership.

10.1. Demographics

According to the 2021 Romanian census, the population of Romania was 19,053,815. Like many countries in the region, Romania's population has been gradually declining due to a combination of sub-replacement fertility rates and a negative net migration rate. The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2018 was estimated at 1.36 children born per woman, significantly below the replacement rate of 2.1 and among the lowest globally. This contrasts with a TFR of 5.82 in 1912. In 2014, 31.2% of births were to unmarried women.

The birth rate (9.49 per 1,000 population in 2012) is lower than the death rate (11.84 per 1,000 in 2012), resulting in a natural population decrease. This, combined with emigration, contributes to an aging population. The median age in 2018 was 41.6 years, one of the oldest in the world, with approximately 16.8% of the total population aged 65 years and over. Life expectancy in 2015 was estimated at 74.92 years (71.46 years for males and 78.59 years for females).

The Romanian diaspora is significant, with an estimated 12 million Romanians and individuals with Romanian ancestry living abroad. After the Romanian Revolution of 1989, many Romanians emigrated to other European countries (notably Italy and Spain), North America, or Australia, seeking better economic opportunities. As of 2009, there were also approximately 133,000 immigrants living in Romania, primarily from Moldova and China.

10.2. Ethnic Groups

Romania is an ethnically diverse country, though ethnic Romanians constitute the vast majority. According to the 2021 census:

• Romanians make up 89.33% of the population.
• Hungarians are the largest ethnic minority, forming 6.05% of the population. They are concentrated mainly in Transylvania, particularly in the counties of Harghita and Covasna, where they form local majorities.
• Roma constitute 3.44% of the population according to the census. However, it is widely acknowledged that the actual number of Roma is higher, as many may not declare their ethnicity due to social stigma or lack of identification documents. The Council of Europe, for instance, estimates the Roma population to be around 8.32%. Other sources suggest figures ranging from 1 to 2.5 million.

Other recognized minorities include Ukrainians (concentrated near the northern border), Germans (whose numbers have significantly decreased from over 745,000 in 1930 to about 36,000 today due to emigration), Turks and Tatars (mainly in Dobruja), Lipovans (Old Believer Russians), Aromanians, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews (once a much larger community), Czechs, Poles, and Italians.

The Romanian constitution and laws guarantee rights for ethnic minorities, including the right to use their mother tongue in administration and education in localities where they form a significant part of the population (typically over 20%), and representation in Parliament. However, minority groups, particularly the Roma, continue to face social and economic challenges, including discrimination and marginalization. Efforts towards better integration and upholding the rights of all vulnerable groups are ongoing, often supported by EU frameworks and civil society organizations.

10.3. Languages

The official language of Romania is Romanian (Limba română_{Limba română}^Romanian). It is a Romance language belonging to the Eastern Romance branch of the Italic languages within the Indo-European family. Romanian evolved from Vulgar Latin spoken in the Roman province of Dacia and surrounding areas, with influences from Slavic languages, Greek, Turkish, and Hungarian. It exhibits a notable degree of similarity to Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, and Istro-Romanian, and shares many features with other Romance languages like Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Catalan. The Romanian alphabet uses the standard 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, plus five additional letters with diacritics: ă, â, î, ș, and ț, totaling 31 letters.

According to the 2021 census, Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91.55% of the population. Hungarian is the largest minority language, spoken by 6.28% of the population, primarily in Transylvania. Vlax Romani is spoken by 1.20% of the population, though many Roma also speak Romanian or Hungarian. Other minority languages spoken in Romania include Ukrainian (approximately 40,861 native speakers, concentrated near the border), Turkish (around 17,101 speakers), German (around 15,943 speakers), and Russian (around 14,414 speakers), along with languages of other smaller ethnic groups.

The Romanian Constitution guarantees linguistic rights for minorities. In localities where an ethnic minority constitutes over 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in public administration, the justice system, and education alongside Romanian. Foreign citizens and stateless persons also have access to justice and education in their own language where feasible.

The main foreign languages taught in Romanian schools are English and French. According to a 2012 Eurobarometer survey, 31% of Romanians could speak English, 17% could speak French, and 7% could speak Italian and German each. Romania is a member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, and in 2010, an estimated 4.75 million people in the country could speak French.

10.4. Religion

Romania is a secular state with no official state religion, and freedom of religion is guaranteed by the constitution. The overwhelming majority of the population identifies as Christian.

According to the 2021 census:

• Eastern Orthodox Christians** constitute 73.60% of respondents. The vast majority of these (73.42% of the total population) belong to the autonomous Romanian Orthodox Church (Biserica Ortodoxă Română_{Biserica Ortodoxă Română}^Romanian). This church is in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox churches and is led by a Patriarch. It is the third-largest Eastern Orthodox Church in the world by number of adherents and is unique in that it functions within a predominantly Latin-based culture and uses a Romance liturgical language. Its canonical jurisdiction covers Romania and Moldova.
• Protestant** denominations make up 6.22% of the population. This includes various groups such as Reformed (Calvinist), Pentecostal, Baptist, and Seventh-day Adventist.
• Roman Catholics** account for 3.89% of the population.
• Greek Catholics** (Romanian Church United with Rome, Uniate) represent 0.61%. This church was suppressed during the communist era but re-emerged after 1989.

From the remaining population, 128,291 people (0.67%) belong to other Christian denominations or other religions. This includes:

• Muslims**: Numbering 58,347 in the 2021 census, predominantly of Turkish and Tatar ethnicity, concentrated mainly in the Dobruja region.
• Judaism**: 2,708 individuals identified as Jewish. The Jewish community was once much larger (around 4% of the population, or 728,115 people in the 1930 census) but was decimated by the Holocaust and significantly reduced by emigration during and after the communist era.

Additionally, 71,430 people declared themselves as irreligious, 57,229 as atheist, and 25,485 as agnostic. A significant portion, 2,658,165 people (13.95%), chose not to declare their religion in the 2021 census.

The Romanian Orthodox Church plays a significant social and cultural role in the country. Religious holidays, particularly Easter and Christmas, are widely celebrated. While the state is secular, it provides financial support to recognized religious denominations based on their number of adherents.

10.5. Education

The Romanian education system has undergone continuous reform since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, aiming to align with European standards and address contemporary challenges. Education is a right guaranteed by the constitution and is primarily state-funded and regulated by the Ministry of Education.

The structure of the education system includes:

• Early Childhood Education: Kindergarten (grădiniță_grădiniță^Romanian) is optional for children aged 3-5. Since 2020, the final year of kindergarten (grupa mare_{grupa mare}^Romanian, for children aged 5-6) has become part of compulsory education.
• Compulsory Education: Schooling is compulsory from age 5/6 (the preparatory year/final kindergarten year) until the completion of the 12th grade (typically around age 18-19).
• Primary and Secondary Education: This is divided into:
  • Primary school (școala primară_{școala primară}^Romanian): Preparatory year and grades 1-4.
  • Lower secondary school / Gymnasium (gimnaziu_gimnaziu^Romanian): Grades 5-8.
  • Upper secondary school / High school (liceu_liceu^Romanian): Grades 9-12, culminating in the Bacalaureat examination, which is required for university admission. Vocational schools also exist as an alternative path after gymnasium.
• Higher Education: Romania has a network of public and private universities. Major public universities include the University of Bucharest, Babeș-Bolyai University in Cluj-Napoca, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University in Iași, and the West University of Timișoara. These institutions, along with others, offer Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral degrees in line with the Bologna Process.

In 2004, approximately 4.4 million individuals were enrolled in the education system: 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million in primary and secondary education, and 650,000 in tertiary education. The adult literacy rate was 98.8% in 2018.

Despite progress, the education system faces challenges such as underfunding, disparities between urban and rural schools, the need for curriculum modernization, and teacher shortages in some areas. There is also a notable, though often informal, system of private tutoring, particularly for students preparing for important exams. Romanian students have historically performed well in international science and mathematics Olympiads.

10.6. Healthcare

Healthcare in Romania is a universal system, primarily funded and managed by the public sector, with a growing private sector presence. The system aims to provide health insurance coverage to nearly all citizens through the National Health Insurance House.

In 2021, Romania's healthcare expenditure was approximately 16.70 B USD, which translated to about 2.39 K USD per person, or 5.69% of the GDP. While government spending on healthcare is higher than in some neighboring countries like Bulgaria, it is generally lower than the EU average and that of countries like Hungary. Healthcare spending is projected to increase significantly in the coming years.

The National Institute of Statistics reports a large network of health units across the country. This includes over 65,000 units in total, with a majority located in urban areas. There are around 543 hospitals, of which 488 are urban and 55 rural, complemented by approximately 160 other hospital-like establishments. Nearly half of these are larger facilities with over 100 beds. The total number of inpatient beds is around 135,085, with major allocations to psychiatry, surgery, and internal medicine, among other specialties.

Key health statistics and public health concerns include:

• A relatively high mortality rate from preventable causes compared to other EU countries.
• Cardiovascular diseases and cancer are the leading causes of death.
• Higher prevalence of certain infectious diseases like tuberculosis compared to Western European countries.
• Challenges in accessibility of medical services, particularly in rural areas and for vulnerable populations.
• A significant issue is the emigration of medical professionals (doctors and nurses) to other EU countries, leading to shortages in some specialties and regions.

Ongoing healthcare reforms aim to improve efficiency, quality of care, and access to services, as well as to modernize hospital infrastructure and address the issue of medical staff retention.

10.7. Urbanization

Largest cities of Romania by population (2021 Census)

Rank	City	County	Population	Image
1	Bucharest	Bucharest Municipality	1,716,961
2	Cluj-Napoca	Cluj	286,598
3	Iași	Iași	271,692
4	Constanța	Constanța	263,688
5	Timișoara	Timiș	250,849
6	Brașov	Brașov	237,589
7	Craiova	Dolj	234,140
8	Galați	Galați	217,851
9	Oradea	Bihor	183,105
10	Ploiești	Prahova	180,540

Romania has undergone significant urbanization, particularly during the communist era's industrialization drive, but the trend has shifted in the post-communist period. In 2011, 54.0% of the population lived in urban areas, a percentage that has seen a slight decline since its peak in 1996, reflecting some counter-urbanization or suburbanization trends.

The concentration of population is highest in Bucharest, the capital and largest city, with a population of over 1.7 million according to the 2021 census. The Bucharest metropolitan area, including surrounding settlements, has a population of almost 2.2 million and is the primary economic, political, and cultural engine of the country. Plans for a more formally defined and integrated metropolitan area for Bucharest have been under discussion to manage urban sprawl and improve regional coordination.

Besides Bucharest, Romania has several other major urban centers. According to the 2021 census, 17 cities have a population of over 100,000. The most populous among these are:

• Cluj-Napoca (approx. 287,000)
• Iași (approx. 272,000)
• Constanța (approx. 264,000)
• Timișoara (approx. 251,000)
• Brașov (approx. 238,000)
• Craiova (approx. 234,000)
• Galați (approx. 218,000)

These cities are important regional centers for industry, commerce, education, and culture. Many have established metropolitan areas or are in the process of doing so to better manage urban development and provide services to their wider urban agglomerations.

There are disparities between urban and rural development. While major cities have benefited from investment and economic growth, many rural areas face challenges such as depopulation, aging populations, limited economic opportunities, and lower access to quality public services. Current urban development trends focus on improving infrastructure in cities, promoting sustainable urban planning, revitalizing historic centers, and addressing housing needs. There is also an increasing focus on polycentric development to reduce the dominance of Bucharest and foster growth in other regional urban centers. Counties like Hunedoara, Brașov, and Constanța have over two-thirds of their population living in urban areas, while counties such as Dâmbovița, Giurgiu, and Teleorman have less than a third, highlighting these regional differences.

10.8. Media

The media landscape in Romania has transformed significantly since the end of communism in 1989, moving from state control to a pluralistic environment. The Romanian Constitution guarantees freedom of speech and freedom of the press.

Romania has a diverse range of media outlets, including print, broadcast (television and radio), and online platforms.

• Television is the most influential medium. Major players include the public broadcaster Televiziunea Română (TVR), which operates several channels (TVR 1, TVR 2, TVR 3, etc.), and numerous private national commercial broadcasters such as Pro TV, Antena 1, Kanal D, and Prima TV. News channels like Digi24, Antena 3 CNN, and Realitatea PLUS also have significant viewership. Cable and satellite television penetration is high.
• Radio remains popular, with the public broadcaster Radio Romania (operating channels like Radio România Actualități, Radio România Cultural, and regional stations) and many private commercial stations catering to various musical tastes and informational needs.
• Print Media includes national daily newspapers like Adevărul, Evenimentul Zilei, Jurnalul Național, Libertatea, and România Liberă, as well as sports dailies, business publications, and weekly magazines. However, like in many countries, print circulation has declined with the rise of online media.
• Online Media has grown rapidly, with most traditional media outlets having a strong online presence. Numerous online-only news portals, blogs, and social media platforms contribute to the information landscape and public discourse.

The National Audiovisual Council (Consiliul Național al Audiovizualului_{Consiliul Național al Audiovizualului}^Romanian, CNA) is the regulatory body for broadcast media, responsible for licensing and monitoring content to ensure compliance with broadcasting laws. It has the authority to issue warnings, fines, and, in severe cases, revoke broadcasting licenses. An example of its intervention was the revocation of OTV's license in 2013 due to repeated violations, including politically biased reporting.

Regarding press freedom, Romania's ranking in international indices like the World Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders (RSF) has fluctuated. In 2024, Romania was ranked 49th. RSF and other media watchdog organizations have pointed to several challenges affecting the Romanian media environment. These include political pressure on media outlets, issues with media ownership transparency and concentration leading to potential conflicts of interest, financial vulnerability of media companies (making them susceptible to influence), and occasional instances of harassment or intimidation of journalists. The spread of misinformation and disinformation, particularly online, and the tendency towards tabloid-style reporting in some segments of the media also impact the quality of public discourse and trust in media. Despite these challenges, investigative journalism plays a crucial role in exposing corruption and holding power accountable, contributing to democratic discourse.

10.9. Public Order and Human Rights

The state of public order and human rights in Romania has seen considerable evolution since the transition to democracy in 1989. While progress has been made in establishing democratic institutions and legal frameworks for human rights protection, challenges remain, particularly concerning the rights of vulnerable groups and the full implementation of rule of law principles.

Public Safety and Crime:
Romania is generally considered a safe country. According to the 2022 Global Finance "Safest Countries in the World" ranking, Romania was placed 31st. Common types of crime include petty theft (pickpocketing, purse snatching), property crimes (burglaries, car break-ins, vehicle theft), and, increasingly, cybercrime. Organized crime, particularly related to human trafficking and financial fraud, also poses a challenge. Violent crime rates are relatively low compared to many other countries.
The Romanian Police (Poliția Română_{Poliția Română}^Romanian) is the main law enforcement agency responsible for maintaining public order and combating crime. It is structured into 41 county police inspectorates and the Bucharest General Police Directorate. Other law enforcement bodies include the Gendarmerie (for public order and riot control) and Border Police.

Human Rights:
The Romanian Constitution guarantees fundamental human rights and freedoms in line with international standards. Romania is a signatory to major international human rights treaties.

• Democratic Development and Rule of Law: Romania's Democracy Index ranking has classified it as a "flawed democracy," reflecting ongoing issues with political culture, governance, and the full application of the rule of law. Efforts to combat corruption and strengthen judicial independence are central to improving this.
• Freedom of Expression and Assembly: These rights are generally respected, with a vibrant civil society and independent media, although concerns about political influence on media and occasional restrictions on protests have been raised.
• Rights of Vulnerable Groups:
  • Ethnic Minorities: While minorities have constitutional rights and parliamentary representation, the Roma community continues to face significant discrimination, social exclusion, poverty, and limited access to education, healthcare, and employment.
  • LGBT Rights: Homosexuality was decriminalized in 2001. While some legal protections against discrimination exist, societal acceptance remains limited, and LGBT individuals often face prejudice. Same-sex marriage is not legally recognized.
  • Women's Rights: Gender equality is legally guaranteed, but domestic violence and human trafficking remain serious concerns.
  • Child Welfare: Historically, Romania faced severe issues with institutionalized children. While conditions have improved significantly since the 1990s with reforms in the child protection system, challenges in providing adequate care and support for vulnerable children persist.
• Detention Conditions: Overcrowding and poor conditions in prisons and detention centers have been criticized by human rights organizations and the European Court of Human Rights.

Human rights organizations, both domestic and international, actively monitor the situation in Romania. The country's EU membership has also brought increased scrutiny and pressure for reforms to strengthen human rights protections and the rule of law.

11.1. Literature

Romanian literature began to flourish notably after the Wallachian revolution of 1848, as Romanian students increasingly studied in Western Europe, bringing back new ideas.
The 19th century produced several foundational writers:

• Mihai Eminescu is considered Romania's national poet and one of the most influential figures in Romanian literature. His Romantic poetry, particularly works like "Luceafărul" (The Evening Star), remains deeply cherished.
• Other prominent 19th-century figures include playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (known for his satirical comedies), storyteller Ion Creangă, and writers/historians like Mihail Kogălniceanu, Vasile Alecsandri, Nicolae Bălcescu, and Ioan Slavici.

The early 20th century is often considered a "golden age" of Romanian culture. Internationally recognized literary figures from this period and later include:

• Essayists and philosophers like Emil Cioran and historian of religions Mircea Eliade.
• Playwright Eugène Ionesco, a leading figure of the Theatre of the Absurd.
• Novelists such as Liviu Rebreanu and Marin Preda.
• Poets like Tristan Tzara (a founder of Dadaism) and Tudor Arghezi.

During the communist regime, literature faced censorship. However, some writers like Gellu Naum, Nichita Stănescu, and Marin Sorescu managed to produce significant works, sometimes navigating censorship with subtlety. Others, like philosopher Constantin Noica and writer Paul Goma, faced persecution, while some, like Ionesco, Eliade, and Cioran, achieved international fame in exile.

Romania has two Nobel laureates associated with its literary and cultural sphere: Elie Wiesel, a Romanian-born Holocaust survivor, received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1986, and Herta Müller, a German-language novelist from Romania's Banat Swabian community, received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2009. The Mihai Eminescu International Academy continues to honor artistic excellence.

11.2. Music

Romanian music encompasses a rich variety of styles, from traditional folk music to classical compositions and contemporary popular genres.

• Folk Music: Traditional Romanian folk music is diverse, with distinct regional styles. It often features instruments like the violin, cimbalom (hammered dulcimer), nai (pan flute), accordion, and various types of flutes and bagpipes. Doina, a lyrical and melancholic improvisational song style, is a characteristic form. Romani (Gypsy) music, particularly lăutărească music performed by professional Romani musicians, has also had a profound impact on Romanian musical traditions and is internationally renowned.
• Classical Music: Romania has produced notable classical composers. George Enescu (1881-1955) is the most celebrated Romanian composer, violinist, and conductor, known for works like the Romanian Rhapsodies. Other important classical figures include Ciprian Porumbescu, Anton Pann, Eduard Caudella, Mihail Jora, and pianist Dinu Lipatti. The prestigious George Enescu Festival, held biennially in Bucharest, is a major international classical music event.
• Contemporary Popular Music: Romania has a vibrant popular music scene. Internationally acclaimed opera singer Angela Gheorghiu and pan flute virtuoso Gheorghe Zamfir have achieved global fame. In recent decades, Romanian pop and dance music artists like Inna and Alexandra Stan have gained international success, with the "popcorn" (popcorn_popcorn^Romanian) music style (a subgenre of house music) becoming popular in the late 2000s and early 2010s. Romania has also participated in the Eurovision Song Contest, achieving third place in 2005 and 2010.

11.3. Art and Architecture

Romanian art and architecture reflect a blend of Byzantine, Ottoman, Western European, and indigenous influences, evolving through various historical periods.

Art:

• Painting: Notable Romanian painters include:
  • 19th-century masters like Nicolae Grigorescu (a key figure in modern Romanian painting, known for rural scenes and portraits), Ion Andreescu, and Theodor Aman.
  • Early 20th-century artists such as Ștefan Luchian (known for his post-impressionist works and flower paintings) and Nicolae Tonitza.
• Sculpture: The most internationally renowned Romanian artist is Constantin Brâncuși (1876-1957), a central figure of the modern sculpture movement. His works, characterized by abstract and elemental forms, are highly influential. His Bird in Space sculpture was famously auctioned for 27.50 M USD in 2005. His sculptural ensemble in Târgu Jiu (including The Endless Column, The Gate of the Kiss, and The Table of Silence) is a UNESCO World Heritage candidate site and a major landmark.
• Architecture:
  • Traditional rural architecture varies by region, often featuring wooden structures, intricate carvings, and distinctive roof styles, as seen in the Wooden churches of Maramureș.
  • Medieval architecture includes fortified churches in Transylvania (a Saxon legacy, many are UNESCO sites), monastic complexes like those in Northern Moldavia (famous for their exterior frescoes, also UNESCO sites), and castles such as Bran and Corvin.
  • Bucharest displays a mix of styles: remnants of the old princely court (Curtea Veche), numerous Orthodox churches (many in the Brâncovenesc style, a local Renaissance style), 19th and early 20th-century Neoclassical and Art Nouveau buildings (earning it the nickname "Little Paris"), and the monumental, often controversial, architecture from the communist era, including the Palace of the Parliament.
  • The Romanian Revival (Neoromânesc) style emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, seeking to create a national architectural idiom by blending traditional Romanian elements with Byzantine and Art Nouveau influences.

11.4. Film

Romanian cinema has a history dating back to the early days of filmmaking, with the first film screening in Romania taking place in 1896. While it had periods of notable activity throughout the 20th century, Romanian film gained significant international acclaim starting in the 2000s with the emergence of the Romanian New Wave (Noul val românesc_{Noul val românesc}^Romanian).

This movement is characterized by its realistic, often minimalist, and critical portrayal of contemporary Romanian society and the lingering effects of the communist era. Directors associated with the New Wave often employ long takes, naturalistic acting, and dark humor.

Key achievements and figures:

• At the Cannes Film Festival:
  • The Death of Mr. Lazarescu (Moartea domnului Lăzărescu_{Moartea domnului Lăzărescu}^Romanian), directed by Cristi Puiu, won the Un Certain Regard award in 2005.
  • 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days (4 luni, 3 săptămâni și 2 zile_{4 luni, 3 săptămâni și 2 zile}^Romanian), directed by Cristian Mungiu, won the prestigious Palme d'Or in 2007.
  • Other directors like Corneliu Porumboiu (12:08 East of Bucharest) and Radu Muntean have also received international recognition.
• At the Berlin International Film Festival:
  • Child's Pose (Poziția copilului_{Poziția copilului}^Romanian), directed by Călin Peter Netzer, won the Golden Bear in 2013.
  • Bad Luck Banging or Loony Porn (Babardeală cu bucluc sau porno balamuc_{Babardeală cu bucluc sau porno balamuc}^Romanian), directed by Radu Jude, won the Golden Bear in 2021.

  The success of the Romanian New Wave has brought international attention to the country's film industry and its talented filmmakers, who continue to produce critically acclaimed works exploring diverse themes.

11.5. Cuisine

Romanian cuisine is a diverse and hearty blend of influences from various cultures that have interacted with the region throughout its history. While it has its own distinct character, it shares similarities with other Balkan cuisines and those of Central and Eastern Europe. Key influences include Ottoman (Turkish), Austrian, German (especially in Transylvania and Banat), Hungarian, Greek, and Slavic cuisines.

Signature dishes and ingredients include:

• Ciorbă: A category of traditional Romanian sour soups, typically soured with borș (fermented wheat bran), lemon juice, or vinegar. Varieties include ciorbă de burtă (tripe soup), ciorbă de perișoare (meatball soup), and various vegetable or meat-based sour soups.
• Mămăligă: Similar to polenta, this is a porridge made from yellow maize flour, a staple food often served as a side dish with cheese, sour cream, or stews.
• Sarmale: Cabbage rolls stuffed with minced meat (usually pork, beef, or a mix), rice, and spices, typically cooked in tomato sauce or brine. A traditional dish for holidays.
• Mititei (or Mici): Grilled minced meat rolls, usually made from a mixture of beef, lamb, and pork, seasoned with garlic, black pepper, thyme, and other spices. A popular street food and barbecue item.
• Pork is a central meat in Romanian cuisine, featured in many traditional dishes, especially around Christmas (e.g., tobă (pork brawn), tochitură (pork stew), sausages). Chicken and beef are also commonly consumed, along with lamb, particularly at Easter.
• Cheeses: Romania produces a variety of cheeses, including telemea (similar to feta), cașcaval (a semi-hard yellow cheese), and brânză de burduf (a strong-flavored kneaded cheese, often matured in sheepskin).
• Pickled Vegetables (murături_murături^Romanian): Pickled cucumbers, green tomatoes, peppers, and cauliflower are common accompaniments to meals.

Holiday-specific dishes are an important part of Romanian culinary tradition:

• Christmas: Besides sarmale and pork dishes, cozonac (a sweet leavened bread with nuts, poppy seeds, or Turkish delight) is a festive staple.
• Easter: Roast lamb, drob (a lamb haggis-like meatloaf), pască (a sweet cheese-filled bread), and painted eggs are traditional.

Beverages:

• Țuică: A strong traditional plum brandy, often homemade, with alcohol content that can reach up to 70%. Romania is one of the largest plum producers in the world, and a significant portion of the crop is used for țuică. Other fruit brandies, like palincă (often double-distilled) and rachiu, are also common.
• Wine: Romania has a long tradition of winemaking, with several historical wine regions producing a variety of red and white wines.
• Beer (bere_bere^Romanian): Beer consumption has increased significantly in recent decades, with both domestic and international brands popular.
• Vișinată: A sweet cherry liqueur.

Romanian cuisine is known for its rich flavors, use of fresh local ingredients, and its role in family gatherings and celebrations.

11.6. Sports

Sports play a significant role in Romanian culture and national pride, with a strong tradition in several disciplines and numerous internationally successful athletes.

• Football (Soccer): Unquestionably the most popular sport in Romania. The Romania national football team had its golden era in the 1990s, featuring players like Gheorghe Hagi, Gheorghe Popescu, and Florin Răducioiu. They reached the quarterfinals of the 1994 FIFA World Cup and were ranked 3rd by FIFA in 1997. The domestic league, Liga I, was founded in 1909. Steaua București is the most successful Romanian club, famously winning the European Cup (now UEFA Champions League) in 1986, becoming the first Eastern European team to do so. Dinamo București also had European success. Other notable clubs include Rapid București and CFR Cluj. The Arena Națională in Bucharest is the national stadium.
• Gymnastics: Romania has a long and distinguished tradition in artistic gymnastics, particularly women's gymnastics. Nadia Comăneci is a legendary figure, having achieved the first-ever perfect 10 score at the 1976 Montreal Olympics. Other Olympic gold medalists include Ecaterina Szabo, Daniela Silivaș, Lavinia Miloșovici, Simona Amânar, Andreea Răducan, and Cătălina Ponor.
• Tennis: Tennis is very popular. Ilie Năstase was a world No. 1 player in the 1970s, winning two Grand Slam singles titles. Ion Țiriac was another prominent player from that era. More recently, Simona Halep achieved world No. 1 ranking and won two Grand Slam singles titles (2018 French Open and 2019 Wimbledon). Romania reached the Davis Cup finals three times (1969, 1971, 1972).
• Handball: Team handball is a very popular team sport. The men's national team won the World Championship four times (1961, 1964, 1970, 1974), making them one of the most successful nations in the tournament's history. The women's team won the World Championship in 1962. Romanian clubs like Steaua București (men), Dinamo București (men), and CSM București (women) have won the EHF Champions League.
• Rowing and Canoeing: Romania has a strong tradition in these sports, with numerous Olympic and World Championship medals. Elisabeta Lipă is a highly decorated rower.
• Combat sports: Wrestling (both Greco-Roman and freestyle), boxing, and judo have produced Olympic and world champions. Professional kickboxing also has a following, with notable Romanian practitioners. The traditional Romanian wrestling style is known as trântă (trântă_trântă^Romanian).
• Rugby union: The national team, known as "The Oaks," has a long history and has participated in most Rugby World Cup tournaments.
• Olympics: Romania first participated in the Olympic Games in 1900. It has won a total of 306 medals at the Summer Olympics, ranking it high among nations, especially considering its size. The 1984 Los Angeles Olympics were particularly successful, where Romania finished second in the overall medal table. Gymnastics, rowing, and athletics have been major medal-producing sports.

11.7. Holidays and Traditions

Romanian culture is rich in holidays and traditions, blending Christian customs with ancient folk practices. There are 12 non-working public holidays.
Major Public Holidays:

• New Year's Day (January 1) and January 2.
• Great Union Day (Ziua Marii Uniri_{Ziua Marii Uniri}^Romanian), December 1: Romania's National Day, commemorating the 1918 union of Transylvania with Romania, as well as Bessarabia and Bukovina, forming Greater Romania.
• Christmas (Crăciunul_Crăciunul^Romanian), December 25 and 26.
• Easter (Paștele_Paștele^Romanian): The most important religious holiday, celebrated according to the Orthodox calendar. Good Friday (Vinerea Mare_{Vinerea Mare}^Romanian) and Easter Monday are also public holidays.
• Labour Day (Ziua Muncii_{Ziua Muncii}^Romanian), May 1.
• Pentecost (Rusaliile_Rusaliile^Romanian): Celebrated 50 days after Orthodox Easter, both Sunday and Monday are public holidays.
• Assumption of Mary (Adormirea Maicii Domnului_{Adormirea Maicii Domnului}^Romanian or Sfânta Maria Mare), August 15.
• St. Andrew's Day (Sfântul Andrei_{Sfântul Andrei}^Romanian), November 30: St. Andrew is the patron saint of Romania.
• Romanian Culture Day (Ziua Culturii Naționale_{Ziua Culturii Naționale}^Romanian), January 15 (coincides with Mihai Eminescu's birthday).
• Children's Day (Ziua Copilului_{Ziua Copilului}^Romanian), June 1.
• Flag Day (Ziua Drapelului_{Ziua Drapelului}^Romanian), June 26.

Traditional Customs and Festivals:

• Winter Traditions (Sărbătorile de iarnă_{Sărbătorile de iarnă}^Romanian): These are particularly vibrant.
  • Caroling (colindat_colindat^Romanian): Groups of children and adults go from house to house singing carols.
  • Folk plays and dances: Such as Plugușorul (Plugușorul_Plugușorul^Romanian) (a New Year's well-wishing ploughing custom), Sorcova (Sorcova_Sorcova^Romanian) (a New Year's Day tradition where children lightly tap people with a decorated branch for good luck), Ursul (the bear dance), and Capra (the goat dance), which are masked performances with ancient roots.
• Mărțișor (mărțișor_mărțișor^Romanian): Celebrated on March 1, this tradition marks the beginning of spring. People give and wear small trinkets (mărțișoare), typically red and white tassels, as symbols of good luck, health, and renewal.
• Easter Traditions: Besides religious services, customs include painting hard-boiled eggs (ouă încondeiate_{ouă încondeiate}^Romanian or ouă vopsite), often with intricate designs, and preparing traditional foods like pască and roast lamb.
• Animal Sacrifice: The traditional slaughter of pigs for Christmas and lambs for Easter is a widespread custom, particularly in rural areas, for which Romania received a special exemption from EU law.
• Traditional Folk Costumes: Though largely fallen out of daily use, traditional Romanian attire is still worn for festivals, holidays, weddings, and folk performances, varying significantly by region.

These holidays and traditions are integral to Romanian cultural identity, often involving family gatherings, special foods, music, and dance.

11.8. World Heritage Sites

Romania is home to several UNESCO World Heritage Sites, recognized for their outstanding universal value, encompassing both cultural and natural heritage. As of recent listings, these include:

Cultural Sites:
1. Churches of Moldavia (listed 1993, extended 2010): Eight Romanian Orthodox churches in northern Moldavia (Bukovina region), built from the late 15th to the late 16th centuries. They are famous for their external mural paintings depicting biblical scenes, saints, and historical events, preserved in vibrant colors. Notable examples include Voroneț, Sucevița, Moldovița, and Arbore.
2. Monastery of Horezu (listed 1993): Founded in 1690 by Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu in Wallachia, this monastery is a masterpiece of the Brâncovenesc style, known for its architectural purity and balance, richness of sculptural detail, religious compositions, and painted decorative works.
3. Villages with Fortified Churches in Transylvania (listed 1993, extended 1999): Seven villages founded by Transylvanian Saxons characterized by their unique fortified churches. These structures were built from the 13th to 16th centuries to protect the communities from invasions. The listed villages are Biertan, Câlnic, Dârjiu, Prejmer, Saschiz, Valea Viilor, and Viscri.
4. Historic Centre of Sighișoara (listed 1999): A well-preserved medieval fortified town in Transylvania, founded by German craftsmen and merchants (Saxons). It is an outstanding example of a small, fortified city in the border region of Central Europe, and the birthplace of Vlad the Impaler.
5. Wooden churches of Maramureș (listed 1999): Eight remarkable examples of wooden churches from different periods and areas in the Maramureș region of northern Transylvania. They display a high level of craftsmanship and unique architectural solutions, characterized by tall, slender timber constructions with distinctive high roofs and bell towers.
6. Dacian Fortresses of the Orăștie Mountains (listed 1999): A group of six fortresses built in the 1st centuries BC and AD by the Dacians as protection against Roman conquest. They represent an unusual fusion of military and religious architectural techniques and concepts from the late European Iron Age. The most famous is Sarmizegetusa Regia.

Natural Site:
1. Danube Delta (Delta Dunării_{Delta Dunării}^Romanian) (listed 1991): The second largest and best-preserved river delta in Europe. It is a vast wetland area of international importance for biodiversity, particularly as a habitat for countless species of birds (many migratory), fish, and other wildlife. It is also a Biosphere Reserve.

Additionally, the city of Sibiu, with its historic center and the Brukenthal National Museum, was designated a European Capital of Culture in 2007 and a European Region of Gastronomy in 2019, highlighting its cultural significance. Timișoara also held the title of European Capital of Culture in 2023 (postponed from 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic).

11.9. National Symbols

Romania's national symbols encapsulate its history, identity, and aspirations.

• National Flag: The flag is a tricolour consisting of three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red. These colors have historical significance dating back to the 19th century and earlier. They were prominent during the 1848 Wallachian uprising, where they were associated with "Liberty" (blue), "Justice" (yellow), and "Fraternity" (red). The colors are also sometimes interpreted as representing the historical Romanian principalities: Transylvania (blue), Wallachia (yellow), and Moldavia (red).
• Coat of Arms: Adopted in its current form after 1989 and modified in 2016 to include the Steel Crown. It features a blue shield with a golden aquila (eagle) holding an Orthodox cross in its beak, a mace in its right talon, and a sword in its left. The eagle symbolizes Latinity, courage, and sovereignty.
  • The Steel Crown of Romania sits atop the eagle's head, symbolizing Romania's monarchy and independence, forged from the steel of an Ottoman cannon captured during the War of Independence.
  • On the eagle's breast is a smaller shield quartered with the traditional symbols of the historical Romanian provinces:
    • Wallachia: an eagle holding a cross, with a sun and a new moon.
    • Moldavia: an aurochs head with a star between its horns, a rose, and a new moon.
    • Transylvania, Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș: a shield parted by a fess; the upper part shows an eagle with a sun and moon, the lower part seven towers (representing the seven Saxon fortified towns).
    • Dobruja: two dolphins facing each other.
• National Anthem: "Deșteaptă-te, române!" (Awaken thee, Romanian!). The lyrics were written by Andrei Mureșanu during the 1848 Revolution, with music based on a popular Romanian song. It was a patriotic song during significant historical moments, including the 1989 Revolution, and officially became the national anthem in 1990, replacing the communist-era anthem "Trei culori" (Three Colors). It was also briefly the anthem of the Moldavian Democratic Republic (1917-1918) and the Republic of Moldova (1991-1994). National Anthem Day is celebrated on July 29.
• National Day: Celebrated on December 1 as Ziua Marii Uniri (The Great Union Day). It commemorates the assembly in Alba Iulia on December 1, 1918, when Transylvania proclaimed its union with the Kingdom of Romania, effectively creating Greater Romania. This date became the national holiday after the 1989 Revolution.
• National Mottoes (Historical):
  • Nihil Sine Deo_{Nihil Sine Deo}^Latin ("Nothing Without God") - Motto of the Romanian Royal House.
  • Toți în unu_{Toți în unu}^Romanian ("All as One") - Motto on the coat of arms of the United Principalities.
• National Heroes (Popularly regarded): Include figures like Decebalus (last king of Dacia), Emperor Trajan (conqueror of Dacia), Michael the Brave (brief unifier of the Romanian principalities), Alexandru Ioan Cuza (first ruler of the United Principalities), and King Ferdinand I ("The Unifier").
• National Flowers (Informal): While not officially decreed, the dog rose (măceș_măceș^Romanian), Romanian peony (bujor românesc_{bujor românesc}^Romanian), and edelweiss (floare de colț_{floare de colț}^Romanian) are often considered symbolic.

These symbols are an integral part of Romania's national identity and are frequently displayed and referenced in official contexts and public life.