Fukushima Yasumasa

1. Overview

Baron 福島 安正_{Fukushima Yasumasa}^Japanese (27 October 1852 - 19 February 1919) was a prominent general in the Imperial Japanese Army, a seasoned diplomat, and a notable explorer. Known for his fluency in over ten languages and his reputation as a leading geographer and linguist within the military, Fukushima played a significant role in intelligence gathering and military diplomacy during the Meiji period and early Taishō period. His career spanned various key events, including the Satsuma Rebellion, the First Sino-Japanese War, the Boxer Rebellion, and the Russo-Japanese War. He is particularly renowned for his epic solo horseback journey across Eurasia, which cemented his status as a national hero in Japan. His contributions extended to holding significant official positions, including Governor-General of the Kwantung Leased Territory, and he was elevated to the peerage as a baron for his distinguished service.

2. Early Life and Background

Fukushima Yasumasa was born on 27 October 1852 (the 15th day of the 9th month of Kaei 5 by the old lunar calendar) in the castle town of Matsumoto in Shinano Province (modern-day Nagano Prefecture). His father, Fukushima Yasuhiro, was a lower-ranking samurai retainer of the Matsumoto clan, which was under Lord Toda Mitsunori. The Fukushima clan of Shinano asserted its lineage as descendants of the Minamoto clan's Shinano Murakami branch. Yasumasa's childhood name was Kinshigetarō. His mother died when he was three years old.

In 1867, at the age of 15, Fukushima traveled to Edo (later Tokyo) to attend the Kobusho military school, a private academy for hatamoto run by Suzuki Kunisaburo, a former instructor at the Shogunate's military training center. There, he studied drum and bugle skills. In March 1868, he obtained a license for Dutch-style military drumming. Shortly after, at his father's request, he returned to Matsumoto to join the Matsumoto Domain forces fighting on the imperial side during the Boshin War (1868-1869), specifically in the Echigo front during the Hokuetsu War. While serving in the sniper unit, he continued to learn drum and bugle techniques from various imperial army units passing through Matsumoto. He then devised a new band system for the Matsumoto Domain by synthesizing the musical scores of four different domains, earning him a promotion to chief caretaker of the domain school.

In 1868, Fukushima accompanied his feudal lord, Toda Mitsunori, to Tokyo, where he initially studied English at the Kaisei Gakko, a school specializing in foreign studies. However, his studies were interrupted when he returned to his domain with Lord Toda. After being granted permission to resume his studies with financial support, he re-enrolled in Kaisei Gakko. He further pursued English studies at Uryu Tora's private academy in 1869 and subsequently at the Hokumonsha school in Waseda and the Ranju-sha school in 1871.

Due to the abolition of the feudal domains and the termination of his scholarship in early 1873, Fukushima took up translation work for the Nisshin Shinji-shi newspaper, taught English at the Kangaku Gijuku school, and tutored families of high-ranking officials to support himself. Through a connection, he became a private tutor for Etō Shinpei, the Minister of Justice. In April of the same year, he was appointed as a Thirteenth-Rank Official in the Translation Department of the Ministry of Justice, leveraging his strong linguistic abilities. In September 1874, he transferred as a civilian official to the Ministry of War. From July to October 1876, he traveled to the United States on official business, accompanying Saigō Tsugumichi to the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition.

3. Military Career and Overseas Activities

Fukushima's military career formally began in May 1878 when he passed the officer examination and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Imperial Japanese Army. In December of the same year, he became a dispatch officer for the Chief of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff. In March 1879, he was attached to the infantry battalion of the Army Training Brigade, and in December, he was assigned to the General Staff's Western Bureau. His early overseas assignments included traveling extensively in Mongolia in 1879 and serving as a military attaché in Beijing from 1882 to 1884.

In February 1883, he was promoted to captain. From February to April 1885, he served as an attendant during the negotiations for the Convention of Tianjin. He also studied under the German General Jakob Meckel, who was an advisor to the Army War College in Japan. In 1886, he conducted an extensive tour of British India and Burma, assessing their strategic importance.

In 1887, Fukushima was promoted to major and dispatched as a military attaché to Berlin, Germany. While in Berlin, he worked alongside Saionji Kinmochi, then a minister plenipotentiary, focusing on intelligence analysis. He notably reported on Russia's progress in constructing the Trans-Siberian Railway. Fluent in over ten languages, Fukushima was a highly popular figure in German society during his stay. He gained a reputation for winning various wagers involving feats of arms or physical strength. He later claimed that his famous horseback ride across Eurasia was the result of a wager made with German cavalry majors over drinks, though some historians doubt this story, suggesting he was a non-drinker and that no record of him collecting the wager exists. Fukushima was a great admirer of Colonel Frederick Gustavus Burnaby, a British cavalry officer famous for his 1874 ride to Khiva, and shared Burnaby's political view that Russia posed a significant threat to both Great Britain and Japan.

After the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), Fukushima continued his foreign travels as a General Staff officer, visiting Egypt, the Ottoman Empire, Persia, Arabia, India, Burma, Siam, and Turkistan. In 1902, he represented Emperor Meiji at the coronation of King Edward VII of Great Britain. During this period, he participated in secret diplomatic negotiations that ultimately led to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.

4. Major Wars and Exploration

Fukushima Yasumasa actively participated in several significant military conflicts and undertook a legendary journey of exploration, all of which contributed to his national renown.

He saw his first military action during the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877, serving as a dispatch rider for General Yamagata Aritomo within the government forces. His quick wit and ability to connect with people led to an early posting at the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff.

During the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), he served as a staff officer for the Japanese First Army. His expertise in military strategy and foreign relations proved valuable during this conflict.

In 1900, Fukushima was dispatched to China to suppress the Boxer Rebellion. He commanded Japanese forces in Tianjin and the Foreign Legation. As a staff officer to the Allied Forces Commander-in-Chief from September 1900 to June 1901, he played a crucial mediating role in strategy meetings, utilizing his fluency in English, German, French, Russian, and Mandarin.

During the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), Fukushima served as a staff officer at the Manchurian Army General Headquarters. Drawing on his extensive experience, he effectively managed intelligence operations, notably overseeing the "Liaoxi Special Duty Unit" and the "Manchurian Volunteer Army," which utilized local horse bandits to fight against Russian forces-an aspect of his service less commonly known. On his way to New York to negotiate financial assistance for the war effort, Fukushima traveled through Saskatchewan, Canada. His special train stopped just east of Regina for him to view the prairies, and the railway siding where he stopped was subsequently named "Fukushima" in his honor.

Fukushima's most famous undertaking was his epic solo horseback journey from Berlin to Vladivostok in 1892-1893. This incredible feat of endurance covered approximately 8.7 K mile ^{(14.00 K km)} and took one year and four months to complete. One of the primary objectives of this journey was to inspect the ongoing construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway and to gather intelligence on local infrastructure and command-and-control systems along the route. On 1 March 1893, prior to entering Manchuria, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. The story of this remarkable ride transformed him into a national hero in Japan and earned him the Order of the Sacred Treasures, Third Class. Upon his return, Fukushima donated his horses to Ueno Zoo in Tokyo, where they quickly became popular tourist attractions.

5. Thought and Philosophy

Fukushima Yasumasa's personal philosophy was deeply rooted in what he termed "Gōken-shugi" (剛健主義_Gōken-shugi^Japanese), which translates to the "robust" or "vigorous principle." This philosophy emphasized strength, resilience, and a proactive approach to national affairs, particularly in military and strategic matters.

He engaged in significant intellectual exchanges concerning the long-term needs of the Japanese secret services in the Asian region. Notably, he shared ideas with fellow poet and General Akashi Motojiro, who was also deeply involved in intelligence operations. Although not intimate friends, their common ground in military intelligence fostered a productive intellectual relationship.

Fukushima's strategic thinking was also shaped by his admiration for British cavalry officer Frederick Gustavus Burnaby, with whom he shared the conviction that Russia was a primary adversary for both Great Britain and Japan. This perspective likely influenced his emphasis on intelligence gathering and his focus on the Trans-Siberian Railway during his horseback journey.

His intellectual pursuits also extended to poetry. He composed a poem titled "From Fallen Petal to Rising Star," dedicated to a prostitute who, through her intelligence-gathering activities, transformed into a patriot. This work reflects his nuanced view on the value of unconventional contributions to national service.

6. Official Positions and Public Service

Fukushima Yasumasa steadily rose through the ranks of the Imperial Japanese Army, holding numerous significant positions throughout his distinguished career.

Upon entering military service in 1878, he was commissioned as a lieutenant. He advanced to captain in 1883 and major in 1887. After his renowned horseback journey, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel in February 1893. In March 1895, he attained the rank of colonel. He served as the head of the General Staff's Compilation Department, after which he toured Europe and Asia, and then successively held positions as Chief of the Third and Second Departments of the General Staff.

In April 1900, he was promoted to major general and concurrently served as Chief of Staff for the Western Command. Following his service in the Boxer Rebellion, he briefly returned to the Imperial Japanese Army Academy for further study under General Jakob Meckel.

In April 1906, he was appointed Vice Chief of the General Staff, and in July of the same year, he was promoted to lieutenant general. In December 1908, he was re-appointed Vice Chief of Staff (under a name change).

From 26 April 1912 to 15 September 1914, Fukushima served as the Governor-General of the Kwantung Leased Territory. During his tenure, he oversaw the administration and development of this strategically important region. On 15 September 1914, he was promoted to general and subsequently transferred to the second reserve, marking his transition out of active military command. After his retirement from active service, he continued his public contributions by serving as the vice-president of the Association of Reservists from November 1914. In his later years, he also championed "Gōken-shugi" (robust principle) and undertook horseback tours across the country.

7. Personal Life and Family

Fukushima Yasumasa's personal life reflected his samurai heritage and commitment to family, alongside his diverse intellectual interests.

He was the eldest son of Fukushima Yasuhiro, a samurai of the Matsumoto Domain. While detailed information about his mother is limited, sources indicate she passed away when he was three years old. He married Takano Sadako, the daughter of Takano Sadakiyo, a bakushin (hereditary retainer of the Tokugawa shogunate).

Fukushima and Sadako had several children:

• Fukushima Shoichi: Their eldest son, who followed in his father's footsteps and became an Army Major.
• Fukushima Jiro: Their second son, who served as an Army Lieutenant and was tragically killed in action during the Russo-Japanese War.
• Fukushima Saburo: Their third son, who pursued a civilian career and became the Sales Manager for Hitachi, Ltd..
• Fukushima Shiro: Their fourth son, who also joined the Army and attained the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. Following his father's will, he inherited the family headship and the baron title.
• Fukushima Goro: Their fifth son, who also entered the Army but later changed his surname to Ito.
• Fukushima Misako: Their daughter, who married Sonoda Tadao, the son of Sonoda Kokichi.

Beyond his military duties and public service, Fukushima had a keen interest in poetry, sharing this passion with colleagues such as General Akashi Motojiro. His intellectual curiosity and capacity for deep thought were evident in his engagements with peers on strategic and philosophical matters.

8. Honors and Recognition

Fukushima Yasumasa received numerous honors and decorations from both Japan and foreign nations throughout his distinguished career, recognizing his military achievements, diplomatic contributions, and remarkable exploration.

9. Death and Legacy

In his final years, Fukushima Yasumasa continued to promote his "Gōken-shugi" philosophy and engage in horseback tours across the country, embodying the vigorous principle he advocated. He passed away at his home in Takada village (now part of Toshima Ward, Zōshigaya area) on 19 February 1919, at the age of 66 (or 67 by traditional Japanese reckoning).

His grave is located in Aoyama Cemetery in Minato, Tokyo, a significant burial ground for many prominent Japanese figures. The Matsumoto City Museum in his hometown of Matsumoto, Nagano preserves some of his personal artifacts, including his riding crop, offering a tangible connection to his legendary journey.

Fukushima Yasumasa's life and achievements have been chronicled in several biographical works, preserving his memory and contributions to Japanese history:

• Fukushima Shōgun Iseki (General Fukushima's Achievements) compiled by Ota Ayamama in 1941.
• Fukushima Yasumasa to Tan Ki Siberia Ōdan (Fukushima Yasumasa and His Solo Siberian Crossing), a two-volume work by Shimanuki Shigetsugu published in 1979.
• Siberia Ōdan - Fukushima Yasumasa Taishō Den (Siberian Crossing - Biography of General Fukushima Yasumasa) by Sakai Fujio in 1992.
• Kokoro no Bunko - Fukushima Yasumasa (Heart's Library - Fukushima Yasumasa) by Asano Akira, a children's book focusing on his life.

10. Historical Evaluation

Fukushima Yasumasa is historically evaluated as a pivotal figure in the modernization of the Imperial Japanese Army, particularly in the realm of military intelligence and diplomacy. His exceptional linguistic abilities, mastering over ten languages, were invaluable assets that set him apart among his contemporaries. He was widely recognized as the military's foremost geographer and linguist, capabilities that directly informed his strategic understanding of global affairs.

His extensive foreign travels, particularly his assignments as a military attaché in Beijing and Berlin, and his later intelligence gathering tours across Asia and Europe, provided the Japanese General Staff with crucial insights into the geopolitical landscape and the military capabilities of other powers. His detailed reports on the Trans-Siberian Railway's construction, for instance, were vital for Japan's strategic planning against Russia.

Fukushima's direct involvement in major conflicts, including the First Sino-Japanese War, the Boxer Rebellion, and the Russo-Japanese War, showcased his operational acumen. His role in mediating discussions during the Boxer Rebellion, leveraging his multilingualism, underscored his diplomatic skill beyond traditional military command. During the Russo-Japanese War, his innovative use of "horse bandits" for intelligence and irregular warfare in Manchuria highlighted his adaptability and unconventional approach to intelligence.

His epic horseback journey across Eurasia not only solidified his status as a national hero but also served as a practical intelligence mission, demonstrating his commitment to firsthand reconnaissance and detailed information gathering. This blend of daring exploration and strategic intelligence gathering was a hallmark of his career.

Furthermore, Fukushima's advocacy for "Gōken-shugi" (the "robust principle") and his intellectual exchanges with figures like General Akashi Motojiro on the long-term needs of Japanese secret services reveal a profound engagement with national strategy and military development. While his actions were in service of Imperial Japan's expansionist policies, his contributions as a pioneering intelligence officer and diplomat were instrumental in shaping Japan's military and foreign policy during a critical period of its emergence as a major power. His legacy is one of a multifaceted leader who significantly influenced Japan's approach to international relations and military intelligence.