1. Early Life and Education
Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski's early life was marked by a strong patriotic upbringing and an education that prepared him for both a medical career and political activism.
1.1. Birth and Family Background
Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski was born on 9 June 1885 in Gąbin, located in Congress Poland, which was then under Tsarist rule. He was raised in a family deeply rooted in patriotic ideals. His father, Wincenty Składkowski, served as a court judge in Gąbin and had participated as a 16-year-old in the January Uprising against Tsarist forces, a struggle for Polish independence following the partitions. After the uprising's defeat, Wincenty was compelled to serve in the Imperial Russian Army. Felicjan was one of six children, with one brother, Bożywoj, and four sisters: Dobrosława, Tomiła, Mirosława, and the youngest, Wincencja, who died in infancy. Initially, his parents intended to name him Sławoj, but local parish priests in Gąbin refused permission, as the name was not listed in church records. Consequently, the boy was named Felicjan, to which he later officially added "Sławoj" to his legal name.
1.2. Education and Early Activism
Składkowski attended a middle school in Łowicz and a high school in Kielce. During his studies, he actively engaged in protests and campaigns against the Russification of Congress Poland (the Russian Partition) and the Germanization of the Prussian Partition of Poland. After graduating in 1904, he began studying medicine at the University of Warsaw. On 13 November 1904, he participated in a patriotic demonstration held at Warsaw's Grzybowski Square. He was subsequently arrested by Tsarist authorities and incarcerated in the infamous Pawiak Prison. After a month, Składkowski was released and sent back to Kielce, where he was placed under police surveillance. To continue his education, he relocated to Austrian Galicia, and in March 1906, he enrolled in the Medical Department of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. Prior to this, in 1905, he became a member of the Polish Socialist Party - Revolutionary Faction.
1.3. Early Medical Career
On 15 February 1909, Felicjan Składkowski married Jadwiga Szoll, and together they had a son, Miłosz (1911-1938). In 1911, Składkowski successfully graduated from the Jagiellonian University as a qualified surgeon and gynecologist. In January 1912, he secured employment at Professor Kadler's clinic and commenced his professional medical practice in Sosnowiec.
2. Military Career
Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski had an extensive military career, serving with distinction from the earliest days of World War I through the inter-war period, rising through the ranks and taking on significant medical and administrative roles within the Polish armed forces.
2.1. Service in the Polish Legions (World War I)
With the outbreak of World War I, Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski, alongside Stanisław Zwierzyński, an organizer of the Rifle Association in the Dąbrowa Basin, joined the Polish Legions in World War I stationed in Miechów on 13 August 1914. Initially, he served as a doctor within the 5th Battalion of the 1st Regiment of Infantry. It was during this period that he first met Józef Piłsudski, who would later become the chief-of-state and Marshal of Poland. On 9 October 1914, Składkowski was appointed second lieutenant.
From 20 December 1914, he served as the chief physician of the 1st Regiment of Infantry. He was promoted to lieutenant doctor on 1 January 1915, though he was transferred to the 3rd Battalion of the 1st Regiment of Infantry on 26 January. Składkowski soon fell severely ill and was transported to a hospital in the nearby town of Kęty for treatment. He returned to medical military service on 1 February 1915, being appointed physician of the 1st Battalion of the 1st Regiment of Infantry. Subsequently, from 28 April until 7 May 1915, he held the position of chief medical officer for the 5th Infantry Unit. Beginning 11 May 1915, he assumed the role of chief physician for the 7th Regiment of Infantry. On 10 May 1915, he was promoted to the rank of captain doctor, with his medical responsibilities extending across all Polish Legions. He distinguished himself in July 1916 during the Battle of Kostiuchnówka. Following the dissolution of the 7th Regiment of Infantry on 1 October 1916, Składkowski became the chief physician of the 5th Infantry Unit.
On 16 July 1917, during the Oath crisis, Składkowski, formally considered a Russian subject, was discharged from service in the Legions. He was interned in Beniaminów on 22 July 1917, where he remained until 2 August 1918. After his release, Składkowski resumed his medical practice as a physician at the Saturn Coal Mine in Czeladź.
2.2. Service in the Polish Army (Post World War I)
In November 1918, donning his Legions uniform, Składkowski successfully disarmed German soldiers in the Zagłębie Dąbrowskie region. Holding the rank of captain, he took command of the newly established Polish Army in the area, briefly serving as the commandant of the Military District of Zagłębie Dąbrowskie. On 3 February 1919, Składkowski was appointed chief of staff to Colonel Rudolf Tarnawski, the commandant of the Będzin Military District. Promoted to major, he became the chief medical officer of the newly formed 2nd Legions Infantry Division. With this unit, he participated in the Polish-Soviet War, notably contributing to the capture of Minsk in August 1919.
In the autumn of 1919, Składkowski was named chief medical officer of the Operational Group led by General Lucjan Żeligowski. On 7 February 1920, he was appointed manager of the organizational section within the Medical Department of the Ministry of Military Affairs. Following his promotion to colonel, he served as a government envoy to the Polish Red Cross in August 1920. In January 1921, Składkowski was appointed inspector of medical units for the Polish Army. He then traveled to France to attend a course at the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr.
In November 1924, he was among the officers who resigned from active service in what was known as the "strike of the generals," although their collective resignation was ultimately rejected. On 1 December 1924, Składkowski was promoted to brigadier general.
While in France, he met and fell in love with a Frenchwoman named Germaine Susanne Coillot. In 1925, he converted from Roman Catholicism to Calvinism to facilitate a divorce from his first wife, Jadwiga Szoll. In January 1926, he married Germaine, who then adopted the surname Coillot-Składkowska.
During the May Coup, Składkowski staunchly supported Józef Piłsudski. On 13 May 1926, General Gustaw Orlicz-Dreszer appointed him government commissar for Warsaw. Renowned for his organizational abilities, he was tasked with maintaining order on the streets of the Polish capital. On 14 May 1926, Składkowski's police force dispersed a communist rally at Bank Square, Warsaw. He remained in the post of government commissar until 1 October 1926, when he was succeeded by Władysław Jaroszewicz.
3. Political Career
Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski's political career was extensive and impactful, notably through his appointments as Minister of Internal Affairs and later as Prime Minister, where he implemented significant administrative reforms and faced various controversies.
3.1. Early Ministerial Appointments
On 2 October 1926, Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski, widely recognized as a staunch supporter of Józef Piłsudski, was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs. He held this position under three successive prime ministers: Piłsudski, Kazimierz Bartel, and Kazimierz Świtalski. Składkowski consistently avoided political infighting, distinguishing himself as a highly capable and energetic administrator and organizer. On 27 March 1928, during a session of the Sejm (the Polish parliament), when communist envoys and senators disrupted Marshal Piłsudski's speech with anti-government slogans, Składkowski personally led a police unit into the chamber, ordering officers to remove the communists.
He remained in this post for over three years, serving until 7 December 1929. On 1 January 1930, he returned to active military service, being appointed Deputy Minister of Military Affairs and head of the Army Administration. However, on 3 June 1930, he resumed his role as Minister of Internal Affairs. In the early autumn of that year, he oversaw the controversial Pacification of Ukrainians in Eastern Galicia. Furthermore, he authorized the arrests of several opposition deputies, who were subsequently sent to Brest Fortress following the dissolution of the Sejm on 30 August 1930. He then participated in the organization of the so-called Brest Election.
As a minister with a professional background as a physician, Składkowski was deeply concerned about the inadequate state of hygiene in Polish rural areas. One of his executive orders mandated the construction of outhouses in all villages across Poland. As a direct result of this directive, these new outdoor toilets became colloquially known by the Polish population as "sławojki," after Sławoj-Składkowski.
On 23 June 1931, Składkowski once again returned to active military service, becoming deputy minister of military affairs and manager of the Army Administration. Felicjan Sławoj maintained an extremely close personal relationship with Józef Piłsudski, often being invited with his wife to the marshal's private parties or dinners. He was also among the first to receive the somber news of Piłsudski's unexpected death in 1935. On 19 March 1931, Składkowski was promoted to the rank of divisional general (generał dywizjiPolish) in the Polish Army.
3.2. Tenure as Prime Minister
After Piłsudski's death, the camp of his followers became fractured, dividing into factions supporting President Ignacy Mościcki and those favoring Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły. In the spring of 1936, both groups reached a compromise, leading to the formation of the government headed by Prime Minister Felicjan Sławoj-Składkowski on 15 May 1936. On 4 June 1936, Składkowski delivered a speech in parliament, stating that he had been nominated to his post by both the President and the Marshal. His government included politicians from various factions, such as Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski and Minister of Foreign Affairs Józef Beck. Składkowski himself endeavored to remain aloof from political conflicts, focusing his efforts on improving state administration, particularly the police force and civil services. He frequently toured Poland, visiting schools, police stations, manufacturing plants, and farm estates. His cabinet, lasting for three years and four months until 30 September 1939, was the longest-serving prime ministry in the inter-war years.
3.2.1. Policies and Controversies
During his premiership, Składkowski's government enacted several policies that stirred significant controversy, particularly those concerning the Jewish minority in Poland. In June 1936, he yielded to what he termed the "rising tide of class struggle" by advocating for an "economic struggle" against Polish Jews. While Składkowski publicly opposed direct anti-Jewish violence, his administration was not diligent in combating it. On one occasion, commenting on "unpleasant events" (referring to numerous instances of physical violence against Jews), he controversially claimed that Jews themselves were to blame due to their perceived "lack of understanding of Polish peasantry," which, according to him, also sought a higher standard of living, just as the Jews did.
Under his government, Polish Jews faced increasing isolation from society, economic impoverishment, and demonization. Polish officials actively pursued the idea of Jewish emigration at the League of Nations and in bilateral discussions with France and other relevant international powers.
On 12 January 1939, in response to a protest by Jewish Deputy Leib Minzberg concerning the spread of anti-Semitism in Poland, Składkowski stated that the Polish government was committed to resolving the "Jewish problem" "without violence and chicanery." He declared that the issue "must be settled not by force, but by Government collaboration with Jewish emigration associations." Furthermore, Składkowski denied that the "Jewish position in Poland" was dire, claiming this to be "inconsistent with the desire of the Jews to make a pilgrimage to Poland as to a Mecca," which he deemed inadmissible. This latter comment seemingly referred to the desire of Polish Jews facing expulsion from Germany and Italy to be repatriated, a move that Składkowski's government actively blocked by denying Polish citizenship to Jews living abroad.
4. World War II and Exile
As World War II erupted, Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski's role as Prime Minister was directly impacted, leading to his escape from Poland and subsequent years in exile.
On 1 September 1939 at 4:30 AM, Składkowski, who had spent the night within the complex of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, received a phone call from Kraków, informing him of the German invasion of Poland and a brutal attack in the border town of Chojnice. The following day, he delivered a speech in the Sejm, expressing his hope that Poland would defeat the Third Reich and win the war. As the invasion progressed, Składkowski left Warsaw on 7 September at 2 AM, heading eastwards. After spending some time in Łuck, in Wołyń, he arrived at Kosów, near the border with Romania, on 15 September.
On 17 September, upon receiving news of the Soviet invasion of Poland, Składkowski crossed the Romanian border via the Czeremosz River bridge near Kuty. He was subsequently interned by the Romanian government and officially resigned from the post of prime minister on 30 September. His resignation was formally accepted on 5 October 1939 by the new president-in-exile, Władysław Raczkiewicz.
Sławoj-Składkowski was initially interned with other members of his government in the town of Slanic. In October 1939, he was transferred to Baile Herculane. There, together with Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski, he drafted a letter to President Raczkiewicz on 9 October, requesting permission to leave Romania. However, the new Prime Minister of the Polish government-in-exile, General Władysław Sikorski, refused to grant this permission. In desperation, Składkowski sought to join the Polish Army being formed in France, but this request was also denied.
As both Hungary and Romania faced threats from Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, General Sikorski eventually consented to a partial evacuation of high-ranking Polish officials interned in Romania. In June 1940, Składkowski was finally permitted to travel to France, where his wife, Germaine, resided. On 24 June, after passing through Bulgaria, he arrived by train in Istanbul, Turkey. There, he again attempted to join the Polish Army but was denied on 3 July. On 3 October 1940, Składkowski sent another letter, this time directly to President Raczkiewicz, and finally, on 24 November, he received Sikorski's approval.
In late 1940, Składkowski was assigned to the Reserve Center of the Polish Independent Carpathian Rifle Brigade, led by General Stanisław Kopański. The center was located in Haifa, Mandatory Palestine, and Sławoj reached it on 10 January 1941. On 25 January, at the request of General Kordian Józef Zamorski, he was appointed sanitary inspector for the local units of the Polish Army. In early March 1941, he became the military envoy to the Polish Red Cross in Palestine. By mid-1941, General Sikorski transferred him to the Center of Army Generals in Tel Aviv, where Składkowski spent the remainder of the war alongside Janusz Jędrzejewicz.
5. Later Life and Death
Following his years in exile, Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski settled in London and remained an active figure in Polish émigré society until his death. In 1946, he married Jadwiga Dołęga-Mostowicz. In 1947, with the imminent creation of the Jewish State of Israel, he departed Palestine and moved to London, United Kingdom. Składkowski remained an active member of Polish émigré circles in Great Britain throughout his later life. He died on 31 August 1962 in London and was initially buried at Brompton Cemetery. On 8 June 1990, his remains were repatriated to Poland and reinterred at the Powązki Cemetery in Warsaw, specifically in the family plot of Miłosz Składkowski (Area 139-6-17).
6. Personal Life and Family
Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski's personal life included three marriages and a notable family connection. His first marriage was on 15 February 1909 to Jadwiga Szoll, with whom he had a son, Miłosz Składkowski (1911-1938). In 1925, he converted from Roman Catholicism to Calvinism to facilitate his divorce from Jadwiga. In January 1926, he married his second wife, Germaine Susanne Coillot, a Frenchwoman who adopted the surname Coillot-Składkowska. After the Second World War, in 1946, he married his third wife, Jadwiga Dołęga-Mostowicz. Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski was also a relative of the renowned Polish film director Krzysztof Kieślowski.
7. Legacy and Assessment
Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski's historical legacy is complex, encompassing contributions to Polish administration and military development alongside policies that have been critically assessed, particularly concerning human rights and social minorities within Poland's turbulent inter-war period.
As a military physician, Składkowski played a significant role in establishing and organizing medical services within the Polish Legions during World War I and the nascent Polish Army after independence. His expertise was instrumental in supporting troops and ensuring their well-being. As a government official, particularly during his tenures as Minister of Internal Affairs, he was recognized as an able and energetic administrator. His focus on improving state administration and civil services contributed to the functional governance of the Second Polish Republic. The "sławojki" initiative, mandating outhouses in rural areas, stands as a notable example of his commitment to public health and hygiene, leaving a lasting, albeit informal, mark on the Polish landscape.
However, his political actions, especially during his premiership, are viewed critically regarding their social and human rights implications. While he aimed to strengthen the state, his government's stance on national minorities, particularly Polish Jews, drew significant controversy. The policy of an "economic struggle" against Jewish citizens, coupled with efforts to promote Jewish emigration and the denial of citizenship to those seeking repatriation, contributed to their increased isolation, impoverishment, and demonization within Polish society. While he condemned direct violence, his administration's perceived lack of diligence in combating anti-Jewish actions, and his tendency to attribute blame to the Jewish community for "unpleasant events," highlight a problematic aspect of his legacy that undermined principles of equality and human dignity. Despite his personal commitment to administrative efficiency, these policies reflect a period of rising nationalism and systemic discrimination that had profound negative impacts on social cohesion and minority rights in pre-war Poland.
8. Honours and Awards
Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski received numerous Polish and foreign decorations, military distinctions, and honorary citizenships throughout his career.
- Polish:**
Silver Cross of Virtuti Militari Silver Cross of Virtuti Militari
Grand Cordon of the Order of Polonia Restituta Grand Cordon of the Order of Polonia Restituta (11 November 1935)
Cross of Independence Cross of Independence (17 March 1932)
Cross of Valour Cross of Valour (four times)
Gold Cross of Merit Gold Cross of Merit (29 April 1925)
- Commemorative Medal for the War of 1918-1921
Golden Academic Laurel Golden Academic Laurel (5 November 1935)
Medal of the 10th Anniversary of Regained Independence Medal of the 10th Anniversary of Regained Independence
Silver Medal for Long Service Silver Medal for Long Service (1938)
The Cross of the 70th Anniversary of the January Uprising The Cross of the 70th Anniversary of the January Uprising (1933)
Badge of Honour of the Air and Anti-Gas Defence League Badge of Honour of the Air and Anti-Gas Defence League
- Foreign:**
Grand-officier of the Legion of Honour Grand-officier of the Legion of Honour (France)
Officer of the Legion of Honour Officer of the Legion of Honour (France)
Commander's Cross of the Order of the White Eagle Commander's Cross of the Order of the White Eagle (Yugoslavia, 1926)
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Sava Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Sava (Yugoslavia, 1937)
Grand Cross of the Order of the Yugoslav Crown Grand Cross of the Order of the Yugoslav Crown (Yugoslavia, 1933)
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Portrait of the Ruler Grand Cordon of the Order of the Portrait of the Ruler (Iran, 1937)
Składkowski was also granted honorary citizenships of the cities of Czeladź and Gąbin.
9. Archives
Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski's personal and official documents and archives are preserved and made available for research at the Archiwum Emigracji (Emigration Archive) within the University Library of Torun University in Poland.