Robert Capa

2.1. Paris and Early Career

After arriving in Paris in 1934, Endre Friedmann struggled to find steady work as a freelance photographer. It was during this time that he met Gerda Pohorylle, a German-Jewish photographer who had also fled political persecution. They developed both a professional and romantic relationship. Together, they conceived the persona of "Robert Capa"-a renowned American photographer whose work they could sell at higher rates. Friedmann would present himself as "Robert Capa," with Pohorylle contributing significantly to their early photographic output. The name "Capa" itself was chosen because it sounded American and was derived from the Hungarian word `Cápa<sup>Hungarian</sup>` (pronounced "Tsah-pah"), meaning "shark," reflecting a bold and assertive image.

While initially a shared alias, Pohorylle eventually adopted her own professional name, Gerda Taro, and began publishing her work independently. Capa reportedly proposed marriage to Taro, but she declined, though their involvement continued. During this period, Capa also shared a darkroom with Henri Cartier-Bresson, a French photographer with whom he would later establish the Magnum Photos cooperative.

2.2. Spanish Civil War

From 1936 to 1939, Robert Capa extensively covered the Spanish Civil War, working alongside Gerda Taro and David Seymour. It was during this conflict that Capa captured his most iconic photograph, The Falling Soldier (1936), purportedly depicting the moment a Republican soldier was struck and killed. This photograph, published in French magazines and later prominently in Life and Picture Post, quickly propelled Capa to international fame, with Picture Post once describing him as "the greatest war photographer in the world."

However, the authenticity of The Falling Soldier has been a subject of enduring debate. Investigations, including comparisons with other photographs taken at the same scene, have led some to suggest that the image may have been staged or taken during a military exercise, rather than capturing an actual death in battle. Questions have also been raised about the true identity of the soldier and the exact location of the photograph, with some research indicating it was taken in Espejo, approximately 31 mile ^{(50 km)} from the Muriano front line, contrary to Capa's initial claims. Despite these controversies, Capa consistently maintained the photograph's authenticity throughout his life.

In July 1937, a tragic event occurred when Gerda Taro died near Brunete while returning from a photographic assignment covering the Battle of Brunete. She was involved in an accident where the motor vehicle she was traveling in collided with an out-of-control Republican tank. Capa, who was reportedly engaged to Taro, was deeply affected by her death and never married.

Capa's coverage of the Spanish Civil War also involved accompanying journalist and author Ernest Hemingway, whose experiences in the conflict later inspired his novel, For Whom the Bell Tolls. Life magazine published an article featuring Hemingway's time in Spain, accompanied by many of Capa's photographs.

A significant development in understanding this period of Capa's work came in December 2007, with the discovery in Mexico of three boxes filled with 4,500 35mm negatives. These negatives, by Capa, Taro, and Chim (David Seymour), collectively known as the "Mexican Suitcase," had been considered lost since 1939. This invaluable archive provided crucial insights into their collective documentation of the Spanish Civil War. In 2011, Trisha Ziff directed a film about this discovery, titled The Mexican Suitcase. Capa's reflections from this period reveal his deep empathy: "All you could do was to help individuals caught up in war, try to raise their spirits for a moment, perhaps flirt a little, make them laugh; ... and you could photograph them, to let them know that somebody cared."

2.3. World War II

At the outbreak of World War II, Robert Capa was in New York City, having moved there from Paris to seek new assignments and escape Nazi persecution. As the war intensified, he was assigned to various parts of the European Theatre to document the conflict. He initially photographed for Collier's Weekly before switching to Life magazine, where he became the only "enemy alien" photographer working for the Allies. On October 7, 1943, Capa was in Naples, Italy, with Life reporter Will Lang Jr., where he captured images of the devastating 1943 Naples post office bombing. He also covered the North African Campaign and the Italian Campaign.

2.3.2. Chinese resistance to Imperial Japan, 1938

In 1938, Capa traveled to the Chinese city of Hankou, now within Wuhan, to document the resistance to the Japanese invasion. He sent his images to Life magazine, which published some of them in its May 23, 1938, issue.

2.3.4. The Picture of the Last Man to Die

On April 18, 1945, as World War II neared its end, Capa was in Leipzig, Germany, documenting a fierce fight to secure a bridge. Among his photographs from this engagement was a poignant image capturing the death of Raymond J. Bowman, an American soldier killed by sniper fire. This photograph was published in Life magazine under the dramatic caption "The picture of the last man to die," becoming a widely recognized symbol of the war's final human cost.

2.4. Post-War Assignments

In 1946, after the European theater of World War II concluded, Capa made an attempt to work in Hollywood at the suggestion of his then-lover, actress Ingrid Bergman, but he soon abandoned the endeavor. He later produced a documentary film in Turkey focusing on the tensions of the Cold War. It was during this period that he officially obtained his American citizenship.

2.4.2. Founding of Israel, 1948

In 1948, Robert Capa extensively documented the tumultuous period of the founding of Israel and the subsequent 1948 Arab-Israeli War, which saw the newly established state attacked by neighboring countries. His numerous photographs from this critical historical moment accompanied Irwin Shaw's book, Report on Israel.

2.5. The First Indochina War and Death

In the early 1950s, while in Japan for a Magnum Photos exhibition, Robert Capa received an assignment from Life magazine to cover the First Indochina War in Southeast Asia, where French forces had been engaged in conflict for eight years. Despite having previously expressed a desire to stop covering wars, Capa accepted the assignment.

On May 25, 1954, Capa accompanied a French regiment in Thái Bình Province, Vietnam, along with two Time-Life journalists, John Mecklin and Jim Lucas. At approximately 2:55 PM, while the regiment was moving through a dangerous area under fire, Capa decided to leave his jeep to go further up the road and photograph the advancing troops. Tragically, he stepped on a landmine near the road and was killed instantly. He was 40 years old at the time of his death, and reportedly died with his camera still clutched in his hand. A French-Vietnamese officer who confirmed his death simply stated, "The photographer is dead."

Capa's body was later repatriated to the United States and buried in plot #189 at Amawalk Hill Cemetery (also known as Friends Cemetery) in Amawalk, Westchester County, New York, alongside his mother, Julia, and his younger brother, Cornell Capa.

2.6. Magnum Photos

In 1947, Robert Capa co-founded Magnum Photos in Paris alongside prominent photographers Henri Cartier-Bresson, William Vandivert, David Seymour (known as Chim), and George Rodger. This groundbreaking initiative established the first cooperative agency for freelance photographers globally.

The formation of Magnum Photos was a pivotal moment for photojournalism, born from a desire among its founders to gain greater control over their work, copyright, and distribution, rather than relying solely on traditional agencies and magazines. It provided a framework that allowed photographers to retain ownership of their negatives and make independent decisions about their assignments. The cooperative quickly garnered a reputation for the high quality and impactful work produced by its members, fostering a new era of independent and ethical photojournalism. Robert Capa served as the president of Magnum Photos, taking on this leadership role in either 1951 or 1952, guiding the agency in its early, formative years and embodying its commitment to journalistic independence and integrity.

2.7. Connections to Japan

Robert Capa had notable connections with Japan, particularly in the later part of his career. In 1935, while in Cannes, France, he befriended Hiroshi Kawazoe and Seiichi Inoue, even staying at their apartment at one point and borrowing money from them to purchase a Leica camera. He maintained close ties with a circle of Japanese residents in Paris, including Chieko Hara, Kumao Maruyama, Minoru Kida, Junzo Sakakura, and the then-Paris bureau chief of the Mainichi Shimbun, Motoichi Kido, from whom he received a monthly part-time salary of 20 USD. The pseudonym "Gerda Taro" used by his partner, Gerda Pohorylle, is said to have been inspired by Taro Okamoto, a Japanese artist living in Paris at the time.

In April 1954, Capa visited Japan at the invitation of the Mainichi Shimbun to commemorate the launch of their photography magazine, Camera Mainichi. During his visit, he photographed various aspects of Japanese daily life in Tokyo, Atami, Yaizu, Kyoto, Nara, and Osaka. His photographs captured scenes such as Emperor Hirohito at the Imperial Palace, a May Day parade, Osaka Castle, Shitennoji Temple, the path to Kiyomizu-dera, the Great Buddha at Todai-ji Temple, and the headquarters of the Tenrikyo church. Shortly after this visit, he departed for North Vietnam for his final assignment covering the First Indochina War.

6.1. Impact on Photojournalism

Robert Capa is widely credited with fundamentally redefining wartime photojournalism. His approach departed from the more detached perspectives of previous eras, advocating for an immersive, close-range engagement with his subjects. This philosophy is famously encapsulated in his enduring quote: "If your photographs aren't good enough, you're not close enough." This principle encouraged photographers to embed themselves directly in the heart of the action, risking their lives to capture the raw, unfiltered realities of combat and the profound human experience within it. Capa's work, often characterized by its gritty authenticity and focus on the individual soldier or civilian, reshaped combat photojournalism by prioritizing emotional impact and social relevance over mere documentation of military strategy. He believed that "The truth is the best picture, the best propaganda," and his commitment to this truth, even amidst the chaos of war, left an indelible mark on the field. He also famously quipped, "This war is like an actress who is getting old. It is less and less photogenic and more and more dangerous," reflecting his jaded but committed view of conflict. Another of his well-known sayings was, "It's not enough to have talent, you also have to be Hungarian."

6.2. Awards and Honors

Robert Capa received significant recognition for his courageous and impactful work. In 1947, for his photographic documentation of World War II, U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower personally awarded Capa the Medal of Freedom.

Posthumously, his home country of Hungary honored him in 2013 by issuing a postage stamp bearing his likeness and a `5.00 K HUF` gold coin, which was valued at approximately 20 USD at the time. The Overseas Press Club of America established the Robert Capa Gold Medal Award in his honor, recognizing "the best photographic reporting requiring exceptional courage and enterprise abroad." A notable recipient includes Kyōichi Sawada in 1970 for his coverage of the Cambodian Civil War. In 1976, Capa was posthumously inducted into the International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum. Furthermore, a street in Leipzig, Germany, is named after him, and a commemorative plaque exists in his native Budapest.

6.3. Preservation and Institutions

A cornerstone of Robert Capa's enduring legacy is the dedicated effort by his younger brother, Cornell Capa, to preserve and promote his vast body of work. Recognizing the critical importance of photography as a historical record, Cornell founded the International Fund for Concerned Photography in 1966. To provide a permanent home for this growing collection and to foster photographic education and preservation, he established the International Center of Photography (ICP) in New York City in 1974. The ICP has since become a leading institution for the study and exhibition of photography, representing one of the most comprehensive conservation efforts in the field.

The International Center of Photography has organized significant exhibitions showcasing Capa's contributions, such as the traveling exhibition This Is War: Robert Capa at Work. This exhibition featured a deep dive into Capa's innovative photojournalism from the 1930s and 1940s, including vintage prints, contact sheets, caption sheets, handwritten observations, personal letters, and original magazine layouts from his reportages on the Spanish Civil War, the Second Sino-Japanese War, and World War II. It was displayed at prestigious venues including the Barbican Art Gallery, the International Center of Photography of Milan, the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, and the Nederlands Fotomuseum between 2009 and 2010.

6.4. Cultural Influence

Robert Capa's influence extended beyond photojournalism into broader cultural discourse. He is notably credited with coining the term "Generation X" to describe the young people coming of age immediately after World War II. This term was used as the title for a photo-essay he published in 1953 in Picture Post (UK) and Holiday (US). Capa himself explained its genesis: "We named this unknown generation, The Generation X, and even in our first enthusiasm we realised that we had something far bigger than our talents and pockets could cope with."

7.1. Publications by Capa

• The Battle of Waterloo Road. New York: Random House, 1941. Photographs by Capa. With text by Diana Forbes-Robertson.
• Invasion!. New York, London: D. Appleton-Century, 1944. Photographs by Capa. With text by Charles Wertenbaker.
• Slightly Out of Focus. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1947. New York: Modern Library, 2001. Text and photographs by Capa. With a foreword by Cornell Capa and an introduction by Richard Whelan. A memoir.
• Images of War. New York: Grossman, 1964. Text and photographs by Capa. With a text by John Steinbeck.
• Robert Capa: Photographs. New York: Aperture, 1996. New York: Aperture, 2004.
• Heart of Spain: Robert Capa's Photographs of the Spanish Civil War. New York: Aperture, 1999. New York: Aperture, 2005.
• Robert Capa: The Definitive Collection. London, New York: Phaidon, 2001. London, New York: Phaidon, 2004. Edited by Richard Whelan.
• Robert Capa at Work: This is War!. Göttingen: Steidl, 2009. Photographs by Capa. With a foreword by Willis E. Hartshorn, an introduction by Christopher Phillips, and text by Richard Whelan. Published to accompany an exhibition at the International Center of Photography, New York, September 2007 - January 2008. This detailed examination covered six of Capa's most important war reportages from the first half of his career: the Falling Soldier (1936), Chinese resistance to the Japanese invasion (1938), the end of the Spanish Civil War in Catalonia (1938-39), D-Day, the US paratroop invasion of Germany and the liberation of Leipzig (1945).
  • Questa è la Guerra!: Robert Capa al Lavoro. Italy: Contrasto, 2009. Published to accompany an exhibition in Milan, March-June 2009.

7.2. Publications with others

• Death in the Making. New York: Covici Friede, 1938. Photographs by Capa and Taro.
• A Russian Journal. New York: Viking, 1948. Text by John Steinbeck, illustrated with photographs by Capa.
• Report on Israel. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1950. By Irwin Shaw and Capa.

7.3. Publications about Capa

• Robert Capa: a Biography. New York: Knopf, 1985. By Richard Whelan.
• Blood and Champagne: The Life and Times of Robert Capa. Macmillan, 2002; Thomas Dunne, 2003; Da Capo Press, 2004. By Alex Kershaw.
• La foto de Capa. Córdoba: Paso de Cebra Ediciones, 2011. A fictionalized account of the discovery of the exact location of the "Falling Soldier" photograph.
• Nizza oder die Liebe zur Kunst. Bad König: Vantage Point World, 2013. By Axel Dielmann. (Text in German)
• Capa : L'etoile filante. Graphic novel, 2016. By Florent Silloray. (Translated to Korean in 2017)
• Robert Capa: He Saw Too Much (Blood and Champagne: The Life and Times of Robert Capa). Translated by Yoon Mi-kyung. Seoul: Kang, 2006. (Korean translation)
• Then Capa's Hand Trembled (Slightly out of Focus). Translated by Woo Tae-jung. Seoul: Pilmaek, 2006. (Korean translation)