1. Overview
Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus (Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhausˈeːʁənfʁiːt ˈvaltɐ fɔn ˈtʃɪʁnhaʊsGerman; 10 April 1651 - 11 October 1708) was a German polymath who made significant contributions as a mathematician, physicist, physician, and philosopher. He is particularly noted for introducing the Tschirnhaus transformation in mathematics and is widely considered by many to be the true inventor of European porcelain. This latter claim has been a subject of historical controversy, as the invention was long attributed to Johann Friedrich Böttger, but contemporary evidence strongly suggests Tschirnhaus had already perfected the process before his sudden death. His work spanned diverse fields, reflecting the interdisciplinary spirit of the Age of Enlightenment.
2. Biography
Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus's life was marked by extensive travel and intellectual engagement with some of the most prominent thinkers of his time, laying the groundwork for his diverse contributions.
2.1. Early Life and Education
Born on 10 April 1651 in Kieslingswalde (now SławnikowiceSławnikowicePolish in western Poland, part of Silesia), Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus began his formal education at the Gymnasium in Görlitz. He subsequently pursued higher studies at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands, where he delved into a broad curriculum encompassing mathematics, philosophy, medicine, and chemistry. This multidisciplinary education provided him with a comprehensive intellectual foundation that would characterize his later work.
2.2. Intellectual Connections and Travels
Following his studies, von Tschirnhaus embarked on extensive travels across Europe, visiting France, Italy, and Switzerland. During this period, he also served in the army of Holland from 1672 to 1673. His travels were not merely for exploration but were crucial for fostering intellectual connections. He met and corresponded with many leading figures of the 17th century, including Baruch Spinoza and Christiaan Huygens in the Netherlands, Isaac Newton in England, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in Paris. His correspondence with Leibniz, in particular, was lifelong and significant. Tschirnhaus's intellectual standing was further recognized when he became a member of the Académie Royale des Sciences in Paris.
3. Contributions
Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus's intellectual prowess led to notable achievements across mathematics, philosophy, and practical invention, most famously in the development of European porcelain.
3.1. Mathematical Contributions
Tschirnhaus made several significant contributions to the field of mathematics. He is best known for the Tschirnhaus transformation, a method by which he could remove certain intermediate terms from a given algebraic equation. This important work was published in the esteemed scientific journal Acta Eruditorum in 1683.
In 1682, von Tschirnhaus developed the theory of catacaustics, demonstrating that they were rectifiable. This marked the second instance in mathematical history where the envelope of a moving line was precisely determined. One specific catacaustic of a parabola is still known today as the Tschirnhausen cubic. His mathematical acumen was further highlighted in 1696 when Johann Bernoulli posed the challenging brachistochrone problem to the readers of Acta Eruditorum. Tschirnhaus was among only five mathematicians who successfully submitted a solution, which Bernoulli subsequently published in the journal the following year. Beyond theoretical mathematics, Tschirnhaus also applied his knowledge to practical optics, producing various types of lenses and mirrors, some of which are preserved in museums. He established a large glass works in Saxony, where he conducted experiments and constructed highly perfect burning glasses between 1687 and 1688.
3.2. Philosophical Contributions
Tschirnhaus's philosophical work is primarily encapsulated in his treatise Medicina mentis sive artis inveniendi praecepta generali (1687). In this work, he synthesized methods of deduction with empiricism, aligning himself philosophically with the principles of the Age of Enlightenment. For many years, his philosophical contributions were largely overlooked, with studies often focusing on his connections to other prominent philosophers and scientists of his era.
His intellectual exchanges with contemporaries were significant. During his time at the University of Leiden, he initiated a correspondence with Baruch Spinoza, and later with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Tschirnhaus was among the first to receive a copy of Spinoza's magnum opus, Ethics; it is believed that the only extant pre-publication copy, now held in the Vatican Library, might have been his. In his preserved correspondence with Spinoza, Tschirnhaus raised several objections to claims made in the Ethics, particularly concerning the exact nature of the immediate infinite causes of the attributes.
3.3. Porcelain Invention
Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus is widely credited as the inventor of European porcelain, a significant technological achievement that revolutionized the production of fine ceramics in the West. Upon his return to Saxony, he embarked on systematic experiments aimed at replicating the costly porcelain imported from China and Japan. His method involved testing various mixtures of silicates and earths at different temperatures.
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As early as 1704, Tschirnhaus demonstrated his "porcelan" to Leibniz's secretary, indicating his advanced progress. He subsequently proposed the establishment of a porcelain factory to Augustus II of Poland, then Elector of Saxony, but his proposal was initially rejected. Also in 1704, von Tschirnhaus began supervising Johann Friedrich Böttger, a nineteen-year-old alchemist who claimed he could produce gold. Böttger, initially reluctant, only began to actively participate in Tschirnhaus's porcelain research by 1707, working under considerable pressure. The breakthrough in their work came with the use of kaolin from Schneeberg, Saxony and alabaster, which significantly advanced the porcelain production process. Recognizing his progress, Augustus II appointed Tschirnhaus as the director of the porcelain factory he intended to establish. The Elector ordered a payment of 2,561 thalers to von Tschirnhaus, but Tschirnhaus requested that the payment be postponed until the factory was fully operational and producing.
The project faced a sudden halt when von Tschirnhaus died unexpectedly on 11 October 1708. Just three days after his death, a burglary occurred at his house, during which a small piece of porcelain was reported stolen by Böttger himself. This report is seen as a crucial piece of evidence, suggesting that Böttger was aware that Tschirnhaus had already succeeded in making porcelain. Work on the porcelain project resumed on 20 March 1709, after Melchior Steinbrück arrived to assess Tschirnhaus's estate. Steinbrück discovered Tschirnhaus's detailed notes on porcelain making and met with Böttger. Shortly thereafter, on 28 March 1709, Böttger presented himself to Augustus II and announced the "invention" of porcelain, subsequently being nominated to head the first European porcelain manufactory, which would become the renowned Meissen factory. Steinbrück, who had access to Tschirnhaus's notes, later married Böttger's sister.
Contemporary testimonies from knowledgeable individuals strongly indicate that Tschirnhaus was indeed the inventor of porcelain. For instance, in 1719, Samuel Stölzel, an employee of the Meissen factory, traveled to Vienna with the still-secret porcelain recipe and explicitly confirmed that the invention was attributable to von Tschirnhaus, not Böttger. In the same year, the General Secretary of the Meissen factory also stated that the invention was not Böttger's but rather "by the late Herr von Tschirnhaus[,] whose written science" was handed to Böttger "by the inspector Steinbrück." Despite these testimonies, Böttger's name became predominantly associated with the invention in historical accounts.
4. Publications
Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus authored several significant works that reflect his wide-ranging intellectual interests, particularly in the fields of medicine and philosophy.
- Medicina corporis (Medicina corporis, seu Cogitationes admodum probabiles de conſervandâ SanitateMedicine of the Body, or Highly Probable Thoughts on Preserving HealthLatin), published in Amsterdam in 1686. This work, whose full title translates to "Medicine of the Body, or Highly Probable Thoughts on Preserving Health," explored his ideas on physical well-being.
- Medicina mentis (Medicina mentis, sive Tentamen genuinæ Logicæ, in quâ diſſeritur de Methodo detegendi incognitas veritatesMedicine of the Mind, or An Attempt at a True Logic, in which the Method of Discovering Unknown Truths is DiscussedLatin), published in Amsterdam in 1687. The full title translates to "Medicine of the Mind, or An Attempt at a True Logic, in which the Method of Discovering Unknown Truths is Discussed," highlighting his philosophical approach to knowledge acquisition.
- A combined edition, Medicina mentis et corporis, was later published with an introduction by Wilhelm Risse as an anastatic reprint in Hildesheim by Georg Olms in 1964.
5. Death
Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus died suddenly on 11 October 1708, in Dresden, Saxony. His unexpected demise had an immediate and significant impact on his ongoing research, most notably bringing his pioneering porcelain project to a temporary halt. The suddenness of his death, followed by the aforementioned burglary at his home, fueled speculation regarding the advanced state of his porcelain development at the time of his passing.
6. Legacy and Impact
Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus's legacy is complex, marked by both recognized achievements and enduring disputes, particularly concerning his role in the invention of European porcelain. His work, however, undeniably influenced subsequent intellectual and technological developments.
6.1. Historical Recognition and Disputes
The historical reception of Tschirnhaus's work has been significantly shaped by the controversy surrounding the invention of European porcelain. While Johann Friedrich Böttger gained widespread recognition and credit for this breakthrough, evidence and contemporary testimonies strongly suggest that Tschirnhaus had already developed the process before his death. The burglary at Tschirnhaus's home shortly after his demise, and Böttger's subsequent announcement of the "invention" after accessing Tschirnhaus's notes, point to a complex narrative of attribution. The testimonies of individuals like Samuel Stölzel and the General Secretary of the Meissen factory provide crucial insights, asserting that the invention originated from Tschirnhaus's "written science" rather than Böttger's independent discovery. This historical dispute underscores the challenges of crediting scientific and technological breakthroughs, especially when key figures die before full public disclosure or commercialization.
6.2. Influence on Subsequent Thought
Beyond the porcelain controversy, Tschirnhaus's mathematical theories and philosophical ideas left a lasting imprint on the progression of knowledge. His Tschirnhaus transformation remains a notable contribution to algebra, and his work on catacaustics demonstrated advanced geometric understanding. Philosophically, his Medicina mentis represented an important synthesis of deductive reasoning and empiricism, contributing to the intellectual currents of the Enlightenment. His extensive correspondence with leading minds like Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza indicates his active participation in the intellectual discourse of his era, influencing the development of early calculus and algebra through his work and discussions. His multifaceted career exemplified the ideal of the polymath, whose interdisciplinary approach fostered innovation across various scientific and philosophical domains.