Comoros

3.1. Early Settlement and Medieval Era

The first attested human inhabitants of the Comoro Islands are believed to have been Austronesian settlers, likely from Southeast Asia via Madagascar, arriving by boat no later than the eighth century AD. Archaeological evidence from Anjouan and Mayotte supports this, with some theories postulating settlement as early as the first century. Subsequent settlers included Bantu-speaking groups from the East African coast, Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula and Persian Gulf, and migrants from the Malay Archipelago. These diverse groups contributed to the formation of early Comorian society and culture.

The Dembeni phase (eighth to tenth centuries) saw the establishment of several small settlements on each island. From the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, trade flourished with Madagascar, the Swahili coast, and the Middle East. This period witnessed the growth of existing villages and the founding of new ones. Islam was introduced to the islands, likely by Arab traders, and gradually became the dominant religion. According to legend, in 632, upon hearing of Islam, islanders dispatched an emissary, Mtswa-Mwindza, to Mecca. Though the Prophet Muhammad had passed away by his arrival, Mtswa-Mwindza returned to Ngazidja and led the gradual conversion of the islanders. Large mosques were constructed, and the Comoros became an integral part of the Swahili cultural and economic complex, serving as a significant trading hub. Omani sailors in 933 referred to the Comoros as the Perfume Islands. Works by Al-Masudi describe early Islamic trade routes, noting frequent visits by Muslim merchants seeking goods like coral, ambergris, ivory, and tortoiseshell.

By the 16th century, local sultanates had emerged, often vying for power. The Sultanate of Anjouan became particularly influential. Grande Comore was often divided among several autonomous sultanates (ntsi). The Portuguese arrived in the Indian Ocean at the end of the 15th century, with Vasco da Gama's second fleet reportedly visiting the islands in 1503. Throughout the 16th century, the islands supplied provisions to the Portuguese fort at Mozambique, and some Portuguese traders settled and intermarried locally, though no formal Portuguese possession was established. By the late 16th century, mainland African rulers, with Omani support under Sultan Saif bin Sultan, began to push back against European powers. Omani Arab influence grew, particularly under Said bin Sultan who moved his administration to nearby Zanzibar. Despite this, the Comoros remained largely independent.

3.2. European Contact and French Colonization

European contact intensified from the 16th century onwards. The islands served as a crucial stopover for ships on the route to India, particularly for the English, and later, for American whalers. They supplied provisions and, tragically, became involved in the slave trade, providing slaves for plantation islands in the Mascarenes.
In the last decade of the 18th century, Malagasy warriors, primarily Betsimisaraka and Sakalava, began raiding the Comoros for slaves. These raids devastated the islands, destroying crops and leading to slaughter, captivity, or flight of the local population. It is said that by the time the raids ended in the early 19th century, only one man remained on Mwali. The islands were subsequently repopulated, partly by slaves from the mainland who were then traded to the French in Mayotte and the Mascarenes. By 1865, it was estimated that as much as 40% of the Comorian population consisted of slaves.

France began to establish colonial rule in the Comoros in the 19th century. In 1841, France took possession of Mayotte after Sultan Andriantsoly (also known as Tsy Levalo), a Sakalava usurper, signed a treaty ceding the island. France then attempted to convert Mayotte into a sugar plantation colony. Ndzwani (Anjouan), known as Johanna to the British, continued to serve as a way station, though its importance declined after the British acquired Mauritius in 1814 and with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Local commodities exported included slaves, coconuts, timber, cattle, and tortoiseshell. A plantation-based economy developed, introducing crops like ylang-ylang, vanilla, cloves, coffee, cocoa beans, and sisal.

In 1886, Mwali (Mohéli) was placed under French protection by its Sultan Mardjani Abdou Cheikh. The same year, Sultan Said Ali of Bambao on Ngazidja (Grande Comore) placed his island under French protection in exchange for support of his claim to the entire island, which he held until his abdication in 1910. In 1908, the four islands were unified under a single administration (Colonie de Mayotte et dépendances) and placed under the authority of the French colonial Governor-General of Madagascar. In 1909, Sultan Said Muhamed of Ndzwani abdicated in favor of French rule. The protectorates were formally abolished in 1912, and the islands were administered as a single colony. Two years later, this colony was abolished, and the islands became a province of the colony of Madagascar. Colonial rule profoundly impacted Comorian society, economy, and traditional governance structures, often prioritizing French economic interests and imposing new administrative systems.

3.3. Independence and Political Turmoil

The path to independence gained momentum in the mid-20th century. An agreement was reached with France in 1973 for the Comoros to become independent in 1978. However, a referendum held in December 1974 showed divergent aspirations: while Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Mohéli voted overwhelmingly for independence, Mayotte voted to remain with France. Despite Mayotte's vote, on 6 July 1975, the Comorian parliament passed a unilateral resolution declaring the independence of all four islands as the Comorian State (État comorien_{État comorien}^French; دولة القمر_{Dawlat al-Qamar}^Arabic). Ahmed Abdallah became its first president. France recognized the independence of the three islands on 31 December 1975 but retained control over Mayotte, a decision that has been a persistent point of contention and a source of irredentist claims by Comoros.

The subsequent decades were marked by extreme political turmoil, with over 20 coups or attempted coups. This instability severely hampered democratic development and respect for human rights.

• Ahmed Abdallah's First Presidency and Ousting (1975):** Less than a month after independence, on 3 August 1975, President Ahmed Abdallah was overthrown in an armed coup led by Ali Soilihi with the involvement of mercenary Bob Denard. Said Mohamed Jaffar, representing the United National Front of the Comoros (FNUK), became president.
• Ali Soilihi's Regime (1976-1978):** In January 1976, Jaffar was ousted by his Minister of Defence, Ali Soilihi. Soilihi's regime pursued radical socialist and isolationist policies, which strained relations with France and led to internal repression and economic hardship. He abolished traditional customs, burned national archives, and empowered youth militias, leading to widespread discontent.
• Abdallah's Return and Assassination (1978-1989):** On 13 May 1978, Bob Denard, reportedly commissioned by French intelligence (SDECE) and with support from Rhodesian and South African governments, led another coup, overthrowing Soilihi (who was captured and executed weeks later) and reinstating Ahmed Abdallah. Abdallah's second presidency was characterized by authoritarian rule and an increased adherence to traditional Islam. The country was renamed the Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros. Bob Denard became a powerful advisor, sometimes considered the real strongman, and used the Comoros as a base for mercenary operations and to help South Africa circumvent apartheid-era embargoes. Abdallah remained president until November 1989 when, fearing another coup, he signed a decree ordering the Presidential Guard (led by Denard) to disarm the armed forces. Shortly thereafter, Abdallah was assassinated in his office, allegedly by a disgruntled military officer, though some sources claim an antitank missile was involved. Denard was injured but suspected of involvement.
• Said Mohamed Djohar's Presidency (1989-1995):** Following Abdallah's assassination and Denard's evacuation by French paratroopers, Said Mohamed Djohar, Soilihi's older half-brother, became president. His tenure was marked by continued instability and coup attempts. In September 1995, Bob Denard returned and attempted yet another coup. France intervened militarily, forcing Denard to surrender. Djohar was removed to Reunion, and a Paris-backed transitional government was established.
• Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim (1996-1998):** Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim won the 1996 presidential election. His leadership faced labor crises, government suppression, and secessionist conflicts. In 1997, the islands of Ndzwani (Anjouan) and Mwali (Mohéli) declared independence, seeking to restore French rule, a request France rejected. This led to bloody confrontations. Taki died suddenly in November 1998.
• Azali Assoumani's First Coup and Rule (1999-2002):** Interim President Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde took over, but in April 1999, Colonel Azali Assoumani, Army Chief of Staff, seized power in a bloodless coup, citing weak leadership. This was the 18th coup or attempted coup since 1975. Assoumani struggled to consolidate power and re-establish control over the secessionist islands, drawing international criticism.

• Transition to Union and Rotational Presidency (2001-2018):** Under pressure from the African Union (AU), particularly South Africa under President Thabo Mbeki, negotiations led to the Fomboni Accords in December 2001. A new constitution changed the country's name to the Union of the Comoros, establishing a highly decentralized federal system with autonomous island governments each led by a president. The Union presidency was to rotate among the islands every five years. Azali Assoumani stepped down in 2002 to run in the presidential election, which he won.
  • In 2006, Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi, a Sunni Muslim cleric from Anjouan, won the presidency, marking the first peaceful and democratic transfer of power.
  • In 2007, Colonel Mohammed Bacar, president of Anjouan, refused to step down and held an illegal vote to confirm his leadership. In March 2008, AU and Comorian federal troops launched an invasion of Anjouan, ousting Bacar, who fled to Mayotte. There were reports of torture during Bacar's tenure.
  • Following the 2010 elections, Ikililou Dhoinine from Mohéli became president in 2011, the first from that island.
• Azali Assoumani's Return and Constitutional Changes (2016-Present):** Azali Assoumani from Ngazidja returned to power after the 2016 elections. In 2018, Assoumani held a controversial constitutional referendum that abolished the rotational presidency system and allowed a president to serve two five-year terms. The opposition boycotted the vote. Assoumani was re-elected in 2019 and again in a disputed election in January 2024, amidst widespread opposition claims of irregularities. His party, the Convention for the Renewal of the Comoros (CRC), dominated the 2020 legislative elections, consolidating his power and raising concerns about "creeping authoritarianism."

In 2021, Comoros signed and ratified the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. In 2023, Comoros was an invited guest to the G7 summit in Hiroshima and assumed the presidency of the African Union on 18 February 2023.
The persistent political instability, frequent unconstitutional changes of government, and disregard for democratic processes have severely undermined the rule of law, human rights, and socio-economic development in the Comoros. Efforts towards national reconciliation and strengthening democratic institutions remain crucial challenges.

4.1. Major Islands and Topography

The Union of the Comoros officially consists of three major islands:

• Grande Comore (Ngazidja):** The largest island, with an area of 0.4 K mile^{2 (1.02 K km2)}. It is the most recently formed geologically, resulting in rocky soil. Its topography is dominated by two volcanoes: Mount Karthala, an active shield volcano and the country's highest point at 7.7 K ft ^{(2.36 K m)}, and La Grille, a dormant volcano. The lack of good natural harbors is a notable feature. The capital, Moroni, is located on Ngazidja.
• Anjouan (Ndzwani):** The second largest island, with an area of 164 mile^{2 (424 km2)}. It has a distinctive triangular shape formed by three mountain chains - Shisiwani, Nioumakele, and Jimilime - radiating from a central peak, Mount Ntringui (5.2 K ft ^{(1.57 K m)}). Anjouan has a more rugged terrain with numerous rivers but faces significant soil erosion due to deforestation. Its capital is Mutsamudu, which is also the most densely populated city in the Comoros.
• Mohéli (Mwali):** The smallest of the three main islands, with an area of 81 mile^{2 (211 km2)}. Its capital is Fomboni. Mohéli has a gentler topography compared to the other islands, with lower hills and fertile valleys. It is known for its rich marine biodiversity.

The islands of the Comoros Archipelago are all of volcanic origin. Mount Karthala on Ngazidja is one of the world's most active volcanoes, with eruptions recorded in 1991, April 2005, and May 2006. The 2005 eruption led to the evacuation of 40,000 people and destroyed the crater lake within its caldera, which measures approximately 1.9 mile ^{(3 km)} by 2.5 mile ^{(4 km)}.

The Comoros also lays claim to the Îles Éparses, including the Glorioso Islands. These islands were administered by the colonial Comoros before 1975. Additionally, Banc du Geyser, a now-submerged former island, is geographically part of the Îles Éparses and is claimed by both Comoros and France (as part of the Glorioso Islands) and was annexed by Madagascar in 1976.
The total land area of the Union of the Comoros is 0.6 K mile^{2 (1.66 K km2)}. The country also claims 124 mile^{2 (320 km2)} of territorial seas. The interiors of the islands vary from steep mountains to low hills, with coastlines featuring beaches, rocky shores, and mangrove areas.

4.2. Climate

The Comoros experiences a tropical maritime climate, which is generally mild and characterized by two main seasons defined by rainfall:

• Rainy Season (Kashkazi/Kaskazi - North Monsoon):** This season runs from November to April. It is hotter and more humid, with March being the hottest month, with average temperatures reaching 84.2 °F ^{(29 °C)} to 86 °F ^{(30 °C)}.
• Cool, Dry Season (Kusi - South Monsoon):** This season extends from May to October. Temperatures are lower, with an average low of 66.2 °F ^{(19 °C)}.

Annual rainfall is high, varying across the islands and with altitude, with Moroni receiving approximately 0.1 K in ^{(2.80 K mm)} annually, and some slopes of Mount Karthala receiving up to 0.3 K in ^{(8.70 K mm)}. Despite the high rainfall, Grande Comore lacks permanent rivers due to the porous volcanic soil. The islands are rarely subject to severe cyclones, though they can be affected by tropical storms. Climate change poses a potential threat through rising sea levels, increased storm intensity, and impacts on water resources and agriculture.

4.3. Biodiversity and Protected Areas

The Comoros archipelago forms a distinct ecoregion known as the Comoros forests, characterized by rich terrestrial and marine biodiversity with a high degree of endemism. The islands' isolation has led to the evolution of unique species.

• Flora:** The islands were once largely covered in tropical rainforest, but significant deforestation has occurred due to agriculture and logging. Remaining forests, particularly on the slopes of Mount Karthala and Mount Ntringui, harbor diverse plant life, including many endemic species.
• Fauna:** Notable endemic fauna includes several bird species, reptiles, and insects. Livingstone's fruit bat is one of the world's largest bats and is endemic to Anjouan and Mohéli. The marine environment is particularly rich, supporting extensive coral reefs, diverse fish populations, sea turtles, and marine mammals like dolphins and whales.

The most famous species associated with the Comoros is the West Indian Ocean coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae), a prehistoric fish thought to have been extinct for 66 million years until its rediscovery off the South African coast in 1938. A significant population was later found in Comorian waters, particularly around Grande Comore and Anjouan, in 1952. Between 1938 and 1975, 84 specimens were caught and recorded.

• Protected Areas:**

The Comoros has established several national parks and protected areas to conserve its unique biodiversity. As of 2021, these include six national parks:

• On Grande Comore: Karthala, Coelacanth, and Mitsamiouli Ndroudi National Parks.
• On Anjouan: Mount Ntringui and Shisiwani National Parks.
• On Mohéli: Mohéli National Park, which was the first protected area in the Comoros and includes both marine and terrestrial zones. It is particularly important for sea turtle nesting sites and coral reef conservation.

Karthala and Mount Ntringui national parks cover the highest peaks and remaining forest habitats on their respective islands. Coelacanth, Mitsamiouli Ndroudi, and Shisiwani are primarily marine national parks aimed at protecting coastal waters and fringing reefs.
Environmental challenges include deforestation, soil erosion (especially on Anjouan), overfishing, coral reef degradation due to climate change and pollution, and threats to endemic species from habitat loss and invasive species. Conservation efforts face constraints due to limited resources and high population pressure on natural resources. The country had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.69/10, ranking it 33rd globally out of 172 countries.

5.1. Government Structure

The Constitution, ratified by referendum on 23 December 2001 and subsequently amended (notably in 2009 and 2018), defines the framework of government. Initially, it established a highly decentralized system with a Union government and autonomous governments for each of the three main islands: Ngazidja (Grande Comore), Ndzwani (Anjouan), and Mwali (Mohéli). Each island had its own president and parliament.

• The President of the Union:** The President is both head of state and head of government. Under the 2001 constitution, the presidency of the Union rotated among the three islands every five years. However, a constitutional referendum in 2018 abolished this rotational system and allowed the incumbent president to seek re-election for potentially two five-year terms. This change was controversial and boycotted by the opposition. The current president is Azali Assoumani.
• The Assembly of the Union:** The legislative power at the federal level is vested in the unicameral Assembly of the Union (Assemblée de l'Union des Comores). It currently has 33 members, of whom 24 are directly elected in single-member constituencies and 9 are indirectly elected by the island assemblies (3 from each island). Members serve five-year terms.
• Island Governments:** Each of the three islands retains a degree of autonomy with its own governor (formerly president before the 2009 constitutional amendment which reduced their powers) and island assembly (parliament). These island governments manage local affairs as defined by law. The 2009 referendum also saw island ministers become councillors.
• Executive Power:** Executive power is exercised by the Union government, headed by the President, who appoints the Council of Ministers (cabinet).

The transfer of power from Azali Assoumani to Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi in May 2006 was the first peaceful transfer in Comorian history. However, subsequent political developments, particularly the 2018 constitutional changes and contested elections, have raised concerns about the consolidation of power and the health of democratic institutions.

5.2. Legal System

The Comorian legal system is a mixed system, drawing from:

• Islamic law (Shari'a):** This influences personal status law, family law, and some aspects of criminal law. The preamble of the constitution guarantees an Islamic inspiration in governance.
• French civil law (Napoleonic Code):** Inherited from the colonial period, this forms the basis for commercial law and other areas of civil and criminal procedure.
• Customary Law (mila na ntsi):** Traditional unwritten laws and customs also play a role in resolving disputes, particularly at the local village level.

Village elders, kadis (Islamic judges), or civilian courts settle most disputes. The judiciary is, in principle, independent of the legislative and executive branches.
The **Supreme Court** is the highest judicial body. It also acts as a Constitutional Council, resolving constitutional questions and supervising presidential elections. As a High Court of Justice, the Supreme Court can arbitrate in cases where the government is accused of malpractice. The Supreme Court consists of two members selected by the president, two elected by the Federal Assembly, and one by the council of each island. Access to justice and the consistent application of human rights standards within this mixed legal framework remain ongoing challenges.

5.3. Administrative Divisions

The Comoros is administratively divided into three main autonomous islands (îles autonomes), which correspond to the major islands of the archipelago:
1. **Grande Comore (Ngazidja)**
2. **Anjouan (Ndzwani)**
3. **Mohéli (Mwali)**

Each autonomous island has its own governor and assembly. These islands are further subdivided into prefectures and communes for local governance and service delivery, following administrative reforms in 2011. The central government is based in the capital, Moroni, on Grande Comore. The disputed island of Mayotte, claimed by Comoros, is administered by France as an overseas department.

5.4. Political Culture and Governance Challenges

The political culture of the Comoros has been dominated by decades of instability, characterized by:

• Frequent Coups d'État:** Since independence in 1975, the country has experienced more than 20 coups or attempted coups, leading to chronic political volatility and undermining democratic institutions and the rule of law. This has created an environment of uncertainty and hindered long-term development.
• Weak Democratic Institutions:** While formally a multi-party democracy, institutions such as the judiciary, electoral commission, and legislature have often been weak or subject to executive interference. Elections have frequently been marred by irregularities and disputes.
• Corruption:** Corruption is a significant problem, affecting public administration and the economy. Efforts to combat corruption have had limited success.
• Separatism and Reconciliation:** The secessionist attempts by Anjouan and Mohéli in 1997 highlighted deep-seated inter-island tensions. The Fomboni Accords of 2001 aimed to address these through a federal system, but challenges to national unity and equitable power-sharing persist.
• Constitutional Controversies:** The 2018 constitutional referendum, which ended the rotational presidency and allowed the incumbent to seek extended terms, was widely criticized by the opposition and civil society as a move towards authoritarianism and a setback for democratic consolidation.
• Citizen Participation:** Despite the challenges, there is a desire among the populace for greater democratic participation and good governance. Civil society organizations play a role in advocating for reforms and human rights, though their space can be constrained.

Around 80 percent of the central government's annual budget was historically spent on the country's complex administrative system. A referendum on 16 May 2009 approved a reduction in this bureaucracy, with 93.8% of votes in favor from a 52.7% turnout. This led to island presidents becoming governors and ministers becoming councillors. Strengthening democratic participation, ensuring respect for human rights, promoting national reconciliation, and tackling corruption remain critical governance challenges for the Comoros.

5.5. Human Rights

The human rights situation in the Comoros faces numerous challenges, impacted by political instability, poverty, and weaknesses in the rule of law. Key areas of concern include:

• Civil and Political Rights:**
  • Freedom of Expression and Assembly:** While the constitution provides for these freedoms, they have at times been restricted, particularly during periods of political tension. Journalists and opposition figures have faced harassment or arrest.
  • Electoral Integrity:** Concerns have been raised about the fairness and transparency of elections, with allegations of irregularities and intimidation.
  • Due Process and Rule of Law:** The judicial system is often under-resourced and subject to political influence, affecting the right to a fair trial and due process. Arbitrary detention has been reported.
• Social and Economic Rights:**
  • Poverty and Inequality:** High levels of poverty and significant income inequality persist, affecting access to basic necessities such as food, water, healthcare, and education.
  • Right to Health:** Access to adequate healthcare is limited, particularly in rural areas. Maternal and child mortality rates remain high.
  • Right to Education:** While primary education is nominally compulsory, challenges include resource scarcity, teacher shortages, and poor infrastructure.
• Rights of Vulnerable Groups:**
  • Women's Rights:** Women face discrimination in various aspects of life, although matrilineal traditions in some parts of Comorian society (especially Ngazidja) afford women certain property and social rights. Domestic violence and limited access to economic opportunities are concerns.
  • Children's Rights:** Child labor, particularly in agriculture and domestic service, is a problem. Access to quality education and healthcare for children needs improvement.
  • LGBT Rights:** Same-sex sexual activity is illegal for both men and women, with punishments of up to five years' imprisonment. Societal discrimination against LGBT individuals is prevalent.
• Freedom of Religion:** While Sunni Islam is the state religion, the constitution nominally provides for freedom of religion. However, proselytizing by non-Muslims is restricted, and there can be societal pressure on religious minorities.

International human rights organizations and local civil society groups continue to monitor the situation and advocate for improvements in human rights protection and the strengthening of democratic freedoms.

6.1. Mayotte Sovereignty Dispute

The most significant and enduring issue in Comorian foreign policy is the territorial dispute with France over the island of Mayotte (known as Maoré in Shikomori).

• Comorian Claim:** The Comoros claims Mayotte as an integral part of its national territory, based on the principle of the inviolability of colonial borders at the time of independence. When Comoros declared independence in 1975, it did so for all four main islands of the archipelago, including Mayotte.
• French Position and Mayotte's Status:** However, in referendums held in 1974 and 1976, the population of Mayotte voted to remain part of France. France has maintained its administration over Mayotte, which became a French overseas department in 2011 and an outermost region of the European Union in 2014, following further referendums.
• International Stances:** The United Nations General Assembly has adopted numerous resolutions affirming Comorian sovereignty over Mayotte and calling on France to withdraw. For example, UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/31/4 (21 October 1976) stated that "the occupation by France of the Comorian island of Mayotte constitutes a flagrant encroachment on the national unity of the Comorian State". Similar positions have been taken by the African Union (formerly the Organisation of African Unity), the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and the Arab League. However, France, as a permanent member of the UN Security Council, has effectively prevented binding international action.
• Socio-economic and Humanitarian Implications:** The differing statuses of Mayotte (under France, with higher living standards and EU benefits) and the independent Comoros (one of the world's poorest countries) have created significant socio-economic disparities. This has led to a continuous and often dangerous flow of undocumented migrants from the other Comorian islands to Mayotte, seeking better economic opportunities and access to services like healthcare. This migration has resulted in humanitarian crises, including numerous deaths at sea from capsized boats (known as kwassa kwassa), and social tensions in Mayotte. France has implemented strict visa requirements and border controls (the "visa Balladur" since 1994) to curb this migration, which Comoros views as a violation of the free movement of its citizens within its claimed territory.

The dispute over Mayotte continues to strain relations between Comoros and France, despite France being a major aid donor and partner in other areas. Comoros consistently raises the issue in international forums.

6.2. Relations with International Organizations and Key Partners

The Comoros is an active member of several international and regional organizations, reflecting its diverse geopolitical interests:

• United Nations (UN):** Comoros became the 143rd member of the UN in November 1975. It participates in various UN agencies and programs. In May 2013, the Comoros filed a referral to the International Criminal Court (ICC) regarding the Israeli raid on a Gaza-bound aid flotilla, as one of the ships was registered in Comoros. The ICC prosecutor found that war crimes may have occurred but did not meet the gravity standards for a full investigation. Comoros signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons and ratified it in 2021.
• African Union (AU):** As an African nation, Comoros is a member of the AU and participates in its initiatives for peace, security, and development on the continent. The AU has played a significant role in mediating political crises in Comoros, including the 2008 intervention in Anjouan. Comoros chaired the AU in 2023.
• Arab League:** Comoros is the only member state of the Arab League located entirely in the Southern Hemisphere. This membership reflects its cultural and historical ties to the Arab world.
• Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC):** Reflecting its predominantly Muslim population, Comoros is a member of the OIC and engages in its activities.
• Indian Ocean Commission (IOC):** Comoros is a founding member of the IOC, a regional organization that promotes cooperation among island nations in the Indian Ocean on issues such as maritime security, environmental protection, and economic development.
• Organisation internationale de la Francophonie:** Membership in La Francophonie reflects its historical ties to France and the use of French as an official language.
• Other Memberships:** Comoros is also a member of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the African Development Bank. It accepted the Kyoto Protocol in 2008.

• Key Bilateral Partners:**
  • France:** Despite the Mayotte dispute, France remains a crucial partner for Comoros. It is a major aid donor, provides security assistance, and is home to a large Comorian diaspora whose remittances are vital to the Comorian economy.
  • Other Partners:** Comoros maintains diplomatic relations with various other countries, including those in Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and Asia, seeking development assistance, trade, and investment. Azali Assoumani, as President of Comoros and Chair of the AU, attended the 2023 Russia-Africa Summit.

  The emigration rate of skilled workers from Comoros was about 21.2% in 2000, representing a significant brain drain. Foreign policy is largely driven by the need for development aid, support for its territorial claim over Mayotte, and regional cooperation.

8.1. Overview and Major Sectors

The Comorian economy is predominantly agricultural, with a small and underdeveloped industrial and service sector.

• Agriculture:** This sector is the mainstay of the economy, contributing around 40% to the GDP and employing the majority of the labor force (over 56% in 2019).
  • Export Crops:** The primary cash crops are vanilla, cloves, and ylang-ylang (an essential oil used in perfumes). The Comoros is the world's largest producer of ylang-ylang, accounting for about 80% of the global supply, and a significant producer of vanilla. The economy is thus highly vulnerable to price fluctuations in the volatile world commodity markets for these spices. Challenges include ensuring fair trade practices and sustainable cultivation methods.
  • Subsistence Farming:** Most of the rural population engages in subsistence farming, growing crops such as plantains, cassava, beans, breadfruit, and taro. However, the country is not self-sufficient in food and relies heavily on imported rice, the main staple.
• Fishing:** Despite its extensive coastline and territorial waters, the fishing industry is relatively underdeveloped, largely artisanal, and does not significantly contribute to exports, though it is important for local consumption.
• Tourism:** Tourism is an emerging sector with potential, given the islands' natural beauty, beaches, and marine life. However, it is constrained by poor infrastructure, political instability, and limited international air access.
• Industry:** The industrial sector is small, primarily focused on food processing related to agricultural products (e.g., vanilla and ylang-ylang distillation) and small-scale manufacturing for the local market. It employed around 29% of the labor force in 2019.
• Services:** The services sector employed around 14% of the labor force in 2019 and includes government services, retail, and transportation.

The Comorian franc (KMF) is the official currency, pegged to the Euro through an agreement with France, which provides a degree of monetary stability. The Comoros is a member of the Organisation for the Harmonisation of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).

8.2. Economic Conditions, Poverty, and Development Challenges

The Comoros is classified as a Least Developed Country (LDC) and faces severe economic challenges:

• Poverty and Inequality:** Poverty is widespread. While a 2018 World Bank report noted that using the international poverty threshold of 1.9 USD per day, about 19% of the population lived below this line (between 2009-2014), placing it better than some low-income countries, poverty remains a significant issue. Poverty declined by about 10% between 2014 and 2018. However, income inequality is high, with significant disparities between urban and rural areas, and between the islands. The Gini coefficient in 2013 was 45.0.
• Dependence on Foreign Aid and Remittances:** The economy is heavily reliant on foreign aid and remittances from the large Comorian diaspora, particularly in France. These remittances form a substantial part of the country's GDP and have helped reduce poverty and improve living standards to some extent.
• Unemployment:** Unemployment is high, especially among youth. The official registered unemployment rate was reported at 14.3% in a 2005 government paper, with higher incidence in urban areas, though ILOSTAT data between 1991-2019 showed rates around 4.3-4.38%.
• Structural Challenges:**
  • High Population Density and Growth:** Rapid population growth (average 275 persons per km²) puts pressure on land, resources, and public services.
  • Limited Natural Resources:** Aside from agricultural land and fisheries, the country has few exploitable natural resources.
  • Vulnerability to External Shocks:** Dependence on a few export commodities makes the economy susceptible to price volatility and climate-related events.
  • Weak Governance and Political Instability:** Decades of political turmoil have deterred investment and disrupted economic activity.
  • Low Educational Levels:** A low educational level of the labor force contributes to low productivity.
  • Trade Imbalance:** The Comoros consistently runs a large trade deficit, with imports (especially rice and petroleum products) far exceeding exports. In 2013, exports were 25.00 M USD while imports were 285.00 M USD.

  The government's efforts to upgrade education, privatize enterprises, improve health services, diversify exports, and promote tourism are ongoing but face significant hurdles. Fiscal policy is constrained by erratic revenues and a large civil service wage bill. External debt is also a concern, often exceeding the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) threshold. The social impact of economic policies and the pursuit of social equity are central to development discourse, emphasizing the need for inclusive growth that benefits the entire population.

8.3. Infrastructure and Transportation

Inadequate infrastructure is a major impediment to economic development and connectivity in the Comoros.

• Transportation:**
  • Ports:** The main ports are in Moroni (Ngazidja) and Mutsamudu (Ndzwani). Mutsamudu port was upgraded in 1985 to handle larger vessels, but Moroni port has limited capacity and cannot accommodate large ships directly. Inter-island maritime transport is crucial but often unreliable and sometimes unsafe.
  • Airports:** The main international airport is Prince Said Ibrahim International Airport near Moroni. Each of the other two main islands (Ndzwani and Mwali) also has a smaller airport (Ouani Airport on Anjouan and Bandar Es Salam Airport on Mohéli). Air services are limited and can be expensive.
  • Roads:** The road network is underdeveloped and often poorly maintained, particularly in rural areas, hindering internal trade and access to markets and services.
• Energy:** Access to reliable electricity is limited. The country relies heavily on imported fossil fuels for power generation, which is costly and unsustainable. There is potential for renewable energy (solar, wind), but development is slow.
• Communication:** Telecommunications infrastructure, including internet access, has improved but remains relatively expensive and less accessible outside urban centers.

The state of infrastructure directly impacts economic activity by increasing transportation costs, limiting access to markets, and affecting the delivery of essential services such as healthcare and education. Improving infrastructure is a key priority for sustainable development and better regional connectivity for the population.

9.1. Population Trends and Distribution

With an estimated population of around 850,886 in 2019 (758,316 at the 2017 census), the Comoros is one of the least populous countries in the world. However, it has a high population density, averaging about 275 people per square kilometer, and significantly higher in agricultural zones (up to 1000 per sq km). The population growth rate is relatively high. In 1958, the population (including Mayotte) was 183,133.
The population is very young, with almost half under the age of 15 in 2009. Urbanization is increasing; in 2001, 34% of the population was considered urban, and rural population growth has been negative in recent years while overall population growth remains high. Major urban centers include Moroni, Mutsamudu, Domoni, Fomboni, Mitsamihuli, and Foumbouni.
There is a significant Comorian diaspora, with estimates ranging from 200,000 to 350,000 Comorians living in France. Remittances from this diaspora play a crucial socio-economic role. Population distribution varies among the islands, with Anjouan being the most densely populated.

The populations of the main islands (at the 2017 Census) were:

9.2. Ethnic Groups and Languages

The Comorian people are ethnically diverse, reflecting centuries of migration and intermingling. The primary ethnic group is **Comorian**, which is a mixture of Bantu, Malagasy, and Arab ancestries. This mixed heritage has resulted in a unique cultural identity. In 2000, Comorians constituted 97.1% of the population.
Minority groups include Makua (from Mozambique) and people of Indian descent (mostly Ismaili Muslims). There are also recent immigrants of Chinese origin, particularly in Grande Comore. A small Creole community, descended from settlers from France, Madagascar, and Réunion, also resides in the Comoros. Most French settlers left after independence in 1975.

• Languages:**

The Comoros has three official languages:
1. **Comorian (Shikomori):** This is the most widely spoken language group and serves as the lingua franca. Shikomori is a Bantu language closely related to Swahili but with stronger Arabic influences. It has four main dialects, corresponding to the four main islands: Shingazidja (on Grande Comore), Shindzwani (on Anjouan), Shimwali (on Mohéli), and Shimaore (on Mayotte). These dialects are largely mutually intelligible. Both Arabic and Latin scripts are used for Shikomori, with an official orthography for the Latin script recently developed.
2. **French:** As the language of colonial administration, French remains important in government, formal education (non-Quranic), and international relations.
3. **Arabic:** Arabic is widely known as a second language, primarily due to its importance in Islamic religious practice and Quranic education.

English is not widely spoken.

9.3. Religion

Islam is the dominant religion in the Comoros, with an estimated 98-99% of the population adhering to Sunni Islam of the Shafi'i school of jurisprudence. It is the state religion and profoundly influences Comorian law, culture, and daily life. Mosques are central features in towns and villages.
The Comoros is the only Muslim-majority country entirely within the Southern Africa region and one of the southernmost Muslim-majority territories globally, along with Mayotte and the Australian territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands.
A small minority of the population (around 1-2%) are Christians, primarily Roman Catholics (often descendants of French settlers or immigrants from metropolitan France) and some Protestant denominations. Most Malagasy residents are also Christian. While the constitution provides for freedom of religion, public proselytizing by non-Muslims may be restricted, and societal pressures can affect religious minorities.

9.4. Health

The public health system in the Comoros faces significant challenges due to limited resources, inadequate infrastructure, and a shortage of healthcare professionals. There are approximately 15 physicians per 100,000 people.
Key health indicators include:

• Life Expectancy:** At birth, life expectancy is around 62 years for males and 67 years for females (WHO data).
• Maternal and Child Health:** Maternal and child mortality rates remain high, though efforts are being made to improve them. The fertility rate was 4.7 children per woman in 2004.
• Prevalent Diseases:** Malaria is a major public health concern. Other common diseases include diarrheal diseases, respiratory infections, and malnutrition-related conditions.
• Access to Healthcare:** Access to healthcare services, particularly specialized care and in rural areas, is limited. Many Comorians seek medical treatment abroad if they can afford it, often in Mayotte or France.
• Challenges:** The health sector struggles with a lack of medicines, medical equipment, and trained personnel. Funding for public health is heavily reliant on external aid.

The Global Hunger Index (GHI) for 2024 ranked Comoros 81st out of 127 countries, with a score of 18.8, indicating a moderate level of hunger. Efforts to improve health outcomes focus on primary healthcare, maternal and child health programs, and disease prevention, particularly for vulnerable populations.

9.5. Education

The education system in the Comoros is influenced by both Islamic tradition and the French colonial legacy.

• Quranic Education:** Almost all children attend Quranic schools (madrasas), often before or concurrently with formal schooling. In these schools, children are taught the Quran, learn to memorize it, and study the Arabic script. This traditional form of education plays a vital role in cultural and religious upbringing.
• Formal Schooling:** The formal education system is largely based on the French model.
  • Structure:** It typically includes primary school (6 years), middle school (4 years), and high school (3 years). Primary education is nominally compulsory.
  • Language of Instruction:** French is the primary language of instruction in formal schools, although there have been moves to "Comorianize" the syllabus and integrate Shikomori.
  • Literacy:** In 2004, about 57% of the population was literate in the Latin script, while over 90% were literate in the Arabic script. The overall adult literacy rate was estimated at 77.8% in 2015.
• Access and Challenges:**
  • In 2000, 44.2% of children aged 5 to 14 years were attending school.
  • The education sector faces significant challenges, including a lack of facilities, equipment, qualified teachers, textbooks, and other resources. Teachers' salaries have often been in arrears, leading to strikes and disruptions.
  • Curriculum relevance for local social and economic development is an ongoing concern.
• Higher Education:** For many years, students seeking university education had to go abroad, primarily to France. However, the University of Comoros was established in the early 2000s (officially in 2003) to provide local higher education opportunities, aiming to boost economic growth and reduce brain drain.

There have been recent moves to integrate the formal (French-based) and Quranic educational systems. Pre-colonial education focused on practical skills like agriculture and livestock care, alongside religious instruction. The colonial era introduced secular French-based education, mainly for the elite. Post-independence saw attempts to democratize education, but funding issues and political instability have hampered progress.

10.1. Social Customs and Traditions

Traditional Comorian customs are central to social life.

• Marriage Practices:**
  • Grand Marriage (Ada or Harusi):** This is a highly significant and elaborate customary marriage, particularly prominent on Ngazidja (where it's called ada; harusi on other islands). It involves extensive celebrations, often lasting two weeks, dazzling gold jewelry for the bride, and a substantial bridal dowry. The ada is a major social and economic event, often costing significant sums (up to 50.00 K EUR on Ngazidja), with expenses shared by families and the wider community. It marks a man's transition to elder status within the Ngazidja age system, granting him public speaking rights and participation in political processes. A woman's status also changes as she becomes a "mother" and moves into her own house. While criticized for its expense, the ada is a source of social cohesion and a key reason for remittances from the diaspora. Increasingly, these marriages are also taxed for village development.
  • Little Marriage (Mna daho on Ngazidja):** This is a simpler, less expensive legal marriage, often undertaken multiple times by men. Both men and women usually undertake only one ada in their lifetime.
• Family Structures and Kinship:** Comorian society has a bilateral descent system. Lineage membership and inheritance of immovable property (land, housing) are often matrilineal, passed down the maternal line, especially on Ngazidja. This is similar to many Bantu matrilineal societies. Other goods and patronymics are passed down the male line.
• Social Hierarchy:** Traditional social hierarchies exist, often linked to lineage, age, and participation in customs like the ada.
• Traditional Attire:**
  • Women on Ndzwani traditionally wear red and white patterned garments called shiromani.
  • On Ngazidja and Mwali, colorful shawls called leso are commonly worn by women.
  • Many women apply a paste of ground sandalwood and coral called msindzano to their faces as a cosmetic and for skin protection.
  • Traditional male clothing includes a long white shirt known as a nkandu and a bonnet called a kofia. Men who have completed the ada may wear a mharuma, a type of shawl, across their shoulders to signify their status.
• Cuisine:** Comorian cuisine features local ingredients like seafood, coconut, rice, cassava, plantains, and spices. Dishes often reflect a blend of African, Arab, and Indian influences.

10.2. Arts and Music

• Music:** The most influential musical genre is **Twarab**, a style of sung Swahili poetry accompanied by instruments like the oud, violin, accordion, and percussion. Imported from Zanzibar in the early 20th century, Twarab is popular at ada marriages and other celebrations. Other traditional and contemporary music forms also exist, incorporating local rhythms and instruments.
• Dance:** Traditional dances are performed at social events and ceremonies.
• Crafts:** Local crafts include wood carving, pottery, and weaving, though these are not widely commercialized.

10.3. Sports

Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in the Comoros. The country has a national football team and participates in regional and international competitions, such as the Africa Cup of Nations (achieving a notable debut performance by reaching the Round of 16 in the 2021 tournament). Other sports are played recreationally.

10.4. Media

The media landscape in the Comoros includes both state-owned and private outlets.

• Newspapers:** There are two main daily national newspapers published in Moroni:
  • Al-Watwan: The government-owned newspaper, published in French since 1985. It also provides journals in Arabic.
  • La Gazette des Comores: A privately owned newspaper, also published in French, first appearing in 1999.

  There are also smaller newsletters published irregularly and various news websites. Kashkazi is an independent French-language monthly newspaper first published in 2005.

  • Radio and Television:**
    • The state-owned Office de Radio et Télévision des Comores (ORTC) provides national radio and television services.
    • The regional government of Anjouan runs its own TV station. Regional governments on Grande Comore and Anjouan each operate a radio station.
    • Several independent and small community radio stations operate on Grande Comore and Mohéli.
    • Residents of Grande Comore and Mohéli can also access Mayotte Radio and French TV.

    Radio remains a dominant mass medium, especially in rural areas. Issues related to freedom of the press, access to information, and the role of media in a developing democracy are ongoing concerns, particularly given the country's history of political instability.