Antigua and Barbuda

3.1. Pre-colonial period

The first inhabitants of Antigua were archaic age indigenous hunter-gatherers known as the Ciboney, who settled the islands around 3100 BC, likely arriving by canoe from Central or South America. They were later succeeded by ceramic age Saladoid people, who were Arawak-speaking agriculturalists migrating from the lower Orinoco River valley in Venezuela. The Arawaks introduced agriculture to the islands, cultivating crops such as the famed Antigua Black Pineapple (Ananas comosus), corn, sweet potatoes, chili peppers, guava, tobacco, and cotton. Their society was more complex than that of the Ciboney, with established villages and a developed pottery tradition. Later, the more militaristic Caribs also inhabited the islands, though the extent of their displacement of the Arawaks before European arrival is a subject of ongoing archaeological research. These indigenous groups had distinct cultures, societal structures, and ways of life adapted to the island environment prior to European contact.

3.2. European arrival and slavery

Christopher Columbus was the first European to sight the islands in 1493 during his second voyage. However, initial European attempts at settlement by the Spanish and French were largely unsuccessful due to resistance from the Caribs and the lack of fresh water. The Spanish did not colonize Antigua, and the native population was decimated by a combination of European and African diseases (such as smallpox), malnutrition, and enslavement, with many being forcibly removed to larger Spanish colonies.
The English successfully established a colony on Antigua in 1632, led by Edward Warner. Christopher Codrington established a settlement on Barbuda in 1685, and the island was largely treated as a private fiefdom by the Codrington family for many years, primarily used for provisioning their Antiguan sugar estates and as a slave-breeding ground. The English introduced sugarcane cultivation, which transformed Antigua into a profitable sugar colony. This system was built upon the brutal institution of slavery, with vast numbers of Africans forcibly transported from West Africa to labor on the plantations. These enslaved Africans soon vastly outnumbered the European settlers. Some Irish Catholics were also brought to Antigua as indentured laborers or slaves in the early colonial period. The slave-based economy had a profound and lasting impact on the islands' demographics, society, and culture.

3.3. Colonial era

Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, the English maintained control over Antigua, repulsing a French attack in 1666. The plantation economy, centered on sugar production, dominated life on the island. Enslaved Africans endured extremely harsh conditions, including brutal labor, severe punishments, and high mortality rates. This led to various forms of resistance, including revolts in 1701 and 1729. A significant planned revolt in 1736, led by an enslaved man named Prince Klaas (also known as Court or Tackey), aimed to establish an independent African kingdom in Antigua. However, the plot was discovered before it could be executed, and Prince Klaas and other ringleaders were brutally executed. His actions, however, represent an early call for Antiguan independence and resistance against the dehumanizing system of slavery.

Slavery was officially abolished in the British Empire on August 1, 1834 (not 1833 as some older sources state for the full implementation across all colonies), which significantly impacted Antigua's economy, though the formerly enslaved often faced continued economic hardship and limited opportunities in a society still dominated by plantation owners. The post-emancipation period was marked by economic adjustments and challenges, exacerbated by natural disasters such as a severe earthquake in 1843 and a devastating hurricane in 1847. Mining for phosphate occurred on the island of Redonda for a period, but this ceased in 1929, and the island has remained uninhabited since. Barbuda was formally annexed by Britain and linked with Antigua in 1860, ending the Codrington family's direct control.

3.4. Path to independence

The period after emancipation saw continued economic challenges for Antigua and Barbuda. The sugar industry declined, and the islands struggled to diversify their economy. The rise of labour movements in the early to mid-20th century, spearheaded by figures like Vere Bird Sr., played a crucial role in advocating for workers' rights and greater political autonomy. The first democratic elections were held in 1951. Antigua and Barbuda became part of the short-lived West Indies Federation from 1958 to 1962. After the federation's collapse, Antigua and Barbuda moved towards greater self-governance, achieving the status of an Associated State of the United Kingdom with full internal autonomy on February 27, 1967.
The 1970s were characterized by political debates about the islands' future and a strong rivalry between Vere Bird of the Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP), who served as Premier from 1967 to 1971 and again from 1976, and George Walter of the Progressive Labour Movement (PLM), who was Premier from 1971 to 1976. Despite some resistance from Barbuda, which feared Antiguan domination and preferred to remain a British dependency or seek separate independence, the path to full sovereignty continued. Antigua and Barbuda gained full independence on November 1, 1981. Vere Bird Sr. became the first Prime Minister of the new nation. The country chose to remain a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state, represented by a Governor-General. Sir Wilfred Jacobs was the first Governor-General.

3.5. Post-independence era

The initial two decades of Antigua and Barbuda's independence were politically dominated by the Bird family and the ABLP. Vere Bird Sr. served as Prime Minister from 1981 until his retirement in 1994, succeeded by his son, Lester Bird, who held the office from 1994 to 2004. While this period saw a degree of political stability and significant development in the tourism sector, which became the mainstay of the economy, the Bird administrations were frequently plagued by allegations of corruption, cronyism, and financial malfeasance. These issues raised concerns about governance and the equitable distribution of economic benefits. In 1990, Vere Bird Jr., another son of Vere Bird Sr. and a cabinet minister, was implicated in a scandal involving the transshipment of Israeli weapons to Colombian drug traffickers, leading to his dismissal from the cabinet (the Guns for Antigua scandal). In 1995, Ivor Bird, another son, was convicted of cocaine trafficking. Such incidents highlighted systemic problems that affected the nation's reputation and development.

Social challenges during this period included managing the impacts of a tourism-dependent economy, addressing unemployment, and improving infrastructure. In September 1995, Hurricane Luis caused widespread devastation, particularly on Barbuda, highlighting the nation's vulnerability to natural disasters and the significant socio-economic consequences that follow.

The ABLP's long hold on power ended in the 2004 general election when the United Progressive Party (UPP), led by Baldwin Spencer, secured victory. Spencer served as Prime Minister from 2004 to 2014, promising reforms and good governance. However, the ABLP, under the leadership of Gaston Browne, returned to power after the 2014 general election. Browne became the country's youngest prime minister. The ABLP consolidated its position by winning 15 out of 17 seats in the 2018 snap general election.

In 2016, Nelson's Dockyard in Antigua was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognizing its historical significance.

A pivotal event in recent history was the catastrophic impact of Hurricane Irma in September 2017. The Category 5 hurricane passed directly over Barbuda, causing winds reaching 183 mph ^{(295 km/h)}. An estimated 95% of the island's buildings and infrastructure were damaged or destroyed, rendering Barbuda "barely habitable." The entire population of Barbuda (around 1,800 people) was evacuated to Antigua. The rebuilding effort, estimated to cost at least 100.00 M USD, became a contentious issue. The government's subsequent attempts to amend or repeal the Barbuda Land Act of 2007, which codified the traditional system of communal land ownership on Barbuda, allowing Barbudans to lease land but not own it individually, sparked significant controversy. Critics, including many Barbudans, accused the government of promoting "disaster capitalism" by seeking to facilitate large-scale tourism development and private land sales on the devastated island, thereby undermining Barbudans' traditional land rights and potentially displacing vulnerable populations. This debate over land ownership, disaster recovery, and the future of Barbuda continues to be a significant socio-political issue.

Prime Minister Gaston Browne has also indicated that, if re-elected, his government might hold a referendum on whether Antigua and Barbuda should become a republic, replacing the British monarch with a ceremonial president as head of state.

4.1. Topography and islands

Antigua and Barbuda consists primarily of its two namesake islands, Antigua and Barbuda, and the small, uninhabited rocky islet of Redonda, located about 25 mile ^{(40 km)} southwest of Antigua. Several smaller islands and cays, such as Guiana Island and Long Island off the coast of Antigua, are also part of its territory. The total land area is approximately 170 mile^{2 (440 km2)}, making it one of the smaller nations in the Caribbean.

Both Antigua and Barbuda are relatively low-lying islands. Their topography has been more significantly shaped by limestone formations than by direct volcanic activity, although Antigua's southwestern region, known as the Shekerley Mountains, is of volcanic origin. The highest point in the country is Boggy Peak (renamed Mount Obama from 2008 to 2016, then reverted to Boggy Peak), located in this volcanic area of Antigua, rising to 1319 ft ^{(402 m)}. Barbuda is notably flatter than Antigua, characterized by limestone formations and a large lagoon on its western side. Redonda is a steep, rocky volcanic remnant.

The coastlines of both Antigua and Barbuda are highly irregular, featuring numerous beaches, coves, lagoons, and natural harbors, which are a major draw for tourism. The islands are surrounded by coral reefs and shoals, which provide important marine habitats but can also pose navigational hazards. Due to the low elevation and porous limestone geology, there are few permanent streams and limited natural freshwater resources, making water scarcity a significant issue. In 2020, forest cover was estimated at about 18% of the total land area, equivalent to 20 K acre ^{(8.12 K ha)}, a decrease from 25 K acre ^{(10.11 K ha)} in 1990.

4.2. Climate

Antigua and Barbuda has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw), with some areas in southwestern Antigua experiencing characteristics of a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen Am) due to slightly higher rainfall influenced by the topography. Temperatures are warm and relatively stable throughout the year, averaging around 80.6 °F ^{(27 °C)}. In winter (December to February), temperatures typically range from 73.4 °F ^{(23 °C)} to 84.2 °F ^{(29 °C)}, while in summer and autumn (June to November), they range from 77 °F ^{(25 °C)} to 86 °F ^{(30 °C)}. The islands generally experience low humidity and are subject to recurrent droughts.

Rainfall averages about 39 in ^{(990 mm)} per year, but this can vary significantly from year to year and across the islands. The wettest period is generally from September to November. The Atlantic hurricane season officially runs from June to November, and Antigua and Barbuda lies within the main hurricane belt. Hurricanes strike, on average, once a year, posing a significant threat to the islands' population, infrastructure, and economy. Hurricane Irma in September 2017, which devastated Barbuda with winds of 183 mph ^{(295 km/h)}, is a stark example of this vulnerability. The storm destroyed or damaged 95% of structures on Barbuda, leading to a full evacuation and estimated rebuilding costs exceeding 100.00 M USD. Philmore Mullin, then Director of Barbuda's National Office of Disaster Services, stated that "all critical infrastructure and utilities are non-existent - food supply, medicine, shelter, electricity, water, communications, waste management," describing the situation as unprecedented in his 25 years of disaster management.

4.3. Cities and villages

q=St. John's, Antigua and Barbuda|position=right
The capital and largest city is St. John's, located on the northwestern coast of Antigua. It serves as the country's main commercial center and port. Other significant settlements on Antigua include All Saints, Piggotts, and Liberta. The main settlement on Barbuda is Codrington, located on the western side of the island near the Codrington Lagoon.
Population distribution is uneven, with the vast majority of the populace residing on Antigua. Approximately 25% of the population lives in urban areas, a figure significantly lower than the international average, reflecting the predominantly rural or semi-rural character of many settlements outside of St. John's. Urban development faces challenges related to infrastructure, housing, and sustainable planning, particularly in the context of tourism growth and climate change impacts.

4.4. Environmental issues

Antigua and Barbuda faces several significant environmental challenges, common to many Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Water scarcity is a chronic problem, exacerbated by low average rainfall, limited groundwater resources, high evaporation rates, and recurrent droughts. The country relies heavily on desalination plants, which are energy-intensive. Deforestation and land degradation have occurred due to historical agricultural practices, fuel wood collection, and modern development for tourism and housing, impacting biodiversity and soil stability. Coastal erosion is a growing concern, driven by sea-level rise, storm surges, and inappropriate coastal development, threatening beaches, infrastructure, and coastal ecosystems like mangroves and coral reefs.

The tourism industry, while vital to the economy, exerts pressure on natural resources and ecosystems through land use, water consumption, waste generation, and impacts on marine environments from activities like boating and diving. Antigua and Barbuda is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including rising sea levels, increased intensity of hurricanes, more frequent droughts, and threats to coral reefs from ocean acidification and coral bleaching. The nation also has a biocapacity deficit; in 2016, it had 0.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares, while using 4.3 global hectares per person (its ecological footprint of consumption).

National conservation efforts include the establishment of protected areas, watershed management initiatives, and projects aimed at sustainable land management and climate change adaptation. However, these efforts face challenges related to funding, enforcement, and integrating environmental considerations into broader economic development planning. The impact of these issues is often disproportionately felt by vulnerable communities, highlighting the need for socially equitable environmental policies.

5.1. Political system and government structure

Antigua and Barbuda is a Commonwealth realm, with Charles III as its Monarch and head of state. The Monarch is represented by a Governor-General, currently Sir Rodney Williams, who performs ceremonial functions and exercises certain constitutional powers on the Monarch's behalf, generally on the advice of the government. The current Constitution of Antigua and Barbuda was adopted upon independence on November 1, 1981, replacing the pre-independence constitution of the Associated State of Antigua.

The head of government is the Prime Minister, currently Gaston Browne. The Prime Minister is typically the leader of the political party that commands a majority in the House of Representatives. The executive power is vested in the Monarch but exercised by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The island of Barbuda has a degree of autonomy in local affairs, managed by the Barbuda Council, as enshrined in the Constitution and the Barbuda Local Government Act.

5.2. Legislature

The Parliament of Antigua and Barbuda is bicameral, consisting of the Monarch (represented by the Governor-General), the Senate (Upper House), and the House of Representatives (Lower House).
The Senate is composed of seventeen members appointed by the Governor-General. Ten of these senators are appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister (government senators), one of whom must be an inhabitant of Barbuda. Four senators are appointed on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition (opposition senators). One senator is appointed on the advice of the Barbuda Council. One independent senator is appointed at the Governor-General's own discretion, representing broader civil society interests.
The House of Representatives currently has seventeen elected members, each representing a single-member constituency. Members are elected through first-past-the-post voting in general elections held at least every five years. The Speaker of the House is elected by the members of the House, and may be one of the elected members or someone chosen from outside the House. The Attorney General, if not an elected member, becomes an ex officio member of the House and also attends sittings of the Senate.
Legislation, known as Bills, can be introduced in either chamber, with the exception of money bills, which must originate in the House of Representatives. A Bill must pass both Houses and receive Royal Assent from the Governor-General to become an Act of Parliament. Parliament may not amend the Barbuda Local Government Act without the consent of the Barbuda Council, a provision designed to protect Barbuda's autonomy.

5.3. Executive

The executive branch is led by the Prime Minister, who is appointed by the Governor-General as the member of the House of Representatives most likely to command the support of the majority of its members. The Prime Minister advises the Governor-General on the appointment of other Ministers, who form the Cabinet. The Cabinet is collectively responsible to Parliament for the general direction and control of the government. It is responsible for policy implementation and the administration of national affairs.
The Governor-General has the power to dissolve Parliament on the advice of the Prime Minister, or if the House of Representatives passes a motion of no confidence in the government and the Prime Minister does not resign or advise a dissolution within seven days.

5.4. Judiciary

The judiciary of Antigua and Barbuda is independent of the executive and legislative branches. The court system is based on English common law. It consists of Magistrate's courts, which handle minor civil and criminal cases, and the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (ECSC). The ECSC is a regional judicial body serving several Eastern Caribbean states, including Antigua and Barbuda. It comprises the High Court of Justice, which has original jurisdiction in more serious civil and criminal matters, and the Court of Appeal, which hears appeals from the High Court and Magistrates' Courts. The acting Chief Justice of the ECSC is Mario Michel (as of mid-2024). Antigua and Barbuda is divided into three magistrates' court districts.
The country's final court of appeal is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London. In a 2018 referendum, voters rejected a proposal to replace the JCPC with the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) as the final appellate court. The legal framework aims to uphold judicial independence and the rule of law.

5.5. Major political parties

Since the 1990s, the political landscape of Antigua and Barbuda has been dominated by two major parties:

• The Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP): Historically a left-wing party founded by Vere Bird Sr., it has evolved towards a more centre-right stance. The ABLP has been the dominant political force for much of the country's history since the introduction of universal adult suffrage, leading the nation to independence and holding power for extended periods.
• The United Progressive Party (UPP): A left-wing social democratic party, formed from a merger of earlier opposition groups including the Progressive Labour Movement (PLM). The UPP served as the main opposition for many years and formed the government from 2004 to 2014 under Baldwin Spencer.

Other smaller parties exist but have generally had limited electoral success at the national level. On Barbuda, the Barbuda People's Movement (BPM) has traditionally been the dominant political force, advocating for Barbudan interests and often controlling the Barbuda Council. The interplay between these parties shapes the nation's political discourse, elections, and governance, with issues of economic development, social welfare, corruption, and environmental sustainability often at the forefront of political debate.

5.6. Human rights

The human rights situation in Antigua and Barbuda is generally considered to be fair, with a functioning democratic system. However, areas of concern and ongoing efforts for improvement exist. Civil liberties, including freedoms of speech, press, assembly, and religion, are generally respected. Political freedoms allow for multi-party elections and opposition activities.

A significant development has been in LGBTQ+ rights; in July 2022, the High Court decriminalized consensual same-sex sexual activity, striking down colonial-era anti-sodomy laws as unconstitutional. This was a landmark decision for human rights in the Caribbean. However, societal discrimination against LGBTQ+ individuals may still persist, and further efforts are needed to ensure full equality and protection.

Gender equality is an ongoing focus, with women participating in politics and the workforce, though challenges such as gender-based violence and underrepresentation in leadership positions remain. The rights of vulnerable groups, including children, persons with disabilities, and the elderly, are addressed through various social programs and legal protections, but implementation and resource allocation can be challenging. Issues such as prison conditions and the efficiency of the justice system have also been subjects of human rights commentary. Efforts to address human rights concerns and promote democratic development involve both government initiatives and the work of civil society organizations.

6.1. Parishes and dependencies

The country is divided into six parishes and two dependencies. All six parishes are located on the island of Antigua:

• Saint George
• Saint John (the most populous parish, containing the capital city, St. John's)
• Saint Mary
• Saint Paul
• Saint Peter
• Saint Philip

Historically, during colonial times, these parishes were governed by parish vestries, but these bodies no longer exist, and the parishes now serve primarily as census districts and geographical reference points without any independent administrative or governmental authority. There have been occasional proposals since the 2023 general elections to establish parish councils to reintroduce a form of local governance on Antigua, but as of early 2025, none have been established. St. John's also historically had a city council in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but its functions have largely been absorbed by national government agencies or entities like the St. John's Development Corporation.

The two dependencies are:

• Barbuda: This island enjoys a significant degree of autonomy in its local affairs, which are managed by the Barbuda Council. The Barbuda Council is an 11-member elected body established by the Barbuda Local Government Act and its role is enshrined in the national constitution. It has responsibility for most local government functions on Barbuda.
• Redonda: This small, uninhabited island is also a dependency. For administrative purposes, it is considered part of the parish of Saint John under the Redonda Annexation Act and falls within Magistrates' District "A".

Local government in Antigua and Barbuda is largely inactive except for the Barbuda Council. Antigua historically had a system of village councils in the 1940s, and while the enabling legislation was never formally repealed, these councils are no longer operational. The national government has, at times, expressed opposition to extensive decentralization of governance on Antigua.

7.1. Defence Force

The Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force (ABDF) is the country's military. It is a small, professional force with approximately 200 active personnel and around 70 reservists. The Minister of Finance, Corporate Governance and Public Private Partnerships is responsible for the ABDF. The ABDF is commanded by a Chief of Defence Staff, who is subject to the orders of the Governor-General. Its headquarters is at Camp Blizzard.
The ABDF consists of several key components:

• The Regiment: This is the army component, responsible for ground operations, internal security assistance, and ceremonial duties.
• The Coast Guard: Responsible for maritime law enforcement, search and rescue, fisheries protection, and counter-narcotics operations within the nation's territorial waters and EEZ.
• The Air Wing: Established or significantly upgraded around 2022, the Air Wing provides aerial surveillance, transport, and support capabilities. Antigua and Barbuda is one of the few smaller Caribbean nations to maintain an air force component.
• The Service and Support Unit: Provides logistical, administrative, and technical support to the other components of the ABDF.

The primary missions of the ABDF include defending national sovereignty, providing assistance to civil authorities in times of natural disaster or emergency, supporting the police in maintaining public order, and participating in regional security efforts. Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the Regional Security System (RSS), a treaty-based organization that promotes stability and security in the Eastern Caribbean.

7.2. Police

The Royal Police Force of Antigua and Barbuda is the national police service responsible for maintaining law and order, public safety, crime prevention, and traffic control. The Minister of Legal Affairs, Public Safety, Immigration and Labour has oversight responsibility for the police force. The police force is organized into several regional divisions (designated by letters) and specialized units. One such specialized unit is the Special Service Unit (SSU), which functions as a police tactical unit for handling high-risk situations. The National Security Council is responsible for coordinating national security matters, with a National Security Adviser responsible for intelligence gathering.

8.1. Membership in international organizations

Antigua and Barbuda is a member of numerous international and regional organizations, reflecting its commitment to global and Caribbean engagement. Key memberships include:

• United Nations (UN)
• Caribbean Community (CARICOM)
• Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) - Antigua and Barbuda is a founding member.
• Commonwealth of Nations
• Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) - A crucial platform for advocating on climate change and sustainable development.
• World Trade Organization (WTO)
• Organization of American States (OAS)
• Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)
• Petrocaribe and the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA) - Reflecting a pragmatic approach to sourcing development assistance and energy.
• Regional Security System (RSS)

Its participation in these bodies allows Antigua and Barbuda to voice its concerns on issues such as climate change vulnerability, access to development finance, trade fairness, and international security. The UN has praised Antigua and Barbuda for its efforts in "United Nations-based multilateralism."

8.2. Relations with key countries and regions

The Minister of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Barbuda Affairs (currently Paul Chet Greene) is responsible for conducting the nation's foreign relations. Prime Minister Gaston Browne has described Antigua and Barbuda's foreign policy as "we are friends of all; enemies of none," emphasizing a non-aligned and pragmatic approach. The country has rejected the notion that it is in any major power's "backyard."

Antigua and Barbuda maintains close ties with other Caribbean nations, particularly fellow members of CARICOM and the OECS. It has a special relationship with Montserrat, having accepted approximately 3,000 refugees following the devastating eruptions of the Soufrière Hills volcano starting in 1995. Policies in Antigua and Barbuda, particularly concerning transport, can significantly impact Montserrat as Antigua hosts key air and sea links to the British territory.

The country has diplomatic relations with a wide range of nations, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and member states of the European Union. It also maintains relations with China, which has invested in infrastructure projects such as port development. Relations with Venezuela have been significant, particularly through Petrocaribe. Antigua and Barbuda often aligns itself with other SIDS to advocate for international action on climate change, recognizing it as an existential threat. It has hosted several international conferences on SIDS issues.

In its foreign policy, Antigua and Barbuda generally supports positions that promote international law, human rights, and sustainable development, while seeking to maximize diplomatic and economic opportunities for its citizens. This includes navigating complex international issues with a view to safeguarding its sovereignty and promoting the welfare of its population. The country has also been involved in international trade disputes, notably with the United States regarding online gaming services, which it took to the WTO.

9.1. Tourism

Tourism is the dominant sector of Antigua and Barbuda's economy, accounting for more than half of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and a significant portion of employment. The country is marketed as an upscale travel destination, renowned for its numerous beaches (often cited as 365, one for each day of the year), clear waters, sailing opportunities (such as Antigua Sailing Week), and luxury resorts. Key tourist attractions include historic sites like Nelson's Dockyard, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The main source markets for tourists are North America (especially the United States) and Europe (particularly the United Kingdom).

While tourism brings substantial foreign exchange and employment, its dominance also creates vulnerabilities. The sector is susceptible to external shocks such as global economic downturns, natural disasters (hurricanes), and pandemics, which can severely impact national income. There are ongoing social and environmental considerations related to tourism development, including pressure on water resources, coastal ecosystems, and the distribution of economic benefits. Weaker tourist activity in lower and middle market segments since the early 2000s had previously slowed economic growth and created fiscal challenges for the government. Efforts are being made to promote sustainable tourism practices and diversify the tourism product. The government has also enacted policies like a 0% personal income tax rate (introduced or significantly highlighted around 2019) to attract high-net-worth individuals and residents, aiming to bolster the economy.

9.2. Financial services and Citizenship by Investment Program

The offshore financial services sector and the Citizenship by Investment Program (CIP) are also important contributors to the Antiguan and Barbudan economy. The country offers international banking, insurance, and corporate registration services. Major international financial institutions like the Royal Bank of Canada (RBC) and Scotiabank, as well as accounting firms like PricewaterhouseCoopers, KPMG, and Pannell Kerr Forster, have a presence in Antigua.

The Citizenship by Investment Program, managed by the Citizenship by Investment Unit (CIU), allows foreign nationals to obtain Antiguan and Barbudan citizenship in exchange for a significant financial contribution, typically through a donation to a national development fund, an investment in approved real estate, or an investment in an approved business. For example, options have included a donation of around 100.00 K USD or 200.00 K USD to a charitable fund, or a real estate investment of around 200.00 K USD or 400.00 K USD. These programs generate substantial revenue for the government.

However, both the offshore financial sector and CIPs have faced international scrutiny regarding transparency, tax evasion, money laundering risks, and due diligence processes. The massive fraud orchestrated by Allen Stanford through the Antigua-based Stanford International Bank, which collapsed in 2009 resulting in billions of dollars in investor losses, severely damaged the reputation of the country's financial sector. There are ongoing discussions about the need for robust regulation and the social impact of these programs, ensuring that the economic benefits are balanced with maintaining international financial integrity and addressing potential social inequities arising from them.

9.3. Agriculture, fisheries, and manufacturing

The agricultural sector in Antigua and Barbuda is relatively small and primarily serves the domestic market. Key crops include fruits (such as the prized Antigua Black Pineapple, known for its sweetness), vegetables, and some livestock. Challenges facing agriculture include limited fresh water supply for irrigation, a shortage of arable land, competition for labor from the higher-paying tourism sector, and the impacts of climate change and natural disasters. Efforts are underway to enhance food security and promote sustainable agricultural practices.

The fisheries sector also caters mainly to local consumption, with some potential for export. It faces challenges from overfishing, climate change impacts on marine ecosystems, and the need for improved management and infrastructure.

Manufacturing constitutes a small percentage of GDP (around 2%). It largely consists of enclave-type assembly operations for export, producing items such as bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. There is also some small-scale manufacturing for the domestic market.

9.4. Economic challenges and outlook

Antigua and Barbuda faces several economic vulnerabilities. Its high reliance on tourism makes it susceptible to external shocks. Public debt has been a concern, although efforts have been made to manage it. The frequent impact of natural disasters, particularly hurricanes, imposes significant costs for recovery and rebuilding, diverting resources from other development priorities. The country operates with a biocapacity deficit, meaning its ecological footprint of consumption exceeds its available natural resources, highlighting sustainability challenges. Access to biocapacity in 2016 was 0.8 global hectares per person, while consumption was 4.3 global hectares per person, well below and above the respective world averages.

The economic outlook depends heavily on the performance of the global tourism industry, particularly in key source markets like the US and UK. Efforts towards economic diversification, strengthening resilience to climate change, and promoting sustainable development are crucial for long-term economic stability and social well-being. This includes exploring opportunities in renewable energy, the blue economy, and niche agricultural products, while ensuring that economic growth is inclusive and environmentally sustainable.

10.1. Roads and public transport

Antigua and Barbuda has a network of roads connecting towns and villages. While major roads are generally paved, some rural roads may be in poorer condition. Driving is on the left-hand side of the road, a legacy of British colonial rule. The speed limit is typically around 40 mph (approximately 40 mph ^{(64 km/h)}). Traffic signs are present along main routes.

Public transportation primarily consists of privately-owned minibuses and taxis. Buses operate on set routes, generally connecting the capital, St. John's, with various villages and communities across Antigua. Bus services are less frequent or non-existent in the evenings and on Sundays. St. John's has two main bus terminals: the East Bus Station near the Botanical Gardens on Independence Avenue and another near the Central Market on Market Street. Buses typically display their routes on the front window. Fares are generally affordable. Bus services do not typically extend to the airport or the main tourist areas in the north.
Taxis are widely available, especially at the airport, hotels, and popular tourist sites. Taxi fares are regulated by the government with fixed rates for common journeys rather than using meters; drivers are expected to carry a copy of the official fare schedule. Many taxi drivers also offer tours of the island.

10.2. Airports and aviation

The main international gateway to Antigua and Barbuda is the V.C. Bird International Airport (ANU), located near St. John's on the northeast coast of Antigua. All commercial international flights arrive here. The airport has undergone significant upgrades, including a new terminal building opened in 2015 (replacing one from 1981), enhancing its capacity and passenger facilities. It is served by numerous international airlines from North America, Europe, and other Caribbean islands. The airport plays a crucial role in supporting the tourism industry and providing essential connectivity for residents. Aviation in Antigua and Barbuda also includes facilities for general aviation and some inter-island charter flights, including services to Barbuda (via the smaller Barbuda Codrington Airport, IATA: BBQ) and other Caribbean destinations.

10.3. Maritime transport

As an island nation, maritime transport is essential for trade and passenger movement. Antigua has several port facilities. The main commercial port is in St. John's, handling cargo ships and container traffic. St. John's also has a dedicated cruise ship terminal that accommodates multiple large cruise vessels, a vital part of the tourism sector. English Harbour, including Nelson's Dockyard, is a renowned hub for yachts and sailing vessels, hosting international regattas like Antigua Sailing Week.
Inter-island ferry services operate between Antigua and Barbuda, providing an alternative to air travel for passengers and light cargo, though schedules can be subject to weather conditions. There are also ferry connections to nearby islands like Montserrat.

11.1. Languages

The official language of Antigua and Barbuda is English. It is used in government, business, education, and the media.
However, the most widely spoken vernacular is Antiguan and Barbudan Creole (often referred to as Antiguan Creole or locally as "patois"). This is an English-based creole language with influences from West African languages and, to a lesser extent, other European languages. There are noticeable dialectal differences between the Creole spoken on Antigua and that spoken on Barbuda.
In the period leading up to independence, Standard English was heavily promoted, and Antiguan Creole was sometimes stigmatized or discouraged in formal settings, particularly within the education system. However, it remains a vibrant and integral part of the national identity and everyday communication for most of the population. Many words and proverbs in Antiguan Creole can be traced to African linguistic heritage. Phrases like "Innit?" (a contraction of "Isn't it?") are common.
Spanish is spoken by a minority, estimated at around 10,000 people, largely due to immigration from Spanish-speaking Caribbean countries like the Dominican Republic.

11.2. Religion

Christianity is the predominant religion in Antigua and Barbuda, with approximately 77% of the population identifying as Christian according to 2011 census data. The largest single Christian denomination is Anglicanism (Church of England), accounting for about 17.6% of the population, a legacy of British colonial rule.
Other significant Christian denominations include:

• Seventh-day Adventist Church (12.4%)
• Pentecostalism (12.2%)
• Moravian Church (8.3%)
• Roman Catholicism (8.2%)
• Methodist Church (5.6%)
• Wesleyan Holiness Church (4.5%)
• Church of God (4.1%)
• Baptists (3.6%)

Smaller Christian groups include Mormonism (less than 1%) and Jehovah's Witnesses.
Non-Christian faiths are also present, though they represent a smaller proportion of the population. These include the Rastafari movement, Islam, Judaism, and the Baháʼí Faith. Approximately 5.9% of the population reported having no religion, and 5.5% did not specify a religion in the 2011 census. Religious freedom is constitutionally protected and generally respected.

11.3. Education

The education system in Antigua and Barbuda is largely based on the British model. The government places a strong emphasis on education, which is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 16. The literacy rate is high, estimated at over 90%.
The system comprises:

• Primary Education**: Typically for children aged 5 to 12.
• Secondary Education**: For students aged 12 to 16 or 17. Successful completion often leads to the Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC) examinations, administered by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC).
• Tertiary Education**: Options for post-secondary education within the country include the Antigua State College, which offers a range of academic, technical, and vocational programs, including associate degrees and teacher training. Students seeking university degrees often study abroad, either at campuses of the University of the West Indies (of which Antigua and Barbuda is a contributing country) or at institutions in the UK, US, Canada, or other countries. There are also some offshore medical schools located in Antigua.

Both public and private schools operate at the primary and secondary levels. Many private schools have religious affiliations. The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology oversees the education sector. Challenges include resource allocation, teacher development, and ensuring equitable access to quality education across all islands and socio-economic groups.

11.4. Health

Antigua and Barbuda has a healthcare system that includes both public and private facilities. The primary public hospital is the Mount St. John's Medical Centre in Antigua, which provides a range of services. There are also several clinics throughout the islands. Healthcare services are generally accessible, though specialized treatments may require travel overseas, often to Puerto Rico, the US, or the UK. The government provides free medical care at public institutions for citizens. Many residents also have private health insurance.
Major health concerns are typical of many Caribbean nations, including a rise in non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease, linked to lifestyle factors. HIV/AIDS awareness and prevention programs are also in place. Public health initiatives focus on disease prevention, maternal and child health, and environmental health. The country collaborates with regional and international health organizations like the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). In 2017, the WHO reported that Antigua and Barbuda had the lowest suicide rate globally (effectively zero). The country faces challenges related to the cost of healthcare, the need for specialized medical personnel, and ensuring the resilience of the health system to natural disasters.

12.1. Music

The music of Antigua and Barbuda has strong African roots, with less direct influence from European classical traditions compared to some other Caribbean islands, resulting in distinct local genres. Early historical records from the 1780s document enslaved Africans dancing to instruments like the "toombah" (a drum) and the "banjar" (a precursor to the banjo).
Benna is an indigenous Antiguan folk music genre that emerged after the abolition of slavery. It is characterized by a call-and-response format, and its lyrics often serve as a medium for social commentary, local news, gossip, and rumors, making it a popular communication tool in the early 20th century.
While Benna remains a part of the cultural heritage, Calypso and Soca (which incorporates elements of South Asian rhythms from Trinidad and Tobago) are the dominant popular music genres today, especially during Carnival. Steelpan music is also highly popular and an integral part of cultural celebrations. Notable Antiguan and Barbudan musicians have contributed to these genres, gaining regional and sometimes international recognition. Eric Clapton established the Crossroads Centre, a drug and alcohol addiction rehabilitation facility, in Antigua in 1998.

12.2. Cuisine

The cuisine of Antigua and Barbuda features a blend of African, European (particularly British and Portuguese), and local Caribbean influences, utilizing readily available ingredients.
The national dish is Fungee and pepperpot. Fungee (pronounced "foon-jee") is a cornmeal-based dish similar to polenta or cou-cou, often served with stews or saltfish. Pepperpot is a hearty stew typically made with various meats, spinach, okra, and other vegetables and spices.
Other popular national foods include:

• Saltfish (Cod) prepared in various ways.
• Ducana, a sweet dumpling made from grated sweet potatoes, coconut, sugar, and spices, wrapped in a banana leaf and boiled.
• Seasoned rice, similar to pelau or arroz con pollo.
• Fresh seafood, especially lobster (a specialty from Barbuda), conch, and various types of fish.

Confections include peanut brittle, sugar cake (made from coconut and sugar), fudge, and stews made from local fruits like raspberry and tamarind.
The Antigua Black Pineapple is a prized local fruit, reputed to be one of the sweetest pineapple varieties in the world. It is widely consumed fresh and used in desserts and drinks.
Antigua Sunday bread is a traditional white bread, often made with lard instead of butter, and sometimes featuring decorative twists on the crust. Antiguan raisin buns, often eaten with cheese (a combination known as "bun and cheese"), are particularly popular during Easter and are sometimes flavored with spices like nutmeg.

12.3. Arts and crafts

The artistic traditions of Antigua and Barbuda have roots in indigenous Arawak art, which included pictographs and petroglyphs with geometric, animal, and plant motifs, likely used for ceremonial or religious purposes. European settlers introduced their artistic traditions, such as painting, sculpture, and ceramics.
Contemporary Antiguan and Barbudan artists often blend these influences, creating unique styles that explore themes of social issues, nature, Caribbean identity, and cultural heritage. Visual arts, including painting and sculpture, are active fields.
Traditional crafts include:

• Pottery
• Scrimshaw (though less common now)
• Wood carving and sculpture
• Textile arts, including brightly colored fabrics and costume making for Carnival
• Creation of ethnic dolls

Photography is also a developing art form. Local art and crafts are sold in galleries and markets, providing income for artisans and showcasing the islands' cultural richness.

12.4. Festivals and public holidays

Festivals play a significant role in the cultural life of Antigua and Barbuda, reflecting history, community spirit, and artistic expression.
The most important national festival is the Antigua Carnival, celebrated annually from late July to the first Tuesday in August. It commemorates the emancipation from slavery in 1834. The thirteen-day festival is a vibrant spectacle of colorful costumes, parades, calypso and soca competitions, beauty pageants, steelpan music, and street parties (fetes). Carnival Monday and Tuesday are public holidays. The modern Antigua Carnival was formally established in 1957, replacing an older "Old Time Christmas Festival," partly as an effort to boost tourism.

On Barbuda, the main annual festival is Caribana, which takes place over the Whit Monday weekend (typically in May or June). It features pageants, calypso competitions, and beach parties, celebrating Barbudan culture and heritage.

Antigua Sailing Week, held in late April or early May, is a world-renowned yacht regatta that attracts sailors and spectators from around the globe. It is a major event for the yachting community and significantly boosts tourism.

Antigua and Barbuda has eleven official public holidays. The Governor-General, on the advice of the Cabinet, may also proclaim other holidays. Historically, Christmas festivities included unique traditions like carol singers roaming villages with "carol trees" and lanterns, and "John Bulls," costumed figures resembling masked African witch doctors, accompanied by jazz bands in clown costumes.

13.1. Cricket

Cricket is the national and most popular sport in Antigua and Barbuda. The country has produced several world-class cricketers who have represented the West Indies internationally. The most famous Antiguan cricketer is Sir Isaac Vivian Alexander Richards, widely regarded as one of the greatest batsmen of all time. He played for the West Indies between 1974 and 1991, during a period of their global dominance. Other notable Antiguan cricketers who have played for the West Indies include Andy Roberts, Richie Richardson, and Curtly Ambrose.

The Antigua and Barbuda national cricket team has represented the country in regional competitions, such as the 1998 Commonwealth Games. However, for major international tournaments like the Cricket World Cup and Test matches, Antiguan players are part of the composite West Indies cricket team. Domestically, Antiguan cricketers play for the Leeward Islands cricket team in Caribbean regional tournaments. There is also a local Parish League where teams from various villages and parishes compete. The main cricket venue is the Sir Vivian Richards Stadium, which has hosted international matches. The older Antigua Recreation Ground is also historically significant.

13.2. Football

Association football (soccer) is the second most popular sport in Antigua and Barbuda. The Antigua and Barbuda national football team, nicknamed the "Benna Boys," was founded in 1928 and is administered by the Antigua and Barbuda Football Association. The national team competes in CONCACAF regional tournaments, such as the CONCACAF Nations League and Caribbean Cup, and participates in FIFA World Cup qualification. While they have not yet qualified for a FIFA World Cup or CONCACAF Gold Cup finals, the team has achieved some notable results in regional competitions.
The domestic football league is the Antigua and Barbuda Premier Division, which was established in 1968. Several clubs compete for the national championship. The Sir Vivian Richards Stadium, primarily a cricket ground, is sometimes used for international football matches.

13.3. Other sports

Several other sports are played and enjoy varying degrees of popularity in Antigua and Barbuda:

• Sailing: As mentioned, Antigua Sailing Week is a major international event, and recreational sailing is popular due to the favorable conditions and numerous harbors.
• Basketball: Basketball is played, particularly among younger people, with local leagues and competitions.
• Athletics (Track and Field): Antigua and Barbuda has produced athletes who have competed at the Olympic Games and other international athletics events.
• Netball, volleyball, and tennis are also played.

The country participates in the Olympic Games, the Commonwealth Games, and the Pan American Games.