Spartacus

2.1. Origin and Ethnicity

Ancient sources consistently identify Spartacus as a Thracian. The Greek essayist Plutarch describes him as "a Thracian of Nomadic stock," implying a connection to nomadic tribes. Appian states he was "a Thracian by birth, who had once served as a soldier with the Romans, but had since been a prisoner and sold for a gladiator." Florus elaborates, describing him as one "who, from a Thracian mercenary, had become a Roman soldier, that had deserted and became enslaved, and afterward, from consideration of his strength, a gladiator."

Several scholars suggest Spartacus belonged to the Maedi tribe, a Thracian tribe that inhabited the southwestern fringes of Thrace, bordering the Roman province of Macedonia, in present-day southwestern Bulgaria. This theory, proposed by German historian Konrad Ziegler, argues against earlier interpretations of "Nomadic stock" as a general description, asserting that nomadic peoples did not exist in Thrace at that time. Other theories propose his origin from the Bessian tribe in the Rhodope Mountains or the Odrysian tribe, which had an alliance with Rome. The name Spartacus itself appears in the Black Sea region, notably among the Thracian Spartocid dynasty of the Cimmerian Bosporus and Pontus.

2.2. Family

Plutarch mentions that Spartacus's wife, a prophetess of the Maedi tribe, was enslaved alongside him. She is said to have been inspired by the rites of Dionysus and prophesied that Spartacus would achieve great, formidable power but would ultimately face an unfortunate end. This woman was reportedly with him when he escaped the gladiatorial school. Some modern researchers believe this female prophetess was indeed Spartacus's wife.

2.3. Military Service and Enslavement

Before his enslavement, Spartacus likely had military experience. Accounts vary: some suggest he served as an auxiliary soldier with the Romans, while others state he fought against the Romans and was captured. Florus's account details a progression from Thracian mercenary to Roman soldier, then a deserter and bandit, before his strength led to his sale as a gladiator. Regardless of the exact circumstances, he was ultimately captured by Roman legions and sold into slavery.

3.1. Training in Capua

Spartacus was trained at a gladiatorial school (ludus) near Capua, owned by Lentulus Batiatus. This school housed a large number of gladiators, particularly Gauls and Thracians, who were kept in confined conditions by the proprietor. Spartacus was likely trained as a murmillo, a type of heavyweight gladiator who fought with a large oblong shield (a scutum) and a straight, broad-bladed sword (a gladius) measuring about 18 in in length. Some interpretations suggest he fought in the Thraex style, reflecting his Thracian origin.

3.2. Life as a Gladiator

Historical records offer limited details about Spartacus's specific activities or combat record as a gladiator before the revolt. However, the harsh and brutal environment of gladiatorial schools, where individuals were trained for combat to the death, undoubtedly shaped his resolve and leadership. The conditions in these schools and the constant threat of death cultivated a deep-seated desire for freedom among the enslaved gladiators, ultimately leading to their desperate plot for escape.

4.1. Escape from Capua

In 73 BC, Spartacus was part of a group of approximately 200 gladiators at Lentulus Batiatus's school in Capua who plotted an escape. Despite the plot being betrayed, about 70 to 78 gladiators managed to break free. They seized kitchen utensils, using them as makeshift weapons, and fought their way out of the school. Once outside, they managed to capture several wagons loaded with gladiatorial weapons and armor, which allowed them to arm themselves properly.

The escaped slaves then defeated a small contingent of soldiers sent to pursue them. Following this initial success, they plundered the region surrounding Capua and began to recruit many other slaves and rural laborers into their ranks. They eventually retreated to a more defensible position on Mount Vesuvius, a volcano near Naples. Once free, the escaped gladiators chose Spartacus, along with two Gaulish slaves named Crixus and Oenomaus, as their leaders. While Roman authors often portrayed Spartacus as the sole commander, reducing others to subordinates, some ancient historians suggest that the three initially held equal leadership positions.

4.2. Initial Victories and Army Growth

The Roman response to the initial uprising was hampered by the absence of their main legions, which were engaged in fighting a revolt in Hispania under Quintus Sertorius and the Third Mithridatic War against Mithridates VI of Pontus. Rome initially underestimated the rebellion, viewing it more as a policing matter than a full-scale war.

The Roman Senate dispatched a militia under the command of Praetor Gaius Claudius Glaber, who besieged Spartacus and his growing force on Mount Vesuvius, hoping to starve them into surrender. However, Spartacus demonstrated his tactical ingenuity. His men used ropes made from vines to descend the steep, unguarded side of the volcano, launching a surprise attack on the unfortified Roman camp from the rear. This assault resulted in the rout and killing of most of Glaber's militia.

The rebels achieved another victory against a second Roman expedition led by Praetor Publius Varinius, nearly capturing the commander, killing his lieutenants, and seizing their military equipment. These early successes significantly boosted the morale and numbers of Spartacus's forces. More and more slaves, as well as local herdsmen and shepherds, flocked to their banner, swelling their ranks to an estimated 70,000 individuals. The army became diverse, including Celts, Gauls, and even veterans of the previous Social War (91-87 BC) who had served in Roman legions. Notably, rural slaves, accustomed to a harder life, were generally more prepared for combat than urban slaves.

4.3. Military Leadership and Tactics

Spartacus proved to be an exceptional military tactician, leading some historians to believe he possessed prior military experience. Despite the lack of formal military training among his followers, they displayed remarkable skill in utilizing available local materials and employing unconventional tactics against the disciplined Roman armies. For instance, they used vine ropes to descend Mount Vesuvius and launch a surprise attack.

During the winter of 73-72 BC, Spartacus's army focused on training, arming, and equipping their new recruits. They also expanded their raiding territory to include the towns of Nola, Nuceria, Thurii, and Metapontum. The distances between these locations and subsequent events suggest that the slave forces operated in two main groups, commanded by Spartacus and Crixus. Spartacus maintained strict discipline within his army, reportedly prohibiting personal ownership of gold and silver and ensuring that plunder was distributed equally. He also forbade unnecessary violence and looting, aiming to maintain a cohesive and disciplined fighting force.

4.4. Roman Response and Campaigns

The Roman Republic's efforts to suppress the escalating slave rebellion involved several military campaigns and the deployment of various commanders, marking a shift from underestimation to a full-scale military effort.

4.5. Key Battles and Campaigns

Throughout the Third Servile War, Spartacus's army engaged Roman forces in numerous significant battles and strategic movements across Italy. After their initial escape and victories on Mount Vesuvius, the rebels expanded their operations, raiding and occupying towns like Nola, Nuceria, Thurii, and Metapontum during the winter of 73-72 BC.

In the spring of 72 BC, the rebel forces moved northward. While Crixus's contingent was defeated near Mount Garganus by consular armies, Spartacus successfully defeated both consular legions led by Gellius and Lentulus. Despite reaching northern Italy, Spartacus's forces inexplicably turned south again. This decision led to their eventual containment by Crassus in the southern region of Lucania and Bruttium, culminating in their encampment at Rhegium.

4.6. Attempted Escape to Sicily

While besieged by Crassus's forces at Rhegium, Spartacus reportedly attempted to transport his men to Sicily, where he hoped to ignite another slave revolt and gather reinforcements. According to Plutarch, Spartacus made a deal with Cilician pirates to transport approximately 2,000 of his men across the Strait of Messina. However, the pirates allegedly betrayed him, taking payment but then abandoning the rebels. Minor sources also mention attempts by the rebels to build rafts or ships for escape, but Crassus took measures to prevent their crossing, forcing them to abandon these efforts. Cut off from supplies and under siege, Spartacus's forces were in a dire situation.

4.7. Final Battle and Defeat

The decisive confrontation between Spartacus's forces and Crassus's legions, which marked the end of the Third Servile War, took place in 71 BC. This final engagement is often referred to as the Battle of the Siler River, believed to have occurred on the right bank of the Sele River in the area of present-day Senerchia, near the border with Oliveto Citra and Calabritto, in the High Sele Valley, which was part of Lucania at the time. Archaeological finds in this region since 1899, including armor and swords from the Roman era, support this location.

As Roman legions, including those of Pompey and Lucullus, converged, discipline among Spartacus's forces reportedly began to break down, with smaller groups independently attacking the approaching Roman armies. Spartacus, facing overwhelming odds and despairing of any other outcome, turned his forces around for a final, desperate stand against Crassus's legions.

According to Plutarch, before the battle, Spartacus dramatically killed his own horse, declaring that if he won, he would have many horses, and if he lost, he would need none. He then fought on foot, pushing toward Crassus himself, killing two centurions before being surrounded by numerous Roman soldiers and finally falling in battle. Appian describes Spartacus as being wounded in the thigh by a spear, yet continuing to fight on his knees with his shield raised, surrounded by many Romans until he was killed. This depiction aligns with a fresco discovered at Pompeii that portrays the battle. Florus also noted Spartacus's exceptional bravery, stating he fought in the front lines like a true general. Despite these accounts of his death, Appian reports that Spartacus's body was never found.

4.8. Aftermath and Reprisals

The defeat of Spartacus's rebellion was followed by a brutal and merciless suppression by the Roman Republic. According to Livy, approximately 60,000 rebels were killed in the final battle. The most infamous act of reprisal was the mass crucifixion of 6,000 surviving rebels captured by Crassus's legions. These crucified individuals were lined along the Appian Way, stretching from Rome to Capua, a distance of over 100 mile. This gruesome display served as a stark and terrifying warning to any who might consider future revolts against Roman authority.

The Third Servile War was the last major slave rebellion in ancient Rome, and no large-scale slave revolts occurred again after its suppression. The anecdote that when Crassus asked who Spartacus was, all captured rebels claimed to be Spartacus, highlights his symbolic status as a hero among the oppressed classes, even in defeat.

5.1. Historical Interpretations of Goals

Classical sources offer differing views on Spartacus's objectives. Plutarch writes that Spartacus wished to escape north into Cisalpine Gaul and disperse his men back to their homes. However, if escape from the Italian peninsula was truly his primary goal, it remains unclear why Spartacus turned his army south after defeating the consular legions commanded by Lucius Publicola and Gnaeus Clodianus, which would have left his forces a clear passage over the Alps.

In contrast, Appian and Florus suggest that Spartacus intended to march on Rome itself. Appian, however, also states that Spartacus later abandoned this goal, implying that it might have been more a reflection of Roman fears than a concrete plan.

Based on events in late 73 BC and early 72 BC, which indicate independently operating groups of escaped slaves, and a statement by Plutarch, it appears that some of the escaped slaves preferred to plunder Italy rather than escape over the Alps. This has led modern scholars to hypothesize a factional split within the rebel army: those under Spartacus who sought freedom by escaping over the Alps, and those under Crixus who preferred to remain in southern Italy to continue raiding and plundering. No actions by Spartacus overtly suggest that he aimed at reforming Roman society or abolishing slavery entirely, though his fight for freedom against the slave-owning oligarchy is widely celebrated.

6.1. Ancient Roman Perceptions

During and immediately after his time, Spartacus was predominantly viewed by the Romans as a dangerous enemy of the state, a rebellious slave who threatened the very foundations of their society. He was seen as a disruptive force, and his defeat was celebrated as a restoration of Roman order. However, even within Roman literature, there were acknowledgments of his character and military prowess. Pliny the Younger, for instance, lamented the moral decay of Roman society by contrasting it with Spartacus's prohibition of personal gold and silver, stating that the runaway slave possessed a "greatness of spirit" that put Romans to shame. Similarly, Sextus Julius Frontinus, in his work Stratagems, praised Spartacus as a man who could endure hardship and difficulties, evaluating his tactics as superior to all other generals he knew.

6.2. Modern Reinterpretation and Symbolism

After centuries of relative obscurity during the Middle Ages, Spartacus began to be re-evaluated during the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment. In modern times, he has become a hero and icon for various social and political movements, particularly among socialists and communists. Karl Marx famously listed Spartacus as one of his heroes, describing him as "the most splendid fellow in the whole of ancient history" and a "great general, noble character, real representative of the ancient proletariat".

Spartacus's transformation into a symbol of freedom, resistance against oppression, and the fight for dignity has resonated with diverse groups. He is often likened to the "Black Spartacus," Toussaint Louverture, the leader of the Haitian Revolution who led enslaved people to independence. Even Adam Weishaupt, the founder of the Bavarian Illuminati, referred to himself as Spartacus in his correspondences, reflecting the widespread appeal of his rebellious image. Graffiti in Rosarno, Italy, has even connected Spartacus to the 2010 riots between locals and migrant farm workers, demonstrating his continued relevance as a symbol of struggle for marginalized groups.

6.3. Influence on Political and Social Movements

Spartacus's story has profoundly influenced numerous political and social movements, especially those advocating for human rights and social justice. His rebellion, interpreted as an example of oppressed people fighting for their freedom against a slave-owning oligarchy, has inspired generations of activists and revolutionaries.

Most notably, the German Spartacus League (1915-18), a forerunner of the Communist Party of Germany, took its name from him. The January 1919 uprising by communists in Germany was also known as the Spartacist uprising. Beyond formal political organizations, Spartacus has inspired various leftist initiatives, such as Spartacus Books, one of North America's longest-running collectively-run leftist bookstores. His name symbolizes the fight for liberation from exploitation and has served as a powerful rallying cry for labor movements and those struggling against systemic injustice.

7.1. Literature

Spartacus's story has been retold in numerous literary works:

• Howard Fast's historical novel Spartacus (1951) is one of the most famous adaptations, serving as the basis for the 1960 film. Fast self-published the novel after being blacklisted during the McCarthy era.
• Arthur Koestler wrote a novel about Spartacus titled The Gladiators.
• The Scottish writer Lewis Grassic Gibbon penned his own novel, Spartacus.
• The Italian writer Raffaello Giovagnoli's historical novel, Spartacus, published in 1874, has been widely translated and published across Europe.
• The German playwright Bertolt Brecht wrote Spartacus, his second play, before 1920, later renaming it Drums in the Night.
• The Latvian writer Andrejs Upīts wrote a play titled Spartacus in 1943.
• The Polish writer Halina Rudnicka authored the novel Uczniowie Spartakusa (Spartacus's disciples) in 1951.
• Reverend Elijah Kellogg's Spartacus to the Gladiators at Capua has been a popular piece for school pupils practicing oratory skills.
• Amal Donkol, an Egyptian modern poet, wrote "The Last Words of Spartacus."
• Max Gallo contributed to the historical fiction genre with his 2006 novel Les Romains.Spartacus. La Revolte des Esclaves.
• In the Fate/Apocrypha light novel series by Yūichirō Higashide, Spartacus appears as a Berserker-class Servant summoned by the Red faction. This version also appears in the mobile RPG Fate/Grand Order.
• Ben Kane wrote the novels Spartacus: The Gladiator and Spartacus: Rebellion in 2012.
• The manga Hangyaku seyo (Rebel) by Kawada (2022) also features Spartacus.

7.2. Film and Television

Spartacus's story has been adapted into numerous films and television series:

• The 1953 Italian film Sins of Rome (original title Spartaco), directed by Riccardo Freda, starred Massimo Girotti.
• The critically acclaimed 1960 film Spartacus, directed by Stanley Kubrick and starring Kirk Douglas, was based on Howard Fast's novel.
• The 1964 film Spartacus and the Ten Gladiators was directed by Nick Nostro.
• A 1976 Soviet ballet film titled Spartacus was also produced.
• Howard Fast's novel was adapted into a 2004 miniseries by the USA Network, with Goran Višnjić in the title role.
• One episode of the 2007-2008 BBC docudrama Heroes and Villains features Spartacus.
• The popular television series Spartacus, which aired on the Starz premium cable network from January 2010 to April 2013, starred Andy Whitfield and later Liam McIntyre in the title role. The series is known for its graphic depiction of violence and sexuality. It includes:
  • Spartacus: Blood and Sand (2010)
  • Spartacus: Gods of the Arena (2011), a prequel focusing on the House of Batiatus.
  • Spartacus: Vengeance (2012), a sequel.
  • Spartacus: War of the Damned (2013), the final season.
• The History Channel's Barbarians Rising (2016) features Spartacus's story in its second episode, "Rebellion."
• The fifth series of the British sitcom Outnumbered included a plotline where Ben Brockman (Daniel Roche) played Spartacus in a musical.
• Spartacus appears in the season 6 premiere of DC's Legends of Tomorrow, portrayed by Shawn Roberts, where he is abducted and eaten by an alien.

7.3. Music and Ballet

Spartacus's story has also inspired various musical and ballet compositions:

• The "Spartacus Overture" was written by composer Camille Saint-Saëns in 1863.
• "Love Theme From Spartacus" by composer Alex North became a popular jazz standard.
• In 1975, the German progressive rock band Triumvirat released their album Spartacus.
• Australian composer Carl Vine wrote a short piano piece entitled "Spartacus" from his Red Blues collection.
• The Phantom Regiment Drum and Bugle Corps's show, "Spartacus," was the championship show of the 2008 Drum Corps International season.
• Jeff Wayne released his musical retelling, Jeff Wayne's Musical Version of Spartacus, in 1992.
• The symphonic poem Spartacus was composed by Jan Van der Roost in 1988.
• The 1956 ballet Spartacus, with a score by Soviet Armenian composer Aram Khachaturian, is one of the most famous artistic interpretations of his life. It was also adapted into a Soviet ballet film.
• The Takarazuka Revue staged a musical titled Spartacus in 1992, starring Anju Mira.

7.4. Other Media

• Video games:** Spartacus appears as an enemy in Age of Empires: The Rise of Rome Expansion IV, where players fight his army. He is an endgame boss in Spartacus Legends. In Gladihoppers, he is a playable character in the Spartacus Rebellion mode, and naming a character "Spartacus" in Career Mode grants the player Spartacus's sword.
• Board games:** In the expandable miniature wargaming system Heroscape, Spartacus is featured as a unique gladiator hero, having been rescued by the Archkyrie Einar before his death.

8.1. Geographical Locations

• Spartacus Peak is a prominent feature on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands.
• The village of Spartak in Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine, is named after him.
• The asteroid (2579) Spartacus (2579 Spartacus) was named in his honor.

8.2. Sports Clubs and Organizations

Many sports clubs, especially in Eastern Europe, bear Spartacus's name:

• General:**
  • The Spartakiad was a multi-sport event in the Soviet Bloc, serving as a Soviet version of the Olympic games.
  • Mass gymnastics exhibitions held every five years in Czechoslovakia were also named Spartakiad.
  • The mascot for the Ottawa Senators ice hockey team, Spartacat, is named after him.
  • Italian-Swiss professional road cyclist Fabian Cancellara is nicknamed "Spartacus" due to his powerful riding style.
  • In Russia:**
    • FC Spartak Moscow, a prominent football club.
    • FC Spartak Kostroma, a football club.
    • PFC Spartak Nalchik, a football club.
    • FC Spartak Vladikavkaz, a football club.
    • HC Spartak Moscow, an ice hockey team.
    • Spartak Saint Petersburg, a basketball team.
    • Spartak Tennis Club, a tennis training facility.
    • WBC Spartak Moscow, a women's basketball team.
    • In Ukraine:**
      • FC Spartak Sumy, a football club.
      • Spartak Ivano-Frankivsk, a football team.
      • Zakarpattia Uzhhorod, a football club formerly known as Spartak Uzhhorod.
      • Spartak Lviv.
      • Spartak Kyiv.
      • Spartak Odesa, a football team that competed in the 1941 Soviet Top League.
      • Spartak Kharkiv, a football team that also competed in the 1941 Soviet Top League.
      • In Bulgaria:**
        • FC Spartak Varna, a football team.
        • OFC Spartak Pleven, a football team.
        • PFC Spartak Plovdiv, a football team.
        • Spartak Sofia, a defunct football team.
        • In Serbia:**
          • FK Spartak Subotica, a football team.
          • Several FK Radnički teams.
          • In Slovakia:**
            • FC Spartak Trnava, a football team.
            • TJ Spartak Myjava, a football team.
            • FK Spartak Vráble, a football team.
            • FK Spartak Bánovce nad Bebravou, a football team.
            • In other countries:**
              • Various Spartak Stadiums around the world.
              • Barnt Green Spartak F.C., an English football team.
              • Spartak (Cape Verde), a Cape Verdean football team.
              • FC Spartak Semey, a Kazakh football team.