Ryūzō Sejima

2.1. Birth and Family Background

Ryūzō Sejima was born on December 9, 1911, in Washijima, Matsuzawa Village, Nishitonami District, Toyama Prefecture, Japan, into a farming family. His father, 瀬島龍太郎_{Ryūtarō Sejima}^Japanese, was a reserve infantry second lieutenant and village mayor. Ryūtarō Sejima had served as an officer in the Imperial Japanese Army under General Nogi Maresuke during the Russo-Japanese War. Ryūzō Sejima's interest in a military career was sparked in 1924 after witnessing a special Imperial Japanese Army exercise in the Hokuriku region.

2.2. Education

Sejima began his military education by entering the Tokyo Army Cadet School after withdrawing from Tonami Junior High School. He then proceeded to the Army Preparatory School before graduating from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy (44th class) in 1932, ranking second out of 315 cadets. For his exceptional performance, he was awarded the 恩賜の銀時計_{Onshi no Gin-dokei}^Japanese (Imperial Silver Watch). In October of the same year, he was commissioned as an army infantry second lieutenant and assigned to the 1st Company, 1st Battalion, 35th Infantry Regiment in Toyama.

In December 1936, he entered the Army War College. He graduated at the top of his class (51st class) in 1938, ranking first out of 51 students, and was awarded the 恩賜の軍刀_{Onshi no Guntō}^Japanese (Imperial Sword). His graduation lecture was titled "On the Command of Japanese Military Commanders." Following his graduation, he was appointed staff officer of the 4th Division under the Kwantung Army in Manchuria in January 1939. In May of the same year, he became a staff officer of the 5th Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Kenji Doihara. By November 1939, he was assigned to the Operations Department of the General Staff Office, where he was responsible for anti-Soviet operations before the outbreak of the Pacific War. In 1940, he played a key role in drafting the operational plans for the Kwantung Army Special Exercise (関特演_Kantoku-en^Japanese).

3.1. Pacific War

The Pacific War commenced on December 8, 1941, with the code phrase ヒノデハヤマガタ_{Hinode wa Yamagata}^Japanese (Sunrise over Mount Yamagata), which Sejima himself devised. Throughout most of the war, he served as a staff officer in the Operations Department of the General Staff Office, a central position within the Japanese Army. He was responsible for drafting numerous operational orders for the Southeast Pacific theater, including strategies for the recovery of Guadalcanal and operations in New Guinea.

Sejima maintained contact with former Prime Minister and Navy General Keisuke Okada, who was working towards an early end to the war, through his father-in-law, Denzo Matsuo, who was Okada's brother-in-law. From December 1944 to February 1945, Sejima undertook a diplomatic courier mission to Moscow under the alias 瀬越良三_{Sejima Ryōzō}^Japanese.

In February 1945, following the death of Colonel Noriyasu Shimamura, Sejima was selected as his successor and concurrently served as a staff officer for the Combined Fleet. In March of the same year, he was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel. During the Operation Kikusui (April-June 1945), he traveled to southern Kyushu and, as a Combined Fleet staff officer, collaborated with his colleague Masataka Chihaya to survey various locations across Japan for homeland defense preparations. He was particularly focused on Kochi Prefecture's coast, which was anticipated as a potential landing site for U.S. forces, and actively guided the operations of the 55th Army. Sejima reportedly confided in Chihaya about his family ties to Hisatsune Sakomizu, the Chief Cabinet Secretary of the Kantaro Suzuki cabinet, and claimed to have conveyed the grim reality of the war situation to Prime Minister Suzuki through Sakomizu.

On July 1, 1945, Sejima was transferred to the Kwantung Army as a staff officer, deploying to Manchuria. His predecessor in this role was Prince Tsunenori Takeda. Following Japan's surrender on August 15, 1945, Sejima participated in ceasefire negotiations with Soviet forces on August 19 in Jalikhovo, near Harbin. The Japanese delegation included Kwantung Army Chief of Staff Lieutenant General Hikosaburo Hata and Sejima himself, while the Soviet side included Marshal of the Soviet Union Aleksandr Vasilevsky, commander of the Soviet Far East Army, and Marshal Kirill Meretskov, commander of the 1st Far Eastern Front. Although Sejima, as a military envoy, could have returned to Japan, he chose to remain with Kwantung Army Commander General Otozō Yamada and other senior officers. On September 5, 1945, he was captured by Soviet forces and became a prisoner of war.

3.2. Siberian Internment

Following his capture, Ryūzō Sejima was transported to the Soviet Union, where he endured eleven years of Siberian internment, primarily at Special District No. 45, an officer internment camp in Khabarovsk. Despite being an officer, who typically had no obligation for labor under the Geneva Conventions (though the Soviet Union was not a signatory), Sejima was subjected to forced labor, primarily in construction. Due to his weakened state from recurrent pneumonia, he was assigned as a plasterer, a task he humorously recalled as "a staff officer (佐官_sakan^Japanese) becoming a plasterer (左官_sakan^Japanese)." During his internment, he was subject to the public office purge in Japan.

In 1946, Sejima was briefly flown from Vladivostok to Tokyo to testify as a prosecution witness at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal). He was transported with Lieutenant General Tatsumi Kusaba and Major General Tomokatsu Matsumura. The Soviet Union reportedly intended for Sejima and others to testify in a manner that would implicate Emperor Hirohito in war responsibility. Sejima claimed to have refused Soviet overtures for family visits in exchange for compliant testimony, though he did meet his family during this period. He also stated that he was in Tokyo for only one week, a claim disputed by historical records suggesting he stayed for nearly a month. Prior to his testimony, Sejima and other Japanese officers reportedly coordinated their statements with Soviet officers. For instance, Sejima's interrogation record showed him testifying that, contrary to defensive plans from 1944 onwards, Japan's army had offensive plans against the Soviet Union in 1941 and 1942. When asked by the defense if these were merely paper plans for contingencies, Sejima denied it.

After his testimony, Sejima was returned to Siberia, where he remained until the mid-1950s. He largely remained silent about his internment experiences for many years, only beginning to speak about them after joining the Second Ad Hoc Commission on Administrative Reform. Historian Masayasu Hosaka criticized Sejima for his evasiveness regarding historical facts, particularly concerning the Kwantung Army's alleged agreement to Siberian internment. There are also claims that Sejima was held in the 7006th POW camp in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, from late 1947 to April 1950, alongside other prominent Japanese officers.

4.1. Joining and Rise within Itochu Corporation

After his repatriation from Siberia in 1956, Sejima was questioned by Japanese police at Maizuru Port for a week at the behest of the United States. He declined repeated invitations from Shiro Hara to join the newly established Japan Self-Defense Forces due to his eldest daughter's opposition. He also turned down an offer to enter politics from his former classmate, Seiichi Kataoka, a former Minister of Posts and Telecommunications.

Sejima actively assisted fellow repatriated soldiers in finding employment. In 1958, he joined C. Itoh & Co. (now Itochu Corporation). Initially, he refused an interview, instead sending a letter, later stating it was due to his "pride" not wanting to appear "fallen so low." He was hired as a contract employee with the salary of a section chief, a term his wife, Kiyoko, joyfully accepted, placing the employment notice on their family altar.

The then-president of Itochu, Yuichiro Kosuge, reportedly told Sejima, "This company has plenty of merchants. So, Mr. Sejima, you don't need to do business. As Japan and the world change significantly, I want your advice and assistance on how a trading company should proceed." Sejima, unfamiliar with business terminology, humorously remarked that he wouldn't need to learn about interest rates.

In 1960, Sejima became the head of Itochu's Aircraft Department. Just three years after joining, in 1961, he was appointed head of the Business Division, and by 1962, he became a director. Six months later, he was promoted to managing director. His rapid ascent continued: he became a senior managing director in 1968, deputy president in 1972, deputy chairman in 1977, and finally chairman in 1978.

4.2. Leadership Roles and Business Initiatives

As a key figure in Itochu, Ryūzō Sejima led the corporate planning team, implementing military-style reporting methods and fostering a loyal group of subordinates within the company, which became known as the "Sejima Machine." He spearheaded Itochu's expansion into the oil industry and orchestrated a significant alliance between General Motors and Isuzu Motors in 1971. He was also one of three pivotal figures in Itochu's groundbreaking entry into the Chinese market in November 1972, making it one of the first Japanese companies to establish business relations with the People's Republic of China. Sejima was also instrumental in the merger between Itochu and Ataka & Co..

He stepped down as chairman in 1981, becoming an executive advisor, a position he held until 2000. During this period, he contributed to the writing of the five-volume "Imperial General Headquarters Army Section: Circumstances of the Outbreak of the Greater East Asia War" for the National Institute for Defense Studies. In November 1972, he delivered a lecture at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University titled "A Retrospective on Japan's Path from the 1930s to the Greater East Asia War."

Sejima developed relationships with prominent political and business figures, including Kakuei Tanaka, whom he met in 1971 when Tanaka was the Minister of International Trade and Industry in the Third Eisaku Satō Cabinet. He also reportedly became acquainted with Yoshio Kodama through Minoru Genda. In 1978, while serving as Itochu's chairman, he was invited by Shigeo Nagano, the president of the Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry, to become a special advisor to the Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry and vice chairman of the Tokyo Chamber of Commerce and Industry. Although he had not been involved in business association activities before, he became increasingly active, serving as Nagano's strategist at events such as the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council and ASEAN private economic conferences.

Sejima held numerous public positions, including Chairman of the Board of Asia University, Chairman of the Chidorigafuchi National Cemetery Service Association, Honorary Chairman of the Pacific War Fallen Soldiers Memorial Association, Honorary Chairman of the Special Attack Force Fallen Soldiers Memorial Peace Prayer Association, Honorary Advisor to Search Farm Japan Inc., Chairman of the Regional Traditional Performing Arts Utilization Center, Chairman of the Japan Strategic Research Forum, Chairman of the Flower and Green Agricultural Foundation, Chairman of the Japan Art Association, Director of the Showa Seito Memorial Foundation, Director of the National Travel Agency Association, Advisor to Japan Conference, Advisor to Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, Advisor to the Japan Tourism Industry Federation, Advisor to the Inamori Foundation, Advisor to the Japan International Forum, Director of the Ideal Education Foundation, Director of the Goto Memorial Culture Foundation, Chairman of the Itochu Shion Scholarship Foundation, Chairman of the Doutai Keizai Konwakai, Special Advisor to the Military History Society, and Auditor of Nippon Television Network Corporation.

In the spring of 2007, while hospitalized, Sejima urged Futami Noji, a permanent executive of the Doutai Keizai Konwakai, to propose concrete policies for then-Prime Minister Shinzo Abe's "Beautiful Country" initiative. In a proposal submitted to Abe on May 30, 2007, Sejima, as chairman of the Doutai Keizai Konwakai, suggested major themes such as global warming countermeasures, increasing clean energy, and protecting water resources. Specifically, he proposed achieving 30% of electricity from wind and solar power within ten years, promoting cooperation between industries and power companies, extensive use of solar cables, and encouraging the development of solar-related products. For forests and water resources, he advocated for initiatives targeting healthy senior citizens, increasing satoyama (traditional Japanese managed woodlands) for water retention and air purification, and utilizing new technologies for water purification in lakes, dams, and bays.

5.1. Advisor to Prime Ministers

In 1981, at the recommendation of figures like Shigeo Nagano, Prime Minister Zenko Suzuki, Kiichi Miyazawa, Takeo Fukuda, and Kakuei Tanaka, or at the request of Nagano and Yasuhiro Nakasone, then Director-General of the Administrative Management Agency, Sejima was appointed a member of the Second Ad Hoc Commission on Administrative Reform (第二次臨時行政調査会_{Dai-ni-ji Rinji Gyōsei Chōsakai}^Japanese), also known as the Doko Rincho, chaired by Toshio Doko. He served as a key strategist under Doko, earning the moniker "Chief Cabinet Secretary of the Rincho."

Sejima became a prominent brain trust for the Nakasone Cabinet (1982-1987), wielding considerable influence across political and business circles. He continued to advise subsequent Prime Ministers, including Keizo Obuchi, Kiichi Miyazawa, and Ryutaro Hashimoto. He also served as a director of Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) from 1986 to 1999. In 1998, he was appointed to lead a panel tasked with examining reforms within the Ministry of Finance.

5.2. Contributions to Administrative Reform

Within the Second Ad Hoc Commission on Administrative Reform, Sejima played a crucial role in the privatization of major state-owned enterprises. He actively supported Chairman Toshio Doko in the successful privatization of Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) and the Japanese National Railways. These reforms were significant undertakings aimed at streamlining Japan's public sector and promoting efficiency. His strategic insights, derived from his military background, proved valuable in navigating the complex political and bureaucratic landscape of these large-scale reforms.

6.1. Historical Views and War Responsibility

Sejima's interpretations of World War II and Japan's war responsibility were a consistent point of contention. In his 1996 memoir, 幾山河_Ikusamagawa^Japanese, he reflected on the Greater East Asia War, stating that Japan "ignored a comprehensive judgment of national power, including political and economic information," and that the nation "flowed into emotional and hopeful judgments, rather than rational and objective ones, due to the national character."

While he acknowledged that there were "judgment errors in individual situations" during the Pacific War and accepted "a part of the responsibility" for the war's expansion, the suffering of the Japanese people, and the defeat, he maintained that the war was not a planned conflict. Instead, he characterized it as a defensive war, a "cornered mouse biting a cat," forced upon Japan by the United States' cessation of oil supplies and its strong policies, particularly the Hull Note. He argued that in such circumstances, the Attack on Pearl Harbor was the only option, thus asserting the inevitability of the conflict. He also expressed regret over the signing of the Tripartite Pact, stating it "should never have been implemented."

Sejima strongly condemned the Siberian internment, viewing it as a "crime by Joseph Stalin" that violated the Potsdam Declaration (Article 9), which stipulated the repatriation of Japanese military personnel and civilians, and a breach of the Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact. He outlined six points illustrating how the treatment in Siberia differed significantly from how other Allied nations treated post-war Japan. He asserted that an apology from the Soviet Union (or Russia) for the Siberian internment was a necessary prerequisite for any peace treaty between Japan and Russia.

In a television appearance late in his life, Sejima discussed the mindset for planning operations, stating, "We were taught to 'prepare pessimistically and deal optimistically,' and this can still be applied in various situations today. Humans tend to prepare optimistically and then become pessimistic when things happen." He also referenced Yamanaka Shikanosuke's poem, "Let more sorrows pile upon me, for I shall test the strength of my finite body," as a reflection of the training he received.

6.2. Right-Wing Activities and Associations

Ryūzō Sejima was a known supporter of right-wing organizations and held controversial views on historical issues. He was a patron of the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform (新しい歴史教科書をつくる会_{Atarashii Rekishi Kyōkasho o Tsukuru Kai}^Japanese), an organization that promotes revisionist interpretations of Japanese history. His statements often reflected a conservative ideological stance, such as his assertion that "the colonization of Korea was a natural measure" and his defense of Kamikaze suicide attacks as "voluntary."

Sejima cultivated close relationships with South Korean military rulers in the 1980s. He was reportedly highly respected by former Manchurian Army officer Park Chung-hee. In 1980, Samsung founder Lee Byung-chul invited Sejima to Korea to advise Chun Doo-hwan and Roh Tae-woo "as a fellow man of the military." Sejima acted as a crucial intermediary for Prime Minister Nakasone in arranging a historic meeting with Chun Doo-hwan in 1983, which was the first official visit by a Japanese Prime Minister to South Korea after the war. He also facilitated President Chun Doo-hwan's visit to Japan and his meeting with Emperor Hirohito, contributing to the improvement of Japan-South Korea relations during a period marked by internal and external tensions, including the Gwangju Uprising and the Kim Dae-jung kidnapping incident. He reportedly advised Chun Doo-hwan on strategies for public appeasement, such as hosting international expositions or the Olympics, and advised Roh Tae-woo on forming a conservative grand coalition supported by conglomerates and high-ranking officials to achieve cabinet system constitutional reform.

In 1997, a committee led by Sejima erected a monument to Indian judge Radhabinod Pal at Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo. Pal was the sole dissenting judge in the guilty verdict handed down by the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal, a figure often invoked by Japanese conservatives seeking to challenge the tribunal's legitimacy.

7.1. Siberian Internment and Labor Allegations

A persistent allegation regarding Sejima's time in Siberia is the claim of a "secret pact" made during the ceasefire negotiations, suggesting that Japanese soldiers were provided as labor to the Soviet Union. This theory posits that a "petition drafted by Staff Officer Sejima to the Soviet Army" offered Japanese soldiers for cooperation with Soviet management until their repatriation. Sejima vehemently denied this "secret pact" theory in his 1996 book, 幾山河_Ikusamagawa^Japanese, demanding that proponents provide clear evidence. He argued that neither Soviet Far East Army Commander Aleksandr Vasilevsky nor Kwantung Army Chief of Staff Hikosaburo Hata had the authority to conclude such a secret agreement. Furthermore, no evidence supporting such a pact has been found in Russian archives following the information disclosure during Perestroika.

In 2002, political scientist Tadae Takubo confirmed the existence of State Defense Committee Resolution No. 9898CC, "Resolution on the Acceptance, Internment, and Labor Utilization of 500,000 Japanese Prisoners of War" (dated August 23, 1945), signed by Joseph Stalin himself, in the Russian State Archive of Social and Political History in Moscow. This document explicitly stated, "The following People's Commissars are ordered to carry out the acceptance, internment, and labor utilization of prisoners of war who are to arrive for labor." This discovery confirmed that the forced labor was a direct order from the central Soviet government, not an agreement made by regional Soviet military authorities, thereby refuting the "secret pact" theory. This order is believed to have been issued after Stalin's demand for the occupation of the northern half of Hokkaido was rejected by the United States. Futami Noji, a close associate of Sejima, asserted that the "secret pact" theory was a Soviet disinformation campaign designed to brainwash victims into believing that Sejima and other Kwantung Army staff officers had "sold out" ordinary citizens as a bargaining chip to save the Emperor. However, Noji provided no evidence for this claim.

7.2. Allegations of Soviet Espionage

Allegations of Ryūzō Sejima's involvement with Soviet intelligence agencies have circulated for decades. In 1954, during the "Rastvorov Incident," Yuri Rastvorov, a second secretary at the Soviet representative office who defected to the CIA in the United States, testified that Sejima was among eleven individuals trained as "strictly checked communist military personnel" and "special agents" at the 7006th POW camp in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. This testimony was widely reported in Western media, including Japan, leading many, including author Seicho Matsumoto, to consider Sejima a "hidden communist" or "Soviet agent." Atsuyuki Sasa, former Director-General of the Cabinet Security Affairs Office, also testified about Sejima's alleged involvement in the Rastvorov incident and later the Toshiba-KOKOM incident.

Ivan Kovalenko, a former Soviet official responsible for operations against Japan, claimed that during his Siberian internment, Sejima had shouted, "Down with the Emperor system! Long live the Japanese Communist Party!" in front of other Japanese internees. When asked if Sejima was a Soviet spy, Kovalenko reportedly replied, "That is top secret." According to an article by Yoshikyu Yamada of the 國民新聞社_{Kokumin Shinbunsha}^Japanese concerning the 1979 Stanislav Levchenko incident, Levchenko stated he had no direct contact with "Krasnov" (Sejima's alleged codename), but testified that Kovalenko and Sejima had a deep relationship. However, Buntaro Kuroi of "World Intelligence" magazine noted that while "Krasnov" was a confirmed KGB agent and a "prominent businessman," his real name was not explicitly stated, thus not definitively identifying him as Sejima.

8.1. The "Sejima Machine" and Organizational Style

Within Itochu Corporation, Sejima implemented a distinctive management and organizational system, often referred to as the "Sejima Machine." This system was modeled on the organizational structure of the Imperial Japanese Army's General Staff Office, with Sejima leading a direct subordinate team. He introduced military-style reporting methods and fostered a group of loyal followers within the company. While the term "Sejima Machine" was widely used by the media, Sejima himself reportedly considered it a media coinage. The system was characterized by its efficiency and strict adherence to hierarchical reporting, reflecting his military background.

8.2. Public Image and "Sejima Myth"

Sejima cultivated a powerful public image as a master strategist and influential advisor, leading to what some have termed the "Sejima Myth." However, this image has faced critical scrutiny. Historian Masayasu Hosaka pointed out that Sejima often employed tactics to magnify his own importance. For instance, while Toyoko Yamasaki's novel Fumō Chitai (The Waste Land) featured a protagonist based on a composite of several individuals, the novel's popularity led to the widespread misconception that Sejima alone was the model, an image he did not actively dispel.

Futami Noji, a permanent executive of the Doutai Keizai Konwakai, countered critics by arguing that they fundamentally misunderstood Sejima's role. Noji stated that "critics of Sejima often assume that Sejima planned all operations at the General Staff Office from the beginning to the end of the war, and that this led to Japan's defeat. This is a fundamental misunderstanding of Sejima and the root of the outrageous 'Great Strategist Sejima Myth.'" Noji emphasized that as a mere major in the operations department, Sejima was not in a position to create or decide plans himself, but merely gained knowledge of various operational plans through his role as an assistant to the section chief.

A highly controversial anecdote, recorded by Seigen Tanaka, claims that Emperor Hirohito (Showa Emperor) expressed strong disapproval of Sejima. Tanaka stated that Imperial Household Agency Grand Steward Masamasa Irie directly conveyed the Emperor's words: "I cannot blame the soldiers who fought on the front lines under my command in the last war. However, what is unforgivable are those who planned this war, instigated its outbreak, carried it out entirely, and continued to hold influential positions in Japan's state power after the defeat, playing a guiding role and avoiding war responsibility. Someone like Sejima is one of them." The veracity of this statement, however, remains unconfirmed.

Conversely, Sejima claimed in his own writings that in 1979, during a banquet at the Imperial Palace for the President of Sri Lanka, he and his wife were granted an audience with Emperor Hirohito and Empress Kōjun. Sejima asserted that the Emperor thanked them for being matchmakers for his granddaughter, Yuko Higashikuni (daughter of Prince Morihiro Higashikuni and Emperor Showa's eldest daughter, Princess Shigeko Higashikuni), and an Itochu employee. The Emperor reportedly stated, "Sejima has endured great hardships before and after the war. Please take care of your health and continue to serve the nation and society. Also, Yuko Higashikuni, for whom you are now serving as matchmakers, is my granddaughter. She lost her mother when she was young, and I have always worried about her. I am very pleased that she is now getting married, and both I and Empress Kōjun are delighted. I ask for your continued care." The actual occurrence of these words is, however, unconfirmed.

8.3. Historical Revisionism and Textbook Debates

Sejima's association with movements promoting revisionist historical interpretations and debates over Japanese history textbooks, particularly concerning the Pacific War, further fueled controversies surrounding his public image. His support for organizations like the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform, which advocates for a less critical portrayal of Japan's wartime actions, positioned him as a figure actively involved in shaping historical narratives. The monument he helped erect to Judge Radhabinod Pal at Yasukuni Shrine, a figure seen by some as legitimizing Japan's wartime conduct, underscored his alignment with these revisionist efforts.

11.1. Positive Contributions

Sejima's strategic acumen, honed during his military career, was widely recognized. Lieutenant Colonel Masahiko Takeshita, brother-in-law of Army Minister Korechika Anami and a member of the Military Affairs Bureau, noted that Sejima's draft documents were so perfect they required no revisions, often receiving immediate approval from section chiefs, department heads, and even the Chief of Staff. Takeshita reportedly joked, "We used to mockingly call him 'General Staff Chief Sejima' behind his back." Sejima himself explained that his drafts received "free passes" because he meticulously considered his superiors' intentions and avoided personal bias. Historian Ikuhiko Hata contrasted Sejima's meticulous approach with the often arbitrary and self-serving actions of other staff officers like Masataka Chihaya.

As a business leader, Sejima is credited with transforming Itochu Corporation into a global trading powerhouse. His implementation of the "Sejima Machine" and his strategic vision for expansion into new markets, such as the oil industry and China, were pivotal to the company's success. His ability to adapt his military-trained strategic thinking to the complexities of the post-war corporate world demonstrated remarkable versatility and leadership.

His contributions as a political advisor were also significant. He played a key role in the administrative reforms of the 1980s, particularly the privatization of NTT and the Japanese National Railways, which were crucial for modernizing Japan's economy. His counsel to Prime Ministers, especially Yasuhiro Nakasone, underscored his influence in shaping national policy. In his later years, he continued to offer strategic advice on national issues, such as environmental protection and clean energy, reflecting a continued dedication to public service.

11.2. Criticisms and Controversies

Despite his achievements, Sejima faced significant criticisms and controversies throughout his life. A major point of contention was his interpretation of Japan's wartime history and his views on war responsibility. His assertion that the Pacific War was "inevitable" due to external pressures, and his downplaying of Japan's aggressive actions, drew strong condemnation from historians and critics who argued that he was engaging in historical revisionism. His support for right-wing organizations and his controversial statements on issues like Korean colonization and Kamikaze attacks further solidified this perception.

His wartime actions as a staff officer also came under scrutiny. While praised for his drafting skills, some critics argued that his position at the heart of the Imperial General Headquarters meant he bore a degree of responsibility for the war's conduct and its devastating outcomes. Masataka Chihaya, who worked closely with Sejima, expressed dissatisfaction with Sejima's post-war testimonies regarding the cooperation between the Japanese Army and Navy during the Pacific War, suggesting a lack of full disclosure. Naval historian Kazushige Todaka noted that many in the Japanese Navy regarded Sejima as untrustworthy, stating, "Many in the Navy, upon hearing Ryūzō Sejima's name, would immediately react by saying, 'He's a liar.' There were people who directly said, 'I don't trust anything Ryūzō Sejima says.'"

The allegations of his ties to Soviet intelligence agencies during and after his Siberian internment remained a persistent shadow over his career. While he denied claims of a "secret pact" for forced labor, and evidence from Russian archives refuted this specific theory, the broader allegations of his being a "Soviet spy" continued to circulate, fueled by testimonies from defectors and former Soviet officials.

Perhaps one of the most significant criticisms revolved around his public image and self-portrayal. Critics like Masayasu Hosaka argued that Sejima often manipulated his image to appear more influential than he truly was, particularly in the context of the "Sejima Myth" surrounding his role as the model for the protagonist in Fumō Chitai. The alleged statement by Emperor Hirohito, conveyed by Seigen Tanaka, which criticized individuals like Sejima for planning the war and avoiding responsibility, if true, would represent a profound condemnation from the highest authority. However, the veracity of this particular imperial statement remains unconfirmed and is contested by Sejima's own account of a positive interaction with the Emperor.

Ultimately, Sejima's legacy is complex: a brilliant strategist and transformative business leader who, through his conservative ideological stances and controversial historical interpretations, remains a polarizing figure in modern Japanese history.

12.1. Books Authored by Sejima

• 幾山河_Ikusamagawa^Japanese (Many Rivers and Mountains: Ryūzō Sejima's Memoirs), Sankei Shimbun News Service, 1995 (ISBN 4-594-01809-2), and a popular edition in 1996 (ISBN 4-594-02041-0).
• 祖国再生_{Sokoku Saisei}^Japanese (Rebirth of the Homeland: My Proposal for Japan), PHP Institute, 1997 (ISBN 4-569-55534-9).
• 大東亜戦争の実相_{Daitoa Senso no Jisso}^Japanese (The Reality of the Greater East Asia War), PHP Institute (PHP Bunko), 2000 (ISBN 4-569-57427-0).

Sejima also co-authored several works:

• ''Imperial General Headquarters Army Section: Circumstances of the Outbreak of the Greater East Asia War'' (大本営陸軍部 大東亜戦争開戦経緯_{Daihonei Rikugunbu Daitoa Senso Kaisen Keii}^Japanese), a five-volume series published by the National Institute for Defense Studies, 1973-1974.
• ''A Nation Without Strategy Has No Tomorrow: Verifying Post-War 50 Years of Japan and Suggesting Future Directions'' (戦略なき国家に明日はない : 戦後50年の日本の検証と今後の行方を示唆_{Senryaku Naki Kokka ni Ashita wa Nai: Sengo 50-nen no Nihon no Kenshō to Kongo no Yukue o Shisa}^Japanese), co-authored with Hiroshi Kato, Japan Political and Cultural Society, 1995 (ISBN 4-89041-264-6).
• ''91-Year-Old's Philosophy of Life: What is the Way of Life to Master 'One's Calling'?" (91歳の人生論 : 「本分」を極める生き方とは?_{91-sai no Jinseiron: 'Honbun' o Kiwameru Ikikata to wa?}^Japanese), co-authored with Shigeaki Hinohara, Fusosha, 2003 (ISBN 4-594-04200-7).
• ''Ryūzō Sejima: Japan's Testimony: New Heisei Japan's Yoake Special'' (瀬島龍三 日本の証言 : 新・平成日本のよふけスペシャル_{Sejima Ryūzō Nihon no Shōgen: Shin Heisei Nihon no Yoake Supesharu}^Japanese), compiled by program staff, Fuji Television Publishing, 2003 (ISBN 4-594-03880-8).

12.2. Works Related to Sejima

Ryūzō Sejima's life and career have inspired various cultural works across different media:

• The novel ''Fumō Chitai'' (The Waste Land) by Toyoko Yamasaki, which has been adapted into a film and two television series, is widely believed to be based on Sejima's life. However, the author stated that she only borrowed the main character's progression-from military service to a prison camp and then to the post-war corporate world-from Sejima's life story. The protagonist of ''Fumō Chitai'' is Iki Tadashi. Sejima is also said to be the model for Ryuzaki Issei, a character in Yamasaki's novel ''Shizumanu Taiyō'' (The Sun That Doesn't Set). He is explicitly mentioned by name in her novel ''Futatsu no Sokoku'' (Two Homelands).
• Sejima attempted to produce a film about Emperor Hirohito with Shigeru Okada of Toei. Although a script by Kazuo Kasahara was completed, the project was abandoned due to opposition from the Imperial Household Agency. Sejima also served as a supervisor for Toei's 1980 war film ''203 Kōchi''.
• The South Korean television series ''5th Republic'' depicts a character based on Sejima, illustrating his role in Japan-Korea relations during the 1980s.
• In the manga series ''Golgo 13'' by Takao Saito, collected in Volume 103, Chapter 323 titled "Moscow's Memory," a character named Yosuke Nikaido appears. He is a former Kwantung Army deputy chief of staff and a fixer in political and business circles, created with Ryūzō Sejima as a model.