Cognitive scientistBritishRoyal Medal winnerKnight

Frederic Bartlett

Frederic Bartlett was a British psychologist and Cambridge professor who pioneered cognitive, cultural, and social psychology, notably with schema theory and reconstructive memory.

1. Overview

Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett (20 October 1886 - 30 September 1969) was a pioneering British psychologist and the inaugural professor of experimental psychology at the University of Cambridge. He is widely recognized as one of the significant forerunners of modern cognitive psychology and cultural psychology. Bartlett notably viewed the majority of his work in cognitive psychology as deeply intertwined with and a study in social psychology, consistently emphasizing the profound influence of social factors and cultural context on human cognition. His interdisciplinary approach also extended his interests to anthropology, moral science, philosophy, and sociology, making him a distinctive figure in psychology who actively avoided limiting himself to a single sub-discipline.

2. Biography

Frederic Charles Bartlett's life journey encompassed early health challenges, a comprehensive education across prestigious institutions, and a distinguished academic career marked by significant contributions to both theoretical and applied psychology, particularly during periods of national crisis.

2.1. Early Life and Education

Frederic Bartlett was born on 20 October 1886 into a middle-class family residing in Gloucestershire, England. During his formative years, he suffered from pleurisy, a condition that necessitated his homeschooling throughout his secondary education. Despite this health challenge, he maintained an active lifestyle, engaging in sports such as golf, tennis, and cricket. In 1909, Bartlett achieved First Class Honours with a Bachelor of Arts degree in philosophy from The University Correspondence College. He furthered his academic pursuits at London University, where he earned a master's degree with distinction in both ethics and sociology. Continuing his studies at St John's College, Cambridge, Bartlett again received a distinction, this time in moral science. It was at Cambridge that he met Charles Samuel Myers, who was then the Director of the Cambridge Psychology Laboratory. Due to the lingering effects of his childhood illnesses, Bartlett was unable to participate in World War I. Consequently, in 1914, when Myers was drafted into the war as a medical doctor, Bartlett assumed the role of deputy head of the Cambridge Psychology Laboratory.

2.2. Academic Career

Bartlett's early experimental work, which primarily focused on perception and imaging, led to his appointment as a Fellow in 1917. Following the conclusion of World War I, Charles Samuel Myers departed from his position at Cambridge, leaving a substantial donation to fund department lectureships. In 1931, Bartlett was awarded a chair in experimental psychology, becoming the first professor in this field at the University of Cambridge, a post he held until his retirement in 1951. He also became the Director of the Cambridge Psychology Laboratory and a Lecturer of Experimental Psychology. He later attained the title of Senior Lecturer of Psychology, a position he retained until his death in 1969 at the age of 82. In 1932, the same year he published his highly influential work Remembering, Bartlett was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society. He proudly referred to himself as "a Cambridge psychologist," a reflection of his belief that specializing in only one type of psychology was not an option given the broad intellectual environment at the University of Cambridge.

2.3. War Efforts and Applied Psychology

Following the publication of Remembering in 1932, Bartlett's research interests increasingly gravitated towards establishing more robust methodologies for social psychology by integrating insights from psychology and anthropology. From 1935 to 1938, he regularly convened with colleagues from various disciplines, including psychology, anthropology, and sociology, to foster collaborative research. His interest in applied psychology grew, particularly concerning military applications. This led to the establishment of the Applied Psychology Unit (APU) at the Cambridge Laboratory of Industrial Research in 1944. Bartlett, alongside Kenneth Craik, played a pivotal role in setting up this unit under the Medical Research Council. They worked with experimental psychologist Magdalen Dorothea Vernon, focusing their applied research on addressing issues identified by government agencies, including personnel training and experimental designs relevant to wartime operations. After Craik's untimely death in 1945, Bartlett assumed the directorship of the APU. He successfully managed this lectureship, which was largely aimed at military efforts. Bartlett's work on "bodily skills," expanding upon Craik's earlier research, particularly resonated with him, possibly influenced by his lifelong passion for sports. For his explanations of the adaptive synthesis of movements that humans develop in new situations, institutions in both England and the United States conferred numerous awards upon him. His significant contributions during World War II were officially recognized when he was awarded a CBE in 1941 and later knighted in 1948 for his services to the Royal Air Force, underscoring the vital role of his applied psychological work in the war effort.

3. Major Research and Works

Sir Frederic Bartlett's scholarly contributions were groundbreaking, establishing new paradigms in understanding human cognition, particularly emphasizing the role of social and cultural contexts. His major works laid the foundation for modern cognitive and social psychology.

3.1. Psychology and Primitive Culture (1923)

Published in 1923, Psychology and Primitive Culture marked Bartlett's inaugural book in the field of psychology. In this work, he developed a foundational framework for comprehending human action within its specific cultural context. Unlike his later, more renowned experimental studies, this book built its arguments upon extensive readings of ethnographic sources. Interestingly, Bartlett had initially aspired to pursue anthropology but was encouraged by his mentor, W. H. R. Rivers, to first undergo training as a psychologist. In Psychology and Primitive Culture, Bartlett specifically investigated the dynamics that emerge when different cultural groups interact, and the factors that influence the exchange and adoption of cultural elements between them. The book is also noteworthy for its explicit critique of Lucien Lévy-Bruhl's controversial concept of the 'primitive mind', advocating for a more nuanced understanding of human cognition across cultures.

3.2. Remembering (1932)

Bartlett's most celebrated work, Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology, was published in 1932 while he served as the Chair of Experimental Psychology at Cambridge. This seminal book explored Bartlett's concept of conventionalization in psychology. It synthesized his prior research, including various experiments that tested the human ability to recall information using figures, photographs, and stories. Remembering presented in-depth experimental studies on the processes of remembering, imaging, and perceiving, fundamentally framing "remembering as a study in social psychology." His overarching Theory of Remembering underscored the influential role of social conditions on memory, drawing comparisons between "free remembering" and memory recall under specific circumstances. The book provided a comprehensive analysis of Bartlett's influential schema theory, a concept that continues to inspire and shape scientific inquiry into schema theories today. Bartlett is also recognized for developing the transmission chain method, an experimental technique designed to study how information is serially reproduced and transformed, the studies of which are detailed within Remembering.

3.2.1. "War of the Ghosts" Experiment

The "War of the Ghosts" experiment, detailed in Remembering (1932), stands as Bartlett's most renowned study. It vividly demonstrated the reconstructive nature of memory and how an individual's own schema profoundly influences their recall. According to Bartlett, memory is constructive in that a person's recollection is not merely a passive retrieval of facts but is actively shaped by their personal opinions, experiences, existing knowledge, and expectations about what happened. In the experiment, Bartlett tasked his Edwardian English participants with reading a Native American folklore story titled "War of the Ghosts." Participants were subsequently asked to recall the story multiple times over extended intervals. Bartlett observed that with longer intervals between reading and recalling the story, participants' accuracy diminished significantly, and they often forgot substantial portions of the original information. Crucially, elements of the story that did not align with the listener's cultural schemata were either entirely omitted from their recollection or transformed into more familiar forms. Each participant's retelling of the story reflected aspects of their own culture, specifically Edwardian English culture in this instance. A prominent example of this phenomenon was observed when some participants, unfamiliar with the original context, recalled "canoes" from the story as "boats," demonstrating the pervasive influence of cultural background on memory distortion.

3.2.2. Transmission Chain Method

The transmission chain method is an innovative experimental technique that Bartlett developed and documented within his book Remembering. This method involves a process where information is passed serially from one person to the next, much like a game of Chinese whispers or "telephone." The initial participant receives a piece of information (e.g., a story, a drawing), which they then reproduce from memory for the next participant. This reproduction, in turn, becomes the stimulus for the subsequent participant, and so on, creating a chain of reproductions. Bartlett utilized this method to study the serial reproduction of information, and it proved instrumental in demonstrating how information changes, distorts, and conventionalizes as it is transmitted across individuals. The technique highlights the active, constructive nature of memory and its susceptibility to individual and cultural influences, providing insights into the mechanisms of cultural transmission and the evolution of collective memory over time.

3.3. Thinking (1958)

In 1958, Bartlett published Thinking: An Experimental and Social Study, a significant contribution to his later body of work. In this book, he explored and categorized various thinking processes employed by humans. His approach in Thinking often drew parallels with the methods he had previously utilized in Remembering (1932), such as the technique of story recollection. He conducted experiments involving "completion tasks," where participants were presented with open-ended stories and instructed to finish them in a realistic manner. Bartlett's findings from these experiments revealed that such completion, even if unconscious, offered valuable insights into how schemas, as frameworks for organizing past experiences, guide individuals toward constructive and predictive cognitive processes. This work further solidified his view on the active and constructive nature of human cognition.

3.4. Other Works and Research

Beyond his most renowned publications, Sir Frederic Bartlett produced several other significant works that showcase the breadth of his research interests, particularly in applied psychology and social contexts. These include:

  • Psychology and the Soldier (1927), which applied psychological principles to military contexts.
  • The Problem of Noise (1934), addressing the psychological impact of environmental noise.
  • Political Propaganda (1940), an analysis of the psychological underpinnings and effects of propaganda during a critical period.
  • Exercises in logic (1922), an early work reflecting his philosophical background.
  • Religion as Experience, Belief and Action (1950), exploring the psychological dimensions of religious phenomena.
  • The Mind at Work and Play (1951), a collection derived from his Royal Institution Christmas Lectures.

These works demonstrate Bartlett's consistent commitment to understanding human behavior in real-world, social, and cultural settings, extending his theoretical insights into practical applications.

4. Thought and Approach

Sir Frederic Bartlett held a distinctive perspective on psychology, often viewing cognitive psychology as a fundamental branch of social psychology. He maintained that understanding human cognition necessitated considering the pervasive influence of social factors and cultural context. Bartlett's scholarly curiosity extended far beyond the confines of traditional psychology; he demonstrated a keen interest in, and actively integrated insights from, anthropology, moral science, philosophy, and sociology into his psychological framework. This interdisciplinary approach was a hallmark of his work, distinguishing him from many contemporaries. He famously referred to himself as "a Cambridge psychologist" because, within the intellectual environment of the University of Cambridge, he believed that settling for a single, narrow type of psychology was not a viable option. He instead embraced a holistic view, arguing that research on memory, perception, and thinking should always be examined within everyday contexts from a social psychological perspective. His approach contrasted sharply with the more abstract, meaningless material often used in memory research by figures like Hermann Ebbinghaus, as Bartlett championed the use of meaningful materials to study the dynamic transformation of memory, ultimately leading to his influential concept of schemas.

5. Honours and Awards

Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett received numerous prestigious accolades and distinctions throughout his distinguished career, recognizing his profound contributions to psychology, his wartime service, and his scholarly achievements.

  • In 1922, he was appointed Director of the Psychological Laboratory at Cambridge.
  • In 1931, he was awarded a chair in experimental psychology at Cambridge, becoming the first professor in that field.
  • In 1932, the same year he published Remembering, Bartlett was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
  • In 1937, he was awarded an honoris causa from the University of Athens.
  • In 1941, he was appointed a CBE for his contributions during World War II.
  • In 1943, he received medals from The Royal Society, and later, the Royal Medal in 1952.
  • In 1944, Bartlett became the Director of the Unit for Research in Applied Psychology, a role he continued after Kenneth Craik's death in 1945.
  • In 1945, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.
  • In 1947, he was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences and received an honoris causa from Princeton University.
  • In 1948, Bartlett delivered the prestigious Royal Institution Christmas Lectures on The Mind at Work and Play. This year also marked his knighthood for his services to the Royal Air Force, acknowledging his critical wartime work in applied psychology.
  • In 1949, he received honoris causa degrees from the University of London and the University of Louvain.
  • In 1950, Bartlett was awarded the Presidency of the British Psychological Society.
  • In 1952, following his retirement in 1951, he was awarded the Longacre Award of the Aeromedical Association.
  • Between 1952 and 1963, he was elected as an honorary member by the National Psychological Societies of Spain, Sweden, Italy, Turkey, and Switzerland.
  • In 1956, he was a recipient of the Croonian Medal.
  • In 1958, he was recognized by the International Experimental Psychology Society and elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
  • In 1959, he was selected as a foreign associate member by the North American National Academy of Science and the North American Academy of Arts.

His legacy continues to be honored through the UK Ergonomics Society's annual Bartlett medal and the Experimental Psychology Society's annual Bartlett Lecture.

6. Legacy and Influence

Sir Frederic Bartlett's theories, particularly his schema theory and his innovative methods for studying memory, have exerted a profound and enduring impact on contemporary cognitive psychology, social psychology, and cultural psychology. He challenged the prevailing view of memory as a purely reproductive process, instead demonstrating its actively reconstructive nature and its susceptibility to distortion based on individual and cultural frameworks. His work, notably the "War of the Ghosts" experiment and the transmission chain method, provided empirical evidence for how prior knowledge, cultural experiences, and social expectations shape how individuals encode, store, and retrieve information. This emphasis on the influence of social factors and cultural context on cognition was groundbreaking and significantly advanced the understanding of human memory beyond the limitations of earlier, more mechanistic models. Bartlett's insights paved the way for future research into cognitive bias, false memory, and the role of narrative in shaping collective memory. His advocacy for studying psychological phenomena in meaningful, real-world contexts, rather than relying solely on artificial laboratory settings, continues to influence research methodologies across various psychological disciplines, cementing his status as a visionary figure whose ideas were ahead of their time.

7. Books

Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett authored numerous influential books throughout his career, contributing significantly to the fields of psychology and related disciplines. His published works include:

  • Exercises in logic (Clive, London, 1922)
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20120220083330/http://www.ppsis.cam.ac.uk/bartlett/PrimCult/PsyPrimContents.htm Psychology and Primitive Culture] (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1923)
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20120220083337/http://www.ppsis.cam.ac.uk/bartlett/Psych%20of%20Soldier/Psych%20of%20Soldier%20Contents.html Psychology And The Soldier] (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1927)
  • [http://www.bartlett.psychol.cam.ac.uk/TheoryOfRemembering.htm Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology] (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1932)
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20120220083415/http://www.ppsis.cam.ac.uk/bartlett/The%20Problem%20of%20Noise/Problem%20of%20Noise%20Contents.html The Problem of Noise] (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1934)
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20120220083456/http://www.ppsis.cam.ac.uk/bartlett/Political%20Propa/Political%20Prop%20Contents.html Political Propaganda] (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1940)
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20150328050712/http://www.bartlett.psychol.cam.ac.uk/Religion%20as%20Experience%20Belief%20and%20Action.html Religion as Experience, Belief and Action] (Cumberledge, London, 1950)
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20120220083525/http://www.ppsis.cam.ac.uk/bartlett/TheMindat/TheMindContents.htm The Mind at Work and Play] (Allen and Unwin, London, 1951)
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20120220083522/http://www.ppsis.cam.ac.uk/bartlett/Thinking/ThinkingContents.htm Thinking: An Experimental and Social Study] (Allen and Unwin, 1958)