Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

2.1. Ancestry and Family

The Mannerheim family originated in Germany, with their earliest known ancestor being Heinrich Marhein (1618-1667), a businessman and mill owner from Hamburg. Heinrich Marhein migrated to Gävle, Sweden, in the 17th century and changed his name to Henrik. His son, Augustin Marhein, further altered the surname to "Mannerheim" and was ennobled by Charles XI of Sweden in 1693. Augustin's son, Johan Augustin Mannerheim, an artillery colonel and mill manager, was elevated to the rank of baron (Vapaaherra^Finnish, Friherre^Swedish) in 1768, along with his brothers. While it was long believed that Henrik Marhein had emigrated from the Netherlands to Sweden, recent research has disproven this theory. The Mannerheim family's paternal line also includes Scottish ancestry, tracing back to George Wright, who moved from Dundee to Sweden in the 17th century and founded the Finnish noble family Von Wright.

The Mannerheim family relocated to Finland, then an integral part of Sweden, in the latter half of the 18th century. Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim's great-grandfather, Carl Erik Mannerheim (1759-1837), was a significant public servant in the early years of the Grand Duchy of Finland after it became an autonomous part of the Russian Empire in 1809. He served as a member of the Senate of Finland and was the first head of the Senate's Economic Division, a position that preceded the modern Prime Minister of Finland. In 1825, Carl Erik Mannerheim was further elevated to the rank of count (Kreivi^Finnish, Greve^Swedish).

His grandfather, Carl Gustaf Mannerheim (1797-1854), was a renowned entomologist and jurist, serving as the President of the Vyborg Court of Appeals. Mannerheim's paternal grandmother, Eva Wilhelmina Mannerheim (née von Schantz), was a leading figure in Finnish high society.

Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim's father, Count Carl Robert Mannerheim (1835-1914), was a liberal and radical playwright, as well as a successful industrialist. He was the director of Kuusankoski Ltd., the first limited company in the Nordic countries to successfully implement rotary paper production, and imported modern business machinery through his company Systema. Mannerheim's mother, Hedvig Charlotta Helena von Julin (1842-1881), was the daughter of the wealthy industrialist John von Julin, whose family owned the Fiskars ironworks and the village of Fiskars.

2.2. Childhood and Education

Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim was born at Louhisaari Manor in the parish of Askainen (now part of Masku) on June 4, 1867. As the third child in the family, he inherited the title of Baron, while the Count title was passed down to the eldest son.

His childhood was marked by financial difficulties and family discord. In the late 1870s, his father, Carl Robert Mannerheim, suffered from a manic-depressive disorder, leading to overly optimistic financial decisions and eventually bankruptcy in 1880. To settle debts, the family had to sell Louhisaari Manor and their art collection. His father then left the family for a mistress and moved to Paris, embracing a bohemian lifestyle. He later returned to Helsinki in 1887 and founded Systema, which he managed until his death. The financial ruin and his father's abandonment deeply affected his mother, Hedvig Charlotta Helena, who died of a heart attack in 1881, likely due to shame and depression. Following her death, the seven Mannerheim children were separated and raised by relatives. His maternal uncle, Albert von Julin, became Gustaf Mannerheim's legal guardian and supported his later schooling.

At the age of 13, Mannerheim was sent to the Hamina Cadet School in 1882, a state military academy that trained aristocratic boys for service in the Finnish Grand Duchy Army and the Imperial Russian Army. Standing at 6 in (6.3 ft ^{(1.93 m)}), he towered over his classmates. He found the school and the confined social circles of Hamina stifling. His behavior remained problematic, and he was expelled in 1886 for unauthorized leave.

With the path to a military career in Finland's Grand Duchy Army closed, his only option for advancement was through Russian officer training institutions. Mannerheim, who did not harbor resentment towards this idea, enrolled in the Helsinki Private Lyceum, passing his university entrance examinations in June 1887. He then sought to enter the Imperial Cavalry School in Saint Petersburg but faced financial constraints. With the help of his godmother, Countess Alfhild Scalon de Coligny, who had connections to the Russian Imperial family, he gained admission to the Nicholas Cavalry College in Saint Petersburg in July 1887. He took the oath of allegiance to the Russian Tsar on September 16, 1887. He graduated in 1889, ranking tenth in his class, a lower position than he could have achieved due to an incident involving alcohol and an argument with a senior officer about Finnish autonomy, prompting him to vow never to overindulge again. Upon graduation, he was commissioned as a Cornet of Cavalry and assigned to the 15th Alexandrijski Dragoon Regiment in Kalisz, near the German-Russian border.

Mannerheim was fluent in his native Swedish and learned Finnish during his early schooling in Helsinki. However, he largely forgot Finnish during his 30 years of service in the Imperial Russian Army (1887-1917) and had to relearn it later in life. He also became proficient in Russian, French, and German, and spoke some English, Polish, Portuguese, Latin, and Chinese. His strong Swedish accent in Finnish was so pronounced that he often relied on an interpreter during the Civil War.

3.1. Service in the Imperial Russian Army

Mannerheim served in the Imperial Chevalier Guard Regiment in Saint Petersburg from January 1891 until 1904. His height of 6.1 ft ^{(1.87 m)} (6 in) proved advantageous in court ceremonies, and he had a prominent role in the 1896 coronation of Emperor Nicholas II, standing for four hours at the foot of the imperial throne. He considered this coronation a high point of his life, recalling it as "indescribably magnificent."

From 1897 to 1903, he was seconded to the Imperial Court Stables Administration, where he specialized in horses, purchasing breeding stock and military horses from various countries. In 1903, he was appointed commander of the model squadron in the Imperial Chevalier Guard and became a member of the equestrian training board of the cavalry regiments. After his separation from his wife, his financial situation deteriorated, exacerbated by gambling losses, leading to a period of depression. Seeking a change of environment, he volunteered for active service in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904.

In October 1904, he was transferred to the 52nd Nezhin Dragoon Regiment in Manchuria with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. He saw his first action during a reconnaissance patrol on the plains of Manchuria, where his horse was shot from under him. For his bravery in the Battle of Mukden in 1905, he was promoted to Colonel. He briefly commanded an irregular unit of Hong Huzi, a local militia, on an exploratory mission into Inner Mongolia, even leading a group of local bandits to outmaneuver the enemy. Upon his return to Saint Petersburg in January 1906, after a long private leave, he participated in the Finnish Parliament as a representative of the baronial branch of his family.

Mannerheim, who had a long career in the Imperial Russian army, also rose to become a courtier of Emperor Nicholas II. He kept a large portrait of Emperor Nicholas II in the living room of his house in Helsinki right up to his death, and when asked after the overthrow of the House of Romanov why he kept the portrait up, he always answered: "He was my emperor."

3.2. Expedition Across Asia

In March 1906, Mannerheim was summoned to the Russian General Staff in Saint Petersburg and tasked with a secret intelligence mission: to join a French archaeological expedition led by Paul Pelliot across Central Asia, through Turkestan and Tibet, to Beijing. While Pelliot's objective was archaeological research, Mannerheim's true mission was to gather intelligence on the political and military situation in Qing China, particularly the feasibility of a Russian invasion of Western China, as part of the "Great Game" rivalry with Britain for control of inner Asia. Mannerheim was also personally drawn to the opportunity to explore and document foreign cultures for Finland.

Disguised as an ethnographic collector, Mannerheim began his journey by train from Saint Petersburg, collecting intelligence in Tashkent. He joined Pelliot's expedition in Andijan, Uzbekistan, after arranging for horses and porters in Osh. However, after a dispute with Pelliot over supplies en route to Kashgar in Xinjiang, Mannerheim completed most of the expedition independently.

With a small caravan, including a Cossack guide, a Chinese interpreter, and a Uyghur cook, Mannerheim first trekked to Khotan to search for British and Japanese spies. Returning to Kashgar, he then headed north into the Tian Shan range, surveying passes and assessing the attitudes of local tribes (Kalmyks, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz) towards the Han Chinese. He arrived in Urumqi, the provincial capital of Xinjiang, and then journeyed east through Turpan, Hami, and Dunhuang into Gansu province.

On January 29, 1908, he reached Lanzhou and continued eastward, visiting Xi'an on April 28 and Kaifeng on May 30. From Kaifeng, he traveled by train to Shanxi province, where at the sacred Buddhist mountain of Mount Wutai, he met the 13th Dalai Lama, who had been exiled by the British. The Dalai Lama sought Russian assistance, and Mannerheim presented him with a pistol as a gift. He then traveled north by carriage and rail to Hohhot, the capital of Inner Mongolia, observing the Chinese colonization of Mongol pastures and the growing unrest among the Mongols due to corrupt governors.

Mannerheim finally arrived in Beijing on July 25, 1908, after traveling approximately 8.7 K mile ^{(14.00 K km)}, 6.2 K mile ^{(10.00 K km)} of which were on horseback, often with minimal local support. During his journey, he collected 1,200 artifacts, 1,370 photographs, and 2,000 ancient documents. His academic paper, published in 1911, was highly regarded by contemporary explorers like Sven Hedin.

After a six-week stay in Beijing, he returned to Saint Petersburg via Tianjin, Nagasaki, and Vladivostok on the Trans-Siberian Railway, arriving on October 8, 1908. His detailed intelligence report covered China's slow modernization, education, military reforms, Han Chinese colonization of ethnic borderlands, mining and industry, railway construction, Japanese influence, and opium smoking. He also secretly reported on the potential for Russian military deployment in Xinjiang and its strategic value in future negotiations with China. This extensive journey through Asia instilled in him a lifelong passion for Asian art, which he continued to collect.

Upon his return to Russia in 1909, Mannerheim was appointed commander of the 13th Vladimir Uhlan Regiment in Mińsk Mazowiecki, Poland. The following year, he was promoted to major general and became commander of the Life Guard Uhlan Regiment of His Imperial Majesty in Warsaw. In 1912, he received the prestigious à la suite title from Nicholas II, given only to select staff officers, and in 1914, he was appointed commander of the Separate Guards Cavalry Brigade, overseeing two cavalry regiments and an artillery battery.

3.3. Finnish Civil War

When World War I erupted in July 1914, Mannerheim commanded the Separate Guards Cavalry Brigade on the Austro-Hungarian and Romanian fronts. He distinguished himself in combat against Austro-Hungarian forces, earning the Order of St. George, 4th class, in December 1914, remarking, "Now I can die in peace." In March 1915, he was appointed commander of the 12th Cavalry Division, operating in Eastern Galicia. During the Brusilov Offensive in June 1916, his division supported the successful Russian advance, leading to Romania's entry into the war on the Allied side. His division was then moved to the Carpathian Mountains to support Romania. In December 1916, after the fall of Bucharest to the Central Powers, his forces defended along the Siret River. These experiences taught him valuable lessons in defensive warfare and command.

In January 1917, while his division was in reserve, Mannerheim took leave to visit Finland and Saint Petersburg, where he witnessed the outbreak of the February Revolution. After returning to the front, he was promoted to Lieutenant General in April 1917 (backdated to February 1915) and took command of the 6th Cavalry Corps. However, he fell out of favor with the new Russian Provisional Government, which viewed him as unsupportive of the revolution. In September, he retired on medical leave due to an old knee injury and returned to Finland in December 1917. This move was also influenced by his concerns about the rising socialist influence in Finland and the potential for a socialist revolution.

Following the October Revolution in Russia, Finland declared its independence on December 6, 1917. The newly independent nation, however, lacked a proper military, as the Finnish army had been abolished by Nicholas II in 1905. The conservative-leaning Senate of Finland, led by Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, tasked Mannerheim with creating a national army. The country soon plunged into the Finnish Civil War between the pro-Bolshevik "Reds" and the "Whites" (supporters of the Senate). Mannerheim was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the White Guard on January 13, 1918. He established his headquarters in Vaasa, the temporary capital, and disarmed the remaining 42,500 Russian Imperial Army troops in Finland. In March 1918, he was promoted to General of Cavalry.

The White Guard, initially numbering only 24,000 men, faced a Red Guard of 30,000 men backed by 70,000 Red Russian troops still in Finland. Mannerheim's forces were financed by a 15.00 M FIM credit line and had limited arms. He implemented conscription in February, raising the White forces to approximately 70,000 men, including Finnish officers trained in Germany (Jägers) and Swedish volunteers. While the Reds initially controlled key industrial cities like Tampere, Helsinki, and Vyborg, the Whites gradually gained ground through strategic defense.

Mannerheim initially opposed German military intervention, advocating for Finland to fight for its independence independently and maintain armed neutrality in cooperation with Nordic countries. He feared that reliance on a major power would compromise Finland's sovereignty. However, the Finnish government, desperate for support, sought German aid. Mannerheim agreed to German assistance only on the condition that the German troops would not fight other foreign armies and that he would retain overall command. The German forces, led by Rüdiger von der Goltz, landed in Finland in April 1918, occupying Helsinki with little resistance. Meanwhile, Mannerheim's White forces launched a counter-offensive, capturing Tampere on April 3 and securing Vyborg. The Civil War concluded with the White victory, and Mannerheim led a triumphal victory parade in Helsinki on May 16, 1918.

Following the White victory, which involved ruthless terror tactics by both sides, Mannerheim resigned as Commander-in-Chief on May 25, 1918. He left Finland in June 1918 to visit relatives in Sweden, distancing himself from the Finnish government's pro-German policies. He recognized the shifting tide of World War I and the impending Allied victory.

3.4. Commander-in-Chief of Finnish Forces

Mannerheim's leadership was critical during Finland's most challenging periods, particularly during World War II.

As Chairman of the Finnish Defence Council from 1931 to 1939, Mannerheim opposed war with the Soviet Union. When the Soviets demanded territory from Finland in 1939, he advised the Finnish government to concede, arguing that the Finnish Army was not adequately prepared. Despite his warnings, negotiations failed, and the Winter War began with a Soviet attack on November 30, 1939. At 72 years old, Mannerheim reluctantly accepted the role of Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces, a position he had been promised in writing by President Pehr Evind Svinhufvud in 1931 and renewed by President Kyösti Kallio in 1937. He expressed his heavy burden in a letter to his daughter Sofia, stating, "I had not wanted to undertake the responsibility of commander-in-chief, as my age and my health entitled me, but I had to yield to appeals from the President of the Republic and the government, and now for the fourth time I am at war."

On the day the war began, he issued his first order of the day to the Defence Forces:
"The President of the Republic has appointed me on 30 November 1939 as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces of the country. Brave soldiers of Finland! I enter on this task at a time when our hereditary enemy is once again attacking our country. Confidence in one's commander is the first condition for success. You know me and I know you and know that everyone in the ranks is ready to do his duty even to death. This war is nothing other than the continuation and final act of our War of Independence. We are fighting for our homes, our faith, and our country."
The defensive fortifications they manned became known as the Mannerheim Line.

Mannerheim quickly established his headquarters in Mikkeli, with Lieutenant General Aksel Airo as his chief of staff and his close friend, General Rudolf Walden, serving as a liaison to the cabinet. He spent most of the Winter War and the subsequent Continuation War at his Mikkeli headquarters, but frequently visited the front lines to boost troop morale. He famously stated, "Forts, cannons and foreign aid will not help unless every man himself knows that he is the guard of his country."

After the Winter War concluded with the Moscow Peace Treaty on March 12, 1940, Mannerheim technically should have returned command to the President, but both Kallio and his successor, Risto Ryti, allowed him to retain the position. As the geopolitical situation worsened, with the Soviet Union occupying the Baltic states and Germany invading Denmark and Norway, Finland found itself in a precarious position. In July 1940, Germany offered Finland recognition of its independence and transit rights for German troops. Mannerheim attempted to secure neutrality with Sweden but Germany opposed it.

When Germany launched Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, Finnish territory was used for German attacks, leading to Soviet air raids on Finland and the start of the Continuation War. Mannerheim, who coined the term "Continuation War," maintained a formal relationship with Adolf Hitler's government, consistently refusing to tie Finland to Nazi war aims. He declined Hitler's offer to command 80,000 German troops in Finland, ensuring Finland's independence of action. While he was prepared for cooperation with Germany due to the Soviet threat, he did not appreciate Hitler's ideology, comparing his rise to the Bolshevik takeover in Russia. Mannerheim firmly refused to allow Finnish troops to participate in the direct assault on Leningrad, although Finnish forces did take part in the Siege of Leningrad.

On June 20, 1942, while inspecting Finnish front-line troops in Povenets, Mannerheim and his staff came under direct fire from a Soviet anti-tank gun. A shell exploded near him, and he took cover until Finnish counter-battery fire neutralized the threat.

Mannerheim's 75th birthday on June 4, 1942, was a national celebration, and the government granted him the unique title of Marshal of Finland (Suomen Marsalkka^Finnish, Marskalk av Finland^Swedish), a title he remains the sole recipient of. A surprise visit from Hitler on this day was not entirely welcomed by Mannerheim. The meeting, arranged secretly near Imatra to avoid the appearance of an official state visit, lasted about five hours. Hitler reportedly urged the Finns to intensify military operations against the Soviets but made no specific demands.

During Hitler's visit, a Finnish broadcasting engineer, Thor Damen, secretly recorded the first eleven minutes of Hitler's and Mannerheim's private conversation, the only known recording of Hitler speaking outside of a formal occasion. Damen managed to place a microphone through a car window onto a net shelf just above where they were sitting. When SS bodyguards discovered the recording, they demanded its destruction, but Yleisradio was allowed to keep the reel, sealed, and it was later released to the public in 1957.

An unsubstantiated anecdote from this meeting claims Mannerheim lit a cigar, a known aversion of Hitler's, to gauge Hitler's position of strength. When Hitler calmly continued the conversation, Mannerheim concluded that Hitler was in a weak position and could not dictate terms. Mannerheim later returned the visit, traveling to Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia.

Mannerheim's wartime command is complex. While he successfully defended Finland from Soviet occupation, critics, particularly from the left and communist circles, argue that his command style, which favored direct reports to him and bypassed his chief of staff, led to coordination issues and potentially contributed to the failure to predict the Soviet Karelian offensive in 1944. However, his political acumen in navigating the complex relationship with Germany, refusing to fully commit Finland to Nazi war aims, is widely praised. He was a central figure who, despite his military background, understood the political necessity of preserving Finland's sovereignty.

3.5. Military Ranks and Postings

Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim held the following military ranks and significant postings throughout his distinguished career:

4.1. Regent of Finland

In October 1918, recognizing his rapport with the Allies, the Finnish government sent Mannerheim to Britain and France to secure their recognition of Finland's independence. While in Paris in December, he was recalled to Finland after Frederick Charles of Hesse renounced the throne. Mannerheim was then elected Regent (Valtionhoitaja^Finnish, Riksföreståndare^Swedish), a provisional head of state for the nascent kingdom. Some monarchists even sought to make him King of Finland.

As Regent, Mannerheim often signed official documents using Kustaa, the Finnish form of his Christian name, Gustaf. This was a deliberate effort to emphasize his Finnish identity to those who harbored suspicions due to his long service in the Russian armed forces and his initial difficulties with the Finnish language. He disliked his last Christian name, Emil, and typically signed as C. G. Mannerheim or simply Mannerheim. Among his relatives and close friends, he was known as Gustaf.

Mannerheim successfully secured recognition of Finnish independence from Britain and the United States. Domestically, he pursued a policy of reconciliation, granting amnesty to those who had fought for the Red side in the Civil War. He also strengthened national defense by enacting a new conscription law in February 1919 and establishing officer academies. While he aimed for cooperation with Nordic countries, the unresolved dispute over the Åland Islands created ongoing tension with Sweden. In foreign policy, he advocated for Finnish intervention in the Russian Civil War to support the White Army against the Bolsheviks, hoping for a republican Russia that would secure European stability and Finland's eastern borders (including claims to Petsamo and East Karelia). However, this proposal found little support in Finland, and many Russian White leaders did not recognize Finnish independence.

In July 1919, after confirming a new, republican constitution, Mannerheim ran as a candidate in Finland's first presidential election, with Parliament serving as the electors. He was supported by the National Coalition Party and the Swedish People's Party. However, with the return of socialist influence following the amnesty and their strong showing in the May elections (80 out of 200 seats), the Social Democratic Party backed Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg. Mannerheim lost the election by a vote of 143 to 50 and subsequently withdrew from public life.

4.2. Interwar Period Activities

During the interwar years, Mannerheim held no public office, largely due to his controversial image among many politicians of the center and left. His fierce opposition to the Bolsheviks, his perceived desire for Finnish intervention in the Russian Civil War on the side of the Whites, and the Finnish socialists' antipathy towards him, who viewed him as the "bourgeois" "White General," made him a divisive figure. Mannerheim himself doubted the ability of modern party-based politics to produce principled and high-quality leaders, believing that national interests were too often sacrificed for partisan gain.

Despite his absence from formal politics, Mannerheim remained active in public life. He served as Chairman of the Finnish Red Cross from 1919 until his death in 1951 and was a member of the board of the International Red Cross. In 1920, he founded the Mannerheim League for Child Welfare (Mannerheimin Lastensuojeluliitto^Finnish), inspired by his sister Sophie's hospital for war-affected children. He also held leadership roles in the financial sector, serving as chairman of the supervisory board of Liittopankki-Unionsbanken, and after its merger with the Bank of Helsinki, continued as chairman until 1934. He was also a member of the board of Nokia Corporation. In 1925, he was asked to run for president but declined. He even offered to serve in the French Foreign Legion during the Rif War (1925-1926) but was turned down.

Mannerheim also indulged his passion for travel and hunting, undertaking extensive journeys in Asia during the 1920s and 1930s. In 1927, to avoid Soviet territory, he traveled from London by ship to Kolkata in British India, then overland to Burma, spending a month in Yangon and Mandalay. He also visited Sikkim before returning to Finland by car and airplane via Basra, Baghdad, Cairo, and Venice. In 1936, he embarked on a second voyage, sailing from Aden to Mumbai, where he reconnected with many European acquaintances. His travels and hunting expeditions took him to Chennai, Delhi, and Nepal, where he was invited by Prime Minister Juddha Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana to a tiger hunt. During this hunt, he famously killed a tiger measuring 11 ft ^{(3.23 m)} (10.6 ft), reportedly responsible for two human deaths; its pelt is now displayed at the Mannerheim Museum in Helsinki. In the same year, Mannerheim made a private visit to the United Kingdom, where he was accompanied by security guards provided by Prime Minister Winston Churchill. However, Mannerheim, a fatalist who believed strongly in fate and his own authority, was reportedly bothered by their presence. In 1936, he also represented the Finnish government at the funeral of King George V of the United Kingdom.

In 1929, Mannerheim refused an appeal from right-wing radicals to become a de facto military dictator, despite expressing some initial support for the right-wing Lapua Movement. The movement's use of violence, including the kidnapping of former President Ståhlberg, led to a loss of support from Mannerheim and others. When Pehr Evind Svinhufvud was elected president in 1931, he appointed Mannerheim as chairman of Finland's Defence Council and gave him a written promise that he would become the Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Army in the event of war. Svinhufvud's successor, Kyösti Kallio, renewed this promise in 1937. In 1933, Mannerheim was promoted to Field Marshal (sotamarsalkka^Finnish, fältmarskalk^Swedish). By this time, he was increasingly seen by the public, including some former socialists, as a nonpartisan national figure, a perception enhanced by his public calls for reconciliation after the Civil War and a focus on national unity and defense: "we need not ask where a man stood fifteen years ago."

Mannerheim actively supported Finland's military industry and sought, unsuccessfully, to form a military defense union with Sweden. He worked to modernize the Finnish army, implementing reforms to the mobilization system in 1934 to speed up the response time of the standing army. A plan was devised to mobilize up to 315,000 men, representing 8.6% of the population, in an emergency. He also campaigned to raise public awareness of the need for strong defense. However, due to the economic depression and disagreements with various cabinets over defense budgets, rearming the Finnish army did not proceed as swiftly as he hoped, and he frequently submitted letters of resignation due to these frustrations.

4.3. Presidency of Finland

In June 1944, as a major Soviet offensive threatened Finland, Mannerheim believed it was necessary to secure German support by agreeing to the pact demanded by German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop. To distance himself from the agreement and allow for its later revocation, Mannerheim arranged for President Risto Ryti to sign it, thus it became known as the Ryti-Ribbentrop Agreement. This allowed Mannerheim to revoke the agreement upon Ryti's resignation in early August 1944.

With Germany sufficiently weakened and the Soviet summer offensive stalled (notably at the Battle of Tali-Ihantala) due to the June agreement with the Germans, Finland's leaders saw an opportunity for peace with the Soviet Union. Initially, Mannerheim was urged to become prime minister, but he declined due to his age and lack of experience in civil government. The next proposal was for him to become head of state. Risto Ryti would resign, and Parliament would appoint Mannerheim as Regent, reflecting the exceptional circumstances of his election. Both Mannerheim and Ryti agreed, and Ryti submitted his resignation on August 1. However, Mannerheim preferred to be elected President. Due to the difficult circumstances, a regular election was not possible. Instead, the Parliament of Finland passed a special act conferring the presidency on Mannerheim on August 4, 1944, and he took the oath of office the same day.

Mannerheim's inaugural address to Parliament reflected the perilous state of Finland:
"Mr. Speaker, first of all I wish to express my sincere thanks for the kind words you have spoken concerning me. Honorable Members of Parliament, I am deeply aware of the heavy responsibility that rests upon me in accepting for the second time the office of Head of State at this critical moment in the nation's destiny. The great tasks are the difficulties that must be overcome to secure our future. What is foremost in my mind at this moment is the Finnish Army, which has now been fighting for five years. I hope and believe that with the support of Parliament, the Government, and the united people behind us, we shall succeed in preserving our independence and the existence of our nation."

A month after Mannerheim took office, the Continuation War concluded with the Moscow Armistice, imposing harsh but ultimately far less severe terms than those faced by other states bordering the Soviet Union. Finland retained its sovereignty, parliamentary democracy, and market economy, though territorial losses were considerable, including a portion of Karelia and all of Petsamo. Numerous Karelian refugees required relocation, and war reparations amounted to 300.00 M USD. Finland also had to fight the Lapland War against withdrawing German troops in the north while simultaneously demobilizing its own army, making the expulsion of Germans more challenging. Mannerheim appointed Lieutenant General Hjalmar Siilasvuo to command this action.

Before accepting the Soviet demands, Mannerheim sent a direct missive to Hitler:
"Our German brothers-in-arms will forever remain in our hearts. The Germans in Finland were certainly not the representatives of foreign despotism but helpers and brothers-in-arms. But even in such cases foreigners are in difficult positions requiring such tact. I can assure you that during the past years nothing whatsoever happened that could have induced us to consider the German troops intruders or oppressors. I believe that the attitude of the German Army in northern Finland towards the local population and authorities will enter our history as a unique example of a correct and cordial relationship ... I deem it my duty to lead my people out of the war. I cannot and I will not turn the arms which you have so liberally supplied us against Germans. I harbour the hope that you, even if you disapprove of my attitude, will wish and endeavour like myself and all other Finns to terminate our former relations without increasing the gravity of the situation."

Mannerheim's term as president was difficult. Though elected for a full six-year term, he was 77 years old and had accepted the office reluctantly. The situation was exacerbated by frequent periods of ill-health, the demands of the Soviet-dominated Allied Control Commission, and the war responsibility trials. He feared prosecution for crimes against peace throughout much of his presidency, but this never occurred, partly due to Joseph Stalin's respect and admiration for the Marshal. Stalin reportedly told a Finnish delegation in Moscow in 1947 that the Finns owed much to their old Marshal, implying that Mannerheim's presence prevented Finland's occupation. Despite his criticisms of some Control Commission demands, Mannerheim worked diligently to fulfill Finland's armistice obligations and emphasized the necessity of post-war reconstruction.

Mannerheim, despite his aristocratic background, had to learn parliamentary politics, which he did not fully respect. He even reluctantly appointed the first Communist ministers. Troubled by recurring health problems in 1945, he took medical leave from November until February 1946, spending six weeks in Portugal to recuperate. After the verdicts in the war crimes trials were announced in February, Mannerheim decided to resign. He believed he had accomplished his duties: the war was ended, armistice obligations fulfilled, and war responsibility trials concluded.

Mannerheim resigned as president on March 4, 1946, citing declining health and the completion of his assigned tasks. Even Finnish communists, his former adversaries from the Civil War, acknowledged and appreciated his efforts to maintain national unity during those challenging times. He was succeeded by the conservative Prime Minister J. K. Paasikivi.

5.1. Marriage and Daughters

In 1892, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim married Anastasia Arapova (1872-1936), a wealthy noblewoman of Russian-Serbian heritage and the orphaned daughter of Major General Nikolai Arapov. The marriage, arranged by his godmother, helped alleviate his financial concerns. They had two daughters: Anastasie "Stasie" (1893-1978) and Sofia "Sophy" (1895-1963). Their third child, a son, was stillborn.

Anastasie later converted to Catholicism and became a Carmelite nun in London. Mannerheim and Anastasia Arapova's marriage informally ended with their separation in 1902 and was formally dissolved through a civil divorce in 1919.

6.1. Views on Governance and National Integration

Mannerheim approached leadership with a pragmatic mindset, emphasizing national unity above partisan divisions. He believed that the interests of the fatherland were too often sacrificed by democratic politicians for party gain, leading him to doubt whether modern party-based politics could consistently produce principled and high-quality leaders. This critical view of parliamentary politics stemmed from his aristocratic background, though he adapted to it when necessary, even appointing the first Communist ministers during his presidency, albeit reluctantly.

His vision for Finland centered on strengthening its defense and international standing. He tirelessly advocated for military preparedness, supporting Finland's military industry and seeking a defense union with Sweden, though this did not materialize. He famously called for national reconciliation after the Civil War, stating, "we need not ask where a man stood fifteen years ago," to foster unity and focus on common national goals. He believed that a strong military and a unified nation were essential for Finland to maintain its independence against external threats, particularly from the Soviet Union. His foreign policy was characterized by farsightedness, as he prepared for potential Soviet invasions years before they occurred, recognizing that small nations could not rely solely on external aid without risking their sovereignty. He famously stated that "relying entirely on great powers is as dangerous as opposing them."

7.1. Retirement and Memoirs

Following his resignation from the presidency, Marshal Baron Mannerheim purchased Kirkniemi Manor in Lohja, intending to spend his retirement there. However, his health continued to decline. In June 1946, he underwent surgery for a perforated peptic ulcer, and in October of the same year, he was diagnosed with a duodenal ulcer. In early 1947, he was advised to travel to the Valmont Sanatorium in Montreux, Switzerland, to recuperate and begin writing his memoirs. Valmont became his primary residence for the remainder of his life, although he regularly returned to Finland and also visited Sweden, France, and Italy.

Due to his age and poor health, Mannerheim personally wrote only certain passages of his memoirs, dictating other parts. The remaining sections were compiled from his recollections by various assistants, including Colonel Aladár Paasonen, General Erik Heinrichs, Generals Grandell, Olenius, and Martola, and Colonel Viljanen, a war historian. As long as his health permitted, Mannerheim proofread the typewritten drafts. His memoirs largely omitted details of his private life, focusing instead on Finland's history, particularly the period between 1917 and 1944. He suffered a fatal bowel obstruction in January 1951, and his memoirs were not yet complete at the time of his death. They were subsequently published posthumously.

7.2. Death and Funeral

Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim died on January 27, 1951 (January 28, Finnish time), at the Cantonal Hospital in Lausanne, Switzerland. His body was transported back to Finland, where he was buried on February 4, 1951, in the Hietaniemi Cemetery in Helsinki. His funeral was a state funeral held with full military honors, reflecting his immense stature as a national figure.

8.1. National Hero and "Father of Modern Finland"

Today, Mannerheim is widely revered as Finland's greatest statesman and military leader. This enduring respect is attributed to his consistent refusal to engage in partisan politics, his unwavering dedication to serving the fatherland without selfish motives, his personal courage in visiting front lines during wartime, his diligent work ethic well into his late seventies, and his foreign policy foresight in preparing for the Soviet invasion years before it occurred. He is often referred to as the "Father of Modern Finland" due to his unparalleled role in establishing and preserving Finland's independence from Russia and later the Soviet Union.

In a Finnish survey conducted 53 years after his death, in 2004, Mannerheim was voted the greatest Finn of all time. During his lifetime, alongside Jean Sibelius, he was the most recognized Finnish personality both domestically and internationally. A cult of personality began to form around Mannerheim immediately after the Civil War, solidifying his image as a unifying symbol of the nation. The New York Times described the Mannerheim Museum in Helsinki, which memorializes his life, as "the closest thing there is to a [Finnish] national shrine."

8.2. Impact on Finnish Society

Mannerheim's influence extended across Finnish society, significantly shaping its military strategy, national identity, and political stability. His pragmatic approach to leadership and his emphasis on national unity over partisan divides were crucial in navigating the complex post-Civil War landscape and the challenges of World War II. He is credited with modernizing the Finnish military and implementing effective defense strategies that allowed Finland to retain its sovereignty despite overwhelming odds.

His birthday, June 4, is celebrated as Flag Day by the Finnish Defence Forces. This tradition began in 1942, on his 75th birthday, when he was also granted the unique title of Marshal of Finland. Flag Day is marked by a national parade and ceremonies for rewards and promotions within the defense forces.

8.3. Criticisms and Controversies

Despite his revered status, Mannerheim's actions have faced objective criticism and controversy, particularly concerning his role in the Civil War and his dealings with Germany.

During the Finnish Civil War, both the White and Red sides employed ruthless terror tactics, and Mannerheim, as Commander-in-Chief of the Whites, is associated with the White Terror. Finnish socialists and communists often viewed him as the "bourgeois" "White General," harboring antipathy towards him for his role in suppressing the Red revolution and his perceived desire for Finnish intervention on the side of the Whites during the Russian Civil War.

Critics also point to issues with his command style during World War II. Mannerheim's preference for direct reports from departmental heads, bypassing his chief of staff, General Erik Heinrichs, reportedly overwhelmed him and led to coordination difficulties within the General Headquarters. It has been suggested that this contributed to the failure to anticipate the Soviet Karelian offensive in June 1944. Furthermore, some politicians, like President Risto Ryti and Prime Minister Edwin Linkomies, criticized Mannerheim for what they perceived as a tendency to prioritize his historical reputation and for displaying temperamental behavior common among renowned artists. J. K. Paasikivi, who succeeded Mannerheim as president, noted that Mannerheim, being elderly, was not always calm.

His wartime cooperation with Nazi Germany, though presented as a pragmatic necessity to counter the Soviet threat, remains a sensitive point. While Mannerheim successfully avoided tying Finland to Nazi ideological war aims and refused Hitler's direct command over German troops in Finland, the alliance itself is a subject of historical debate.

8.4. Memorials and Honors

Numerous memorials, landmarks, and institutions across Finland honor Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim. The most prominent is the equestrian statue located on Mannerheimintie (Mannerheim Road), the most prominent boulevard in Helsinki, which was renamed in his honor during his lifetime. The Hotel Marski in Helsinki's Kamppi district is also named after him.

Other statues dedicated to him can be found in Turku and Seinäjoki. Notably, the Mannerheim statue in Tampere, depicting him as the victorious Civil War general, was eventually placed several kilometers outside the city in a forest, partly due to lingering controversy surrounding his role in the Civil War. Additional statues have been erected in Mikkeli and Lahti.

His former hunting lodge and resting place, known as the "Marshal's Cabin" (Marskin Maja^Finnish), is situated on the shores of Lake Punelia in Loppi, Finland, and now serves as both a museum and a restaurant. The "Marskin ryyppy" (Marshal's shot), a potent drink made from aquavit mixed with gin and French vermouth, is widely known in Finland, originating from Mannerheim's preference for a stronger spirit than was commonly available.

Mannerheim has also been commemorated on postage stamps. From 1937 to 1967, at least five different Finnish postage stamps or series were issued in his honor. In 1960, the United States honored him as the "Liberator of Finland" with regular first-class domestic and international stamps, as part of its Champions of Liberty series, which included figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Simón Bolívar.

He has been portrayed in various media, including Ilmari Turja's 1966 play and its 1970 film adaptation, The Headquarters, where he was played by Joel Rinne. He was also portrayed by Asko Sarkola in the 2001 television film Valtapeliä elokuussa 1940.

In 2003, a commemorative 10 EUR coin featuring Mannerheim and Saint Petersburg was minted, with his portrait on the obverse.