Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar

2.1. Birth and Family

Agha Mohammad Khan was born in Astarabad around 1742. He belonged to the Quwanlu branch of the Qajar tribe, one of the original Turkoman Qizilbash tribes that emerged in Asia Minor between the tenth and eleventh centuries. These tribes later provided significant support to the Safavids from the dynasty's earliest days. The Qajar tribe included several other branches, notably the Develu, which often engaged in conflict with the Quwanlu.

Agha Mohammad Khan was the eldest son of Mohammad Hasan Khan Qajar, the chieftain of the Quwanlu clan. His grandfather was Fath-Ali Khan Qajar, a prominent aristocrat who was executed on the orders of Shah Tahmasp II, possibly at the compulsion of Nader Shah, who usurped the Iranian throne in 1736 to found the Afsharid dynasty. Agha Mohammad Khan had several half-brothers and full-brothers, including Hossein Qoli Khan, Morteza Qoli Khan, Mostafa Qoli Khan, Reza Qoli Khan, Jafar Qoli Khan, Mehdi Qoli Khan, Abbas Qoli Khan, and Ali Qoli Khan.

2.2. Youth and Castration

In 1747, following the death of Nader Shah, the Afsharid rule in Iran disintegrated. This presented an opportunity for Mohammad Hasan Khan to seize Astarabad. However, Nader Shah's nephew, Adel Shah Afshar, marched from Mashhad to capture him. Although Adel Shah failed to capture Mohammad Hasan, he succeeded in capturing Agha Mohammad Khan. Adel Shah initially intended to kill Agha Mohammad Khan but ultimately chose to spare his life, instead having him castrated and then freeing him. This occurred when Agha Mohammad Khan was approximately six or fourteen years old.

The castration left Agha Mohammad Khan permanently damaged, both physically and psychologically. His body was described as sick and weak, and he suffered from epilepsy, once falling unconscious for three days in 1790-1791 due to a stroke. Despite these frailties, he was a determined figure who actively attempted to conceal his physical vulnerability. His small stature meant he could be mistaken for a young boy from a distance, a fact that reportedly annoyed him greatly, especially if people stared at him. The common spelling of "Agha" (آقا^Persian) is typically a title meaning "Sir" or "Mister," but Agha Mohammad Khan's title is spelled differently (آغا^Persian), a common designation for eunuchs who served at court.

2.3. Father's Death and Hostage Period

During the decade following Nader Shah's death, Afsharid rule in Khorasan was severely impacted by conflicts among rival chieftains and invasions by Ahmad Shah Durrani, the Durrani ruler of Kandahar. In this period, Mohammad Hasan Khan engaged in conflicts with the Pashtun military leader Azad Khan Afghan and the Zand ruler Karim Khan Zand for suzerainty over the western parts of Nader Shah's former empire. Mohammad Hasan Khan was ultimately defeated in 1759 by a Zand army. He was betrayed by his own followers and subsequently killed by his old rival, Mohammad Khan of Savadkuh.

Following his father's death, Agha Mohammad Khan and his brother Hossein Qoli Khan fled to the steppe. Astarabad then came under the control of Karim Khan, who appointed a Develu named Hossein Khan Develu as its governor. A year later, Agha Mohammad Khan attempted an incursion against Astarabad but was forced to flee, pursued by the city's governor. He managed to reach Ashraf but was eventually seized and sent as a hostage to Tehran, which was then under Karim Khan's rule. Hossein Qoli Khan was also soon captured and sent to Karim Khan.

During his captivity, Agha Mohammad Khan was treated with kindness and honor by Karim Khan. Karim Khan even persuaded him to convince his kinsmen to lay down their arms, which they did. Karim Khan then settled them in Damghan. In 1763, Agha Mohammad Khan and Hossein Qoli Khan were sent to the Zand capital, Shiraz, where their paternal aunt, Khadija Begum, lived as part of Karim Khan's harem. Agha Mohammad Khan's half-brothers, Morteza Qoli Khan and Mostafa Qoli Khan, were permitted to reside in Astarabad because their mother was the sister of the city's governor. His remaining brothers were sent to Qazvin and treated honorably.

Agha Mohammad Khan was regarded more as a respected guest than a captive at Karim Khan's court. Karim Khan recognized Agha Mohammad Khan's political acumen and often sought his advice on matters of state, referring to him as his "Piran-e Viseh," a reference to an intelligent counselor of the mythical Turanian king Afrasiab in the Shahnameh epic. Two of Agha Mohammad Khan's brothers from Qazvin were also sent to Shiraz during this period. On March 1, 1779, while Agha Mohammad Khan was hunting, he was informed by Khadija Begum that Karim Khan had died after a six-month illness.

2.4. Relations with Brothers

Agha Mohammad Khan's relationships with his numerous brothers and half-brothers were often complex and marked by rivalry as they vied for power. Due to Agha Mohammad Khan's castration, his brother Hossein Qoli Khan was initially appointed as the new chieftain of the Quwanlu clan. Hossein Qoli Khan was later appointed governor of Damghan by Karim Khan in February 1769. Upon reaching Damghan, he engaged in fierce conflicts with the Develu and other tribes to avenge his father's death. However, he was killed around 1777 near Findarisk by members of the Yamut tribe with whom he had clashed.

After Karim Khan's death, Agha Mohammad Khan's initial efforts to consolidate power in Mazandaran led to clashes with his brothers Reza Qoli and Morteza Qoli, whom he defeated on April 2. Morteza Qoli fled to Astarabad, where he fortified himself. Agha Mohammad Khan could not immediately attack due to his fragile alliance with the Develu, as Morteza Qoli's mother was a Develu. In autumn 1780, Reza Qoli captured Agha Mohammad Khan in Babol, but Morteza Qoli later released him. The three brothers attempted to reconcile, with Agha Mohammad Khan and Reza Qoli reaching an agreement, while Morteza Qoli remained discontent and fled. After Morteza Qoli's death in Khorasan, his supporters joined Agha Mohammad Khan.

Later, Agha Mohammad Khan once again conflicted with Reza Qoli, whom he defeated in several battles before re-establishing peace. Morteza Qoli was allowed to rule Astarabad and parts of Hezar Jarib. However, peace was short-lived. Agha Mohammad Khan also executed his brother Jafar Qoli Khan, who saw himself as a rightful heir to the Qajar dynasty. Agha Mohammad Khan viewed this as a necessary measure, having witnessed the rapid decline of the Zand dynasty due to internal disputes over the throne.

3.1. Post-Karim Khan Power Vacuum

Karim Khan Zand's death on March 1, 1779, plunged the Zand dynasty into instability and a brutal succession struggle among several Zand princes. This power vacuum created a critical opportunity for ambitious leaders like Agha Mohammad Khan. He was informed of Karim Khan's death while hunting and, seizing the moment, immediately departed for Tehran with a group of loyal followers. In Tehran, he met with the main chieftains of the Develu clan, with whom he forged a peace agreement. He then visited the shrine of Shah Abd al-Azim, where his father's skull was kept, before continuing to Mazandaran province.

3.2. Conquest of Mazandaran and Gilan

Agha Mohammad Khan's first objective in Mazandaran was to assert his authority over his Quwanlu brothers. This led to a clash with Reza Qoli and Morteza Qoli, whom he defeated on April 2, thereby conquering Mazandaran. Morteza Qoli subsequently fled to Astarabad and fortified the city. Agha Mohammad Khan, cautious of his fragile alliance with the Develu clan (as Morteza Qoli's mother was a Develu), did not immediately storm the city. Meanwhile, a Zand army under Mahmud Khan, son of Azad Khan Afghan, was sent to Mazandaran by the Zand prince Ali-Morad Khan Zand, but Agha Mohammad Khan's brother Jafar Qoli Khan successfully repelled them. Agha Mohammad Khan, along with Hossein Qoli Khan's sons Fath-Ali Qoli and Hosayn Qoli, established a strong position in Babol, the capital of Mazandaran.

In autumn 1780, Reza Qoli invaded Babol with an army from Larijan, besieging and capturing Agha Mohammad Khan. However, Morteza Qoli, upon learning of this, marched to Babol on January 1, 1781, with Turkmen forces and released Agha Mohammad Khan. Although the three brothers attempted to settle their differences, only Agha Mohammad Khan and Reza Qoli succeeded in reaching a temporary peace. Morteza Qoli remained discontent and fled, eventually dying in Khorasan. His former supporters then joined Agha Mohammad Khan. Agha Mohammad Khan again defeated Reza Qoli in several battles, re-establishing peace, and allowed Morteza Qoli to rule Astarabad and several districts in Hezar Jarib.

Peace was again short-lived. Ali-Morad Khan soon invaded Mazandaran, prompting Agha Mohammad Khan to march from Babol with an army of Mazandaranis and Qajars, successfully repelling Ali-Morad Khan from the province. Agha Mohammad Khan then seized Qumis, Semnan, Damghan, Shahrud, and Bastam. He also compelled Hedayat-Allah Khan, the ruler of Gilan, to become his vassal, and rewarded his brother Ali Qoli with land in Semnan for his assistance.

In 1781, the Russian Empire, seeking to establish a trade route into Asia through Iran, sent an emissary, Marko Ivanovich Voinovich, to the coast of Gorgan. Voinovich arrived on August 10 and requested permission to build a trading post at Ashraf. Agha Mohammad Khan refused, but Voinovich ignored him and established an interim settlement on Ashurada island. Lacking ships, Agha Mohammad Khan resorted to a ruse: he tricked Voinovich and some of his men into attending a banquet in Astarabad on December 26, where they were held captive until Voinovich agreed to order his men to leave Ashurada on January 13, 1782.

A year later, Agha Mohammad Khan invaded Gilan because its ruler, Hedayat-Allah, had shifted his allegiance to the Zand dynasty. Hedayat-Allah sent diplomats to seek peace and fled to Shirvan as a precaution. The diplomats failed to secure favorable terms, and Agha Mohammad Khan raided Gilan's capital, Rasht, seizing its riches. Emboldened by this victory, he dispatched his brother Jafar Qoli Khan to conquer northern Persian Iraq. Jafar Qoli Khan defeated a Zand army near Ray (or Karaj) and captured Qazvin and Zanjan. In autumn, they returned to Mazandaran. In spring 1783, Agha Mohammad Khan besieged Tehran, a Zand-controlled town, but a spreading plague in the town and his army forced him to lift the siege. He retreated to Ali Bolagh, a summer residence near Damghan, and spent the winter in Mazandaran.

The next year, in retaliation for Agha Mohammad Khan's attack on Tehran, Ali-Morad Khan dispatched a large army, reportedly numbering 60,000 men, to Mazandaran in June 1784, aiming to decisively defeat the Qajars. His 15-year-old son, Sheikh Veis Khan, commanded the army, while Ali Morad remained in Tehran. Upon the army's arrival in Mazandaran, the local populace quickly surrendered to the Zands, and nobles defected. Agha Mohammad Khan and a few supporters fled to Astarabad, where he fortified the city. Morteza Qoli, meanwhile, switched his allegiance to the Zand dynasty. Ali-Morad Khan then sent an 8,000-strong army under Mohammad Zahir Khan to besiege Astarabad. Agha Mohammad Khan had prepared for a siege by stocking provisions, and his troops regularly raided the countryside to deplete the besiegers' supplies. This strategy made the besiegers' position untenable, allowing Agha Mohammad Khan to launch an attack. Mohammad Zahir Khan fled towards the Karakum Desert but was captured by Agha Mohammad Khan's Yomut allies and brutally killed. On November 14, Agha Mohammad Khan marched from Astarabad into Mazandaran, defeating a Zand force at Ashraf. The Zands were unable to defend Sari, and Sheikh Veis Khan fled to Tehran on November 23.

3.3. Wars with the Zand Dynasty

Ali-Morad Khan raised another Zand force, sending it to Mazandaran under his cousin Rustam Khan Zand, but this force was also defeated by Agha Mohammad Khan. Ali-Morad Khan died on February 11, 1785. Upon hearing of his death, Agha Mohammad Khan moved to capture Tehran. However, the city's inhabitants refused to open the gates, stating they would only do so for the king of Iran, whom they recognized as Jafar Khan Zand, Ali-Morad Khan's successor. This forced Agha Mohammad Khan to confront Jafar Khan for recognition as Iran's king.

He rapidly marched towards Isfahan. Jafar Khan sent troops to halt his advance, but they withdrew at Qom without resistance. Jafar Khan then dispatched a larger Zand army, which Agha Mohammad Khan defeated near Kashan. Jafar Khan retreated to Shiraz. Agha Mohammad Khan arrived in Isfahan on May 2, where he found the remnants of the Zand treasury and Jafar Khan's harem, and his Qajar troops looted the city.

During the summer of 1785, Agha Mohammad Khan used Isfahan as his headquarters for expeditions in Persian Iraq. He left Isfahan on July 7 for a campaign that brought the Bakhtiari chieftains under his suzerainty. He then departed for Tehran on September 2, appointing a former Zand commander to govern Isfahan. Upon his arrival in Tehran, the city finally submitted to him. Simultaneously, his forces captured Hamadan and compelled many Kurdish and Turkic chieftains to accept Qajar rule. On March 12, 1786, Agha Mohammad Khan officially made Tehran his capital. By this time, the city's population was estimated between 15,000 and 30,000 people. During this period, Agha Mohammad Khan viewed himself as the king of Iran, though he avoided using the title "shah" until later.

Some time later, while Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar was campaigning against the Bakhtiaris, Jafar Khan swiftly marched towards Isfahan and re-captured it, though the citadel of Tabrak held out for four months. He then sent troops towards Kashan and Qom, while he advanced towards Hamadan in early January 1786. However, he was defeated by local tribal chieftains, including Khosrow Khan and Mohammad Hosayn Khan Qaragozlu. Jafar Khan then withdrew to Isfahan to suppress a rebellion by the chiefs of Jandaq, who were defeated and submitted to him. When Agha Mohammad Khan learned of the Zand invasion of Isfahan, he rapidly moved towards the city, causing Jafar Khan to retreat to Shiraz once again. Agha Mohammad Khan then appointed Jafar Qoli Khan as Isfahan's governor. However, the governor of Zanjan revolted shortly afterward, forcing Agha Mohammad Khan to return north, where he suppressed the revolt and pardoned the governor.

Agha Mohammad Khan then focused on Gilan, as Hedayat-Allah Khan had returned to the province (reportedly with Russian assistance) since the Qajar invasion in 1782. Agha Mohammad Khan perceived the entire Caspian coast as threatened by Hedayat-Allah and the Russians. Agha Mohammad Khan and his forces easily entered Gilan. While marching towards Rasht, he was joined by local ruler Mehdi Beg Khalatbari and others. Furthermore, the Russian consul in Gilan betrayed Hedayat-Allah by supplying weapons to Agha Mohammad Khan. Hedayat-Allah attempted to flee to Shirvan again but was captured by men sent by Agha Ali Shafti (or another local ruler, according to some sources), who killed him to avenge the slaughter of his family years earlier. Gilan was now entirely under Qajar rule, and Hedayat-Allah's treasure proved to be a valuable acquisition for Agha Mohammad Khan.

Later, a local ruler named Amir Mohammad Khan, who, along with Taqi Khan (the ruler of Yazd), had recently defeated Jafar Khan and seized considerable riches, invaded Qajar territory and marched towards Isfahan. Jafar Qoli Khan, still the governor of Isfahan, left the city before Taqi Khan could reach it and defeated him. Agha Mohammad Khan then moved southward again, meeting Jafar Qoli Khan in Isfahan in 1788. After some time, he compelled Taqi Khan to accept Qajar suzerainty and punished some Qashqai tribes who had fled into the mountains. Agha Mohammad Khan then approached Shiraz, hoping to lure Jafar Khan out of the strongly fortified city, which was difficult to besiege. However, Jafar Khan remained within the city. Agha Mohammad Khan returned to Isfahan, appointing his brother Ali Qoli as its governor, succeeding Jafar Qoli Khan, before departing for Tehran.

With Agha Mohammad Khan back in the north, Jafar Khan began raising an army in autumn to prepare another attack against Isfahan. Jafar left Shiraz on September 20 and marched towards Isfahan. Ali Qoli, learning of this, sent tribesmen to Qumishah, south of Isfahan, but Jafar Khan easily defeated them. Ali Qoli then retreated to Kashan. Jafar Khan occupied Isfahan on October 20. Agha Mohammad Khan, informed of this, rapidly marched towards Isfahan, causing Jafar Khan to withdraw to Shiraz once more, reaching the city on November 30. Agha Mohammad Khan returned to Tehran rather than attacking Shiraz again. Jafar Khan was murdered on January 23, 1789, initiating a four-month civil war among Zand princes vying for succession. In May, Jafar Khan's son, Lotf Ali Khan, emerged victorious from this civil war.

It was during this period, in 1789, that Agha Mohammad Khan was enthroned (though not yet formally crowned), marking the official start of his reign. He also named his nephew Baba Khan, who would later be known as Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, as his heir, ensuring a clear line of succession for the nascent dynasty.

3.4. Establishment of Tehran as Capital

On March 12, 1786, Agha Mohammad Khan made Tehran his capital. This strategic decision was influenced by several factors. Tehran, though not a grand city at the time, was a successor to the ancient city of Ray, and both the Safavids and Zands had previously expanded it and built palaces there. One of the main reasons for moving the capital further south from his home province of Mazandaran (where Sari had been his capital) was to maintain close proximity to Azerbaijan and Iran's integral Caucasian territories in the North Caucasus and South Caucasus. These regions had not yet been ceded to Imperial Russia and were crucial to his vision of a unified Iran. Tehran's location allowed him to more effectively manage and assert control over these vital northern and northwestern territories.

3.5. Conquest of Azerbaijan

While Lotf Ali Khan was preoccupied with issues in Kerman, Agha Mohammad Khan seized the opportunity to focus on Azerbaijan. He appointed Baba Khan as the governor of Persian Iraq and marched into Azerbaijan in the spring of 1791. He stopped at Tarum and dispatched his relative Soleyman Khan Qajar to secure the acknowledgment of Qajar authority from the Talysh Khanate. Agha Mohammad Khan then proceeded to Sarab, forcing the Sarab Khanate into submission.

He then moved to Ardabil, where he subdued the Ardabil Khanate and visited the city's shrine. Finally, he advanced to Qaradagh, where he suppressed all remaining resistance. He appointed the Donboli noble Hosayn Qoli Donboli as the governor of Khoy and Tabriz, consolidating Qajar control over these northwestern regions.

3.6. Conquest of Fars and Kerman

While Agha Mohammad Khan was conquering Azerbaijan, Lotf Ali Khan took the opportunity to attack Isfahan. However, Hajji Ebrahim Shirazi, the popular governor of Shiraz, used Lotf Ali Khan's absence to stage a coup. His brother Mohammad-Hosayn Shirazi, who was the Zand ruler's general, mutinied along with many other troops. Lotf Ali Khan rushed back to Shiraz, but upon his arrival, the city's inhabitants refused to open the gates. He retreated to the mountains and raised an army large enough to recapture Shiraz. Hajji Ebrahim then sent an emissary to Agha Mohammad Khan, requesting him to become the ruler of Fars and offering 3,000 mares if he accepted; Agha Mohammad Khan immediately agreed. Upon his arrival in Fars, Agha Mohammad Khan appointed Hajji Ebrahim as the governor of the entire province, sent one of his men to take Lotf Ali Khan's family to Tehran, and seized the possessions of the Zand family. He also ordered Baba Khan to establish a garrison near Shiraz to assist Hajji Ebrahim if needed.

The Sheikh of Bushehr also defected to the Qajars, although the exact reason for this is debated. Sheikh Naser II managed to establish control over Dashtestan, Kharg, and Bandar Rig. He also attempted to capture Khesht from January to June 1792 but failed and returned to Bushehr on June 27.


Meanwhile, Lotf Ali Khan had defeated the men sent by Hajji Ebrahim and advanced towards the stronghold of Kazerun in late October, capturing it. He then marched to the countryside outside Shiraz, aiming to starve the city. Some time later, the Qajar army from the nearby garrison attacked Lotf Ali Khan's men and were initially winning, until Lotf Ali Khan himself entered the battle, leading to the defeat of the Qajar army. When Agha Mohammad Khan learned of this, he sent 7,000 horsemen to reinforce Hajji Ebrahim's forces and ordered the surviving Qajar forces from the nearby garrison to do the same.

Lotf Ali Khan allowed the reinforcements to reach Shiraz, anticipating that once Hajji Ebrahim's forces were strengthened, they would emerge from the city and could be overwhelmed in open battle. His prediction proved correct; a battle soon took place west of Shiraz, where Lotf Ali Khan defeated the combined forces of Hajji Ebrahim and his Qajar reinforcements. This occurred in late 1791 or early 1792.

The inhabitants of Shiraz faced extreme hardship from the siege, and their endurance was questionable. Large parts of Fars were ravaged by warfare, and a pandemic had spread across the landscape for three to four years. Although Lotf Ali Khan's forces had endured similar difficulties, Hajji Ebrahim's forces had begun to desert to the Zands. Agha Mohammad Khan therefore raised a large army and marched into Fars. On June 5, 1792, Lotf Ali Khan, with a small force, made a bold night raid on Agha Mohammad Khan's encampment near Persepolis. Initially, this seemed to favor Lotf Ali Khan, as he was certain the Qajars were routed. In his delight, he allowed his men to spread out and rest for the night, only to discover at daybreak that Agha Mohammad Khan still held his ground. Lotf Ali Khan then fled to Tabas through Neyriz.

Agha Mohammad Khan entered Shiraz on July 21, 1792, and remained there for a month, maintaining his retinue in the Bagh-e Vakil. Before leaving Shiraz, he appointed Hajji Ebrahim as the governor of Fars and had the body of Karim Khan Zand exhumed and reburied in Tehran, where he proceeded after his stay in Shiraz. Forces were also dispatched to Kerman, Sistan, and Bam, though Qajar rule was not yet solidified in the latter two regions.

Lotf Ali Khan had fled to Khorasan and received assistance from the chief of Tabas. With this help, he returned in September and marched towards Yazd. The governor of Yazd sent an army to defeat him, but they fled back to Yazd near Ardakan before any engagement. Lotf Ali then captured Abarkuh and marched towards Bavanat in early October. The Qajar force sent against him wasted time besieging Abarkuh, allowing Lotf Ali to capture Stahbanat, Qir, and Neyriz. He marched on Darab and besieged the fortress but was soon informed of the approaching Qajar army and fled back to Khorasan.

The Afghan chiefs of Bam invited Lotf Ali Khan to return and expel the Qajar presence. With their aid, Lotf Ali Khan returned to Kerman and captured the city on March 30. Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar quickly learned of this and marched towards Kerman on May 14. The siege lasted four months, taking a severe toll on Kerman's population. The city fell on October 24, and Lotf Ali Khan quickly fled to Bam. However, the chief of Bam ordered Lotf Ali Khan to be killed and delivered to the Qajars. Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar took brutal revenge on the people of Kerman, ordering thousands of inhabitants to be blinded, with numbers varying from "ordering to provide 20,000 eyes of the inhabitants" to "7,000 people to be blinded." The city was savagely sacked, and many beautiful buildings were destroyed.

4.1. Enthronement and Founding of the Qajar Dynasty

Agha Mohammad Khan was enthroned in 1789, marking the beginning of his reign, though he was not formally crowned as Shah until later. After his decisive victory over Lotf Ali Khan and the brutal capture of Kerman, and a year after the Battle of Krtsanisi had brought eastern Georgia and other principal territories in the North Caucasus and South Caucasus back within the Iranian domains, he proclaimed himself Shahanshah (King of Kings) on the Mughan plain in March 1796. This act mirrored Nader Shah's coronation in the same location some sixty years earlier and officially established the Qajar dynasty, ushering in a new era in Iranian history. During this period, he also named his nephew Baba Khan, who would later rule as Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, as his heir, ensuring a clear line of succession for the nascent dynasty.

4.2. Campaigns in the Caucasus

Agha Mohammad Khan's military expeditions into the Caucasus region were aimed at reasserting Iranian dominance over its historical territories, which had been under intermittent Iranian rule and suzerainty since 1555 but had become de facto independent after the disintegration of the Afsharid dynasty. For Agha Mohammad Khan, the subjugation and reintegration of Georgia and other Caucasian territories into the Iranian Empire were part of the same process that had brought Shiraz, Isfahan, and Tabriz under his rule. He viewed these territories as no different from those in mainland Iran, considering Georgia a province of Iran in the same way Khorasan was. Its permanent secession was inconceivable and had to be resisted like any attempt at separation of Fars or Gilan. This included suppressing what was seen in Iranian eyes as treason on the part of the wali of Georgia.

4.2.1. Reconquest of Georgia

Finding a period of peace amidst their own conflicts and with northern, western, and central Iran secured, the Iranians demanded that the Georgian monarch Heraclius II renounce his treaty with Russia and re-accept Iranian suzerainty, in return for peace and the security of his kingdom. The Ottomans, Iran's rival, recognized Iran's rights over Kartli and Kakheti for the first time in four centuries. Heraclius II appealed to his theoretical protector, Empress Catherine II of Russia, requesting at least 3,000 Russian troops, but his plea was ignored, leaving Georgia to face the Iranian threat alone. Nevertheless, Heraclius II rejected Agha Mohammad Khan's ultimatum.

In August 1795, Agha Mohammad Khan crossed the Aras river with a 70,000-strong army. This force was divided into three wings: the left wing was sent towards Erivan, the right wing parallel to the Caspian Sea into the Mughan across the lower Aras towards Dagestan and Shirvan, while the Shah personally led the center force towards the fortress of Shusha in the Karabakh Khanate. He besieged Shusha between July 8 and August 9, 1795. His right and left wings compelled the Khans of Ganja and Erivan into an alliance. Having abandoned the siege of Shusha due to stiff resistance, which was further aided by Georgian crown prince Aleksandre, the Khan of Karabakh, Ibrahim Khan, eventually surrendered to Agha Mohammad Khan after discussions. He agreed to pay a regular tribute and surrender hostages, though the Qajar forces were still denied entrance to Shusha. Since the primary objective was Georgia, Agha Mohammad Khan was content with this agreement for Karabakh for the time being, and he and his army moved onward. While at Ganja, having secured Shirvan, he was joined by Javad Khan Qajar and the rest of his right wing contingent. At Ganja, Agha Mohammad Khan sent Heraclius II his final ultimatum, which he received in September 1795.

In his ultimatum, Agha Mohammad Khan reminded Heraclius II that Georgia had been subject to Iran for centuries and expressed his amazement that Heraclius had allied with the Russians, whose only business was trade with Iran. He recalled having to destroy Georgians the previous year despite no desire for his subjects to perish by his hand. He urged Heraclius to abandon such alliances and break relations with the Russians, warning that if the order was not carried out, he would launch a campaign against Georgia, shedding both Georgian and Russian blood to create rivers as large as the Kura. According to the contemporary Qajar era historian Ḥasan-e Fasāʼi, Agha Mohammad Khan also declared that Shah Ismail I Safavi had ruled over Georgia, and now that most Iranian provinces were under his possession, Georgia must, according to ancient law, be considered part of the empire, and Heraclius must appear before his majesty and conform his obedience to retain his governorship.

Heraclius II, whose advisors were divided, ignored the ultimatum but sent couriers to Saint Petersburg. Gudovich, who was in Georgievsk at the time, advised Heraclius II to avoid "expense and fuss," while Heraclius II, along with Solomon II and some Imeretians, headed south of Tbilisi to fend off the Iranians.

Agha Mohammad Khan marched directly on Tbilisi, crossing the Aras river with half of his army, estimated to be between 35,000 and 40,000 men. They attacked the heavily fortified Georgian positions of Heraclius II and Solomon on the southwestern limits of the city. Abandoned by several of his nobles, Heraclius II managed to mobilize around 5,000 troops, including some 2,000 auxiliaries from the neighboring Imereti under King Solomon II, a member of the Georgian Bagrationi dynasty and distantly related to Heraclius II. The Georgians offered desperate resistance, successfully repelling a series of Iranian attacks on September 9 and 10. However, it is said that traitors informed the Iranians that the Georgians had no more strength to fight, leading the Qajar army to abandon their plan of returning to Iran.

Early on September 11, Agha Mohammad Khan personally led an all-out offensive against the Georgians. Amid an artillery duel and a fierce cavalry charge, the Iranians managed to cross the Kura River and outflank the decimated Georgian army. Heraclius II attempted a counterattack but was forced to retreat to the last available positions in the outskirts of Tbilisi. By nightfall, the Georgian forces were exhausted and almost completely destroyed. The last surviving Georgian artillery briefly held the advancing Iranians, allowing Heraclius II and his retinue of about 150 men to escape through the city to the mountains. Fighting continued in the streets of Tbilisi and at the fortress of Narikala. Within hours, Agha Mohammad Khan was in full control of the Georgian capital, which was then completely sacked, and its population massacred. The Iranian army returned laden with spoil and carrying off some 15,000 captives. The Georgians suffered 4,000 casualties in the battle, while the Iranians lost 13,000 men, a third of their total force.

An eyewitness who entered the city several days after the bulk of the Iranian troops had withdrawn described the devastation: "I therefore pursued my way, paved as it were, with carcases, and entered Tiflis by the gate of Tapitag: but what was my consternation on finding here the bodies of women and children slaughtered by the sword of the enemy; to say nothing about the men, of whom I saw more than a thousand, as I should suppose, lying dead in one little tower! [...] The city was almost entirely consumed, and still continued to smoke in different places; and the stench from the putrefying, together with the heat which prevailed, was intolerable, and certainly infectious."

4.3. Conquest of Khorasan

Agha Mohammad Shah then focused on Khorasan, which was under the rule of Shahrokh Shah, the blind and elderly grandson of Nader Shah. Shahrokh had previously been a vassal of the Durrani ruler Ahmad Shah but, after the latter's death in 1772, had become a pawn of the chieftains who controlled the cities and towns surrounding Mashhad, the Afsharid capital. The most prominent of these chieftains was Eshaq Khan, who maintained Torbat-e Heydarieh as his base of operations. In the eastern parts of the Alborz mountains, Kurdish chieftains ruled over several fortresses, such as Bojnord and Quchan.

Agha Mohammad Shah first marched to Astarabad, where he punished the Turkmens who had been pillaging the city and its surroundings. He then continued to Mashhad, where the local chieftains, recognizing the futility of resistance, swiftly acknowledged his rule. Agha Mohammad Shah also demanded that these chieftains dispatch hostages to Tehran. When Agha Mohammad Shah reached Mashhad, Shahrokh, accompanied by a prominent mujtahid named Mirza Mehdi, went to the Qajar encampment, where they were warmly received by Agha Mohammad Shah's nephew, Hossein Qoli Khan.

Shortly afterward, Agha Mohammad Shah sent a force of 8,000 soldiers under Soleyman Khan Qajar, followed by Mirza Mehdi, to conquer Mashhad and assure its citizens of the Shah's generosity. A day later, Agha Mohammad Shah, following the custom of the famous Iranian shah Abbas I the Great, entered Mashhad on May 14 by foot as a pilgrim to the Imam Reza shrine, visibly emotional and kissing the ground. His pilgrimage continued for 23 days, during which he appeared detached from the country's political affairs.

4.4. Administration and Military

Agha Mohammad Shah's reign saw the establishment of a centralized government and a disciplined military, crucial for his extensive conquests and the consolidation of the Qajar state.

4.5. Construction Projects

Due to the constant campaigns and battles that occupied his time, Agha Mohammad Shah did not undertake extensive construction or repair projects during his reign. However, he did initiate some significant building activities. In Tehran, he ordered the construction of a mosque named the Masjid-e Shah (meaning "the Shah's mosque"). In Mashhad, he commissioned the reparation of the Imam Reza shrine, a revered religious site.

In Astarabad, his birthplace, he oversaw the repair or fortification of the city walls, the emptying of its ditch, and the construction of several new buildings, including a palace for the governor. He also generally improved the overall condition of the city. Similar improvements were made in Babol, Ashraf, and Sari. Of all his construction and reparation efforts, his most significant and lasting achievement is arguably the establishment of Tehran as his capital, which remains the country's capital and largest city to this day.

5.1. Physical Characteristics and Health

Agha Mohammad Khan's castration at the age of six left him permanently physically and mentally damaged. His body was described as sick and weak. He suffered from epilepsy and, on one occasion in 1790 or 1791, fell unconscious for three days due to a stroke. Despite these frailties, he was a determined figure who made efforts to conceal his physical vulnerability. Due to his small stature, he could be mistaken for a young boy from a distance, a fact that reportedly annoyed him greatly, especially if people stared at him.

5.2. Character Traits

Agha Mohammad Khan possessed a complex personality marked by intense ambition, ruthlessness, pragmatism, and strategic acumen. His reign was characterized by a determined sovereignty rather than a charismatic leadership style. He was notoriously cruel and capable of extreme vengeance, traits he displayed in his brutal campaigns, particularly in Georgia and Kerman. He was known for his calculated and shrewd approach to military and political matters, often employing cunning tactics and severe punishments to achieve his goals and consolidate power. His actions demonstrated a clear belief that eliminating any potential threat to his authority was necessary, a lesson he seemingly drew from the rapid decline of the Zand dynasty due to internal strife.

5.3. Interests and Hobbies

Despite his preoccupation with military campaigns and state-building, Agha Mohammad Khan had personal interests that offered a glimpse into his cultural inclinations. He was interested in hunting, a common pastime for rulers of his era. Furthermore, he held an appreciation for literature, particularly the reading of the Shahnameh, the epic poem by Ferdowsi. It was customary for the Shahnameh to be read aloud to him during the night when he was in his bed, providing him with a connection to Persian literary heritage.

6.1. Assassination in Shusha

Agha Mohammad Khan was assassinated on June 17, 1797, in his tent in the city of Shusha, the capital of the Karabakh Khanate, just three days after he had captured the city. According to Hasan-e Fasa'i's Farsnama-ye Naseri, a contemporary Qajar era historical account, a quarrel arose one night during Agha Mohammad Khan's stay in Shusha between a Georgian servant named Sadegh Gorji and the valet Khodadad Esfahani. Their loud argument angered the Shah, who ordered both to be executed. Sadeq Khan Shaqaqi, a prominent emir, interceded on their behalf, but the Shah did not listen. However, the Shah ordered their execution to be postponed until Saturday, as it was the evening of Friday (the Islamic holy day), and instructed them to return to their duties in the royal pavilion, unfettered and unchained, to await their execution the following day. Knowing from experience that the King would adhere to his orders, and having no hope, they became desperate. While the Shah was sleeping, they were joined by another valet, Abbas Mazandarani, who was part of their plot. The three men entered the royal pavilion and murdered the Shah with daggers and knives.

6.2. Succession

Following his assassination, Agha Mohammad Khan was succeeded by his nephew, Baba Khan, who was crowned as Fath-Ali Shah Qajar. This transition of power marked the continuation of the Qajar dynasty, which Agha Mohammad Khan had so fiercely established.

7.1. Positive Assessments

Agha Mohammad Khan's most enduring positive contribution was the unification of Iran, restoring a centralized state that had been fragmented since the decline of the Safavid and Afsharid dynasties and the internal struggles of the Zands. He successfully reunited the territory of contemporary Iran and the historical Caucasus region, which had been integral to the concept of Iran for centuries. His military prowess and strategic acumen were undeniable, enabling him to rapidly conquer vast territories and establish a strong central government. By founding the Qajar dynasty and establishing Tehran as the new capital, he laid the groundwork for future Iranian statehood, providing a stable political framework that would endure for over a century. Historians acknowledge his pragmatic, calculating, and shrewd leadership as instrumental in bringing an end to decades of civil strife and reasserting Iranian sovereignty over its traditional domains.

7.2. Criticisms and Controversies

Despite his achievements, Agha Mohammad Khan's rule is severely criticized for his extreme violence, massacres, and the immense human cost of his campaigns. He was a notoriously cruel ruler who demonstrated a ruthless pursuit of power and wealth, often at the expense of civilian populations and minority groups. His actions in Georgia, particularly the Battle of Krtsanisi and the subsequent sack of Tbilisi, resulted in widespread massacres and the forced displacement of some 15,000 Christian Georgians who were carried away as captives to mainland Iran. The city was left in ruins, and eyewitness accounts describe streets "paved as it were, with carcases," including women and children.

Similarly, his conquest of Kerman was marked by horrific brutality. After the city fell, he ordered thousands of its inhabitants to be blinded, with accounts varying from 7,000 to 20,000 eyes demanded as tribute. The city was savagely sacked, and many beautiful buildings were destroyed. His torture of Shahrokh Shah, the last claimant of the Afsharid dynasty, involving molten lead poured onto his head, further exemplifies his vengeful and cruel nature in his relentless quest for hidden treasures. These actions highlight the severe ethical dimensions of his state-building efforts, as the unification of Iran under his rule came at a devastating human cost, leaving a legacy of terror and suffering in the regions he conquered.