Nguyễn Phúc Thuần

1.1. Birth and Family Background

Nguyễn Phúc Thuần, originally named Nguyễn Phúc Hân, was born on 31 December 1754 (18th day of the 11th lunar month in the year Giáp Tuất). He was the sixteenth son of Vũ vương Nguyễn Phúc Khoát, the eighth Nguyễn lord. His mother was Công nữ Nguyễn Phúc Ngọc Cầu, who was also his father's cousin, being the daughter of Quận công Nguyễn Phúc Điền and a granddaughter of Chúa Nguyễn Phúc Chu. This familial relationship was considered controversial, with some historical accounts describing it as incestuous. The powerful regent Trương Phúc Loan reportedly exploited Vũ vương's fondness for women, facilitating Ngọc Cầu's frequent access to the royal palace and to Vũ vương in the Trường Lạc palace. This relationship resulted in the birth of two princes, Nguyễn Phúc Diệu (born 1753, died young) and Nguyễn Phúc Thuần. Vũ vương's increasing infatuation led him to neglect state affairs, leaving the government largely in the hands of Trương Phúc Loan, despite warnings from court officials.

1.2. Ascension and the Role of Trương Phúc Loan

Despite the controversial circumstances of his birth, Nguyễn Phúc Thuần was raised discreetly in the inner palace and was not initially designated as an heir. After the death of Đông cung Thế tử Nguyễn Phúc Hạo and the early demise of the eldest prince Chương, along with Hoàng tôn Dương being too young, Ngọc Cầu seized the opportunity to persuade Vũ vương to name her son as successor. However, court officials, aware of Ngọc Cầu's ambitions, strongly advised Vũ vương against appointing a child lord. Consequently, Vũ vương intended to name Nguyễn Phúc Luân (Côn), the son of Trương Thái phi and a 33-year-old prince known for his intelligence and decisiveness, as his successor. He even appointed two esteemed and incorruptible officials, Thái phó Y đức hầu Trương Văn Hạnh and Thị giảng Lê Cao Kỳ, to tutor Nguyễn Phúc Luân.

However, Trương Phúc Loan, fearing that Nguyễn Phúc Luân would be difficult to control, conspired with Ngọc Cầu and other officials like Thái giám Chử Đức hầu and Chưởng dinh Nguyễn Cửu Thông. On 7 July 1765, upon Vũ vương's death, Trương Phúc Loan concealed the news of the king's passing and immediately summoned 100 armed guards to hide within the royal palace. He then invited Thái phó Y Đức hầu Trương Văn Hạnh for discussions. As Trương Phúc Loan met with Trương Văn Hạnh, he signaled his guards by dropping a lamp, leading to the immediate assassination of Y Đức. Nguyễn Phúc Luân was imprisoned and later died in captivity on 24 October 1765. In his place, the 12-year-old Nguyễn Phúc Thuần was enthroned as the new Nguyễn lord, taking the title Định vương and the spiritual name Khánh Phụ đạo nhân. Trương Phúc Loan was appointed Quốc phó (National Tutor), effectively consolidating all state power and making Nguyễn Phúc Thuần a mere puppet.

1.3. Reign and Governance

Nguyễn Phúc Thuần's reign was characterized by a severe decline in governance, marked by rampant corruption and widespread economic hardship, largely due to the absolute power wielded by Trương Phúc Loan.

2.1. War with Siam

The Nguyễn lords also faced external pressures from Siam (modern-day Thailand) and Cambodia during Nguyễn Phúc Thuần's reign, leading to several military engagements.

In the autumn of 1766, intelligence from Hà Tiên reported Siam's intention to invade. Mạc Thiên Tứ, the Governor-General of Hà Tiên, sought aid from Phú Xuân. In response, the Nguyễn court dispatched 3 sea-going vessels, 20 smaller ships, and 1,000 elite troops to defend Hà Tiên. However, in April 1767, the Siamese capital of Ayutthaya fell to a Burmese invasion, and King Ekkathat was captured. Prince Chiêu Thúy, a son of the Siamese king, fled to Hà Tiên. The Nguyễn court, seeing Siam's collapse, recalled its relief forces. Despite this, Mạc Thiên Tứ, fearing further Burmese aggression, positioned his forces at Chân Bôn, a border area with Siam, and ordered patrols of the islands of Cổ Rồng and Cổ Cốt.

Later, as Qing forces attacked Burma, the Burmese recalled their expeditionary army, leaving Siam vulnerable. Taksin (Trịnh Quốc Anh), a Chinese-Thai leader, rose to power, declared himself king, and moved the capital to Thonburi (modern-day Bangkok). He then demanded tribute from Chân Lạp (Cambodia). However, the Cambodian King Nặc Tôn refused, considering Taksin not a true Siamese.

In the winter of 1770, Taksin dispatched 20,000 land and naval troops to attack Hà Tiên. The Siamese forces besieged Tô Châu Mountain, firing cannons into the city. Mạc Thiên Tứ urgently requested reinforcements from Gia Định, but Điều khiển Gia Định Nguyễn Cửu Khôi refused, citing a previous false alarm. During a night attack, Siamese forces set fire to the Nguyễn arsenal and breached the city walls. Mạc Thiên Tứ's forces were overwhelmed, and Hà Tiên fell. The Siamese then advanced to Long Hồ, where they encountered Tống Phước Hiệp leading Nguyễn reinforcements. A battle ensued at the Châu Đốc River, where the Siamese suffered 300 casualties but maintained control of Hà Tiên. Taksin left Trần Liên to garrison Hà Tiên and proceeded to Nam Vang (Phnom Penh), where he installed Nặc Nộn as the new King of Cambodia.

In February 1771, Nguyễn Phúc Thuần demoted Nguyễn Cửu Khôi for his failure to aid Hà Tiên. In the summer of that year, Nguyễn forces under Nguyễn Cửu Đàm advanced via the Tiền Giang River, while Cai bạ Long Hồ Nguyễn Khoa Thuyên advanced via Kiên Giang, and Lưu thủ Tống Phước Hiệp secured Châu Đốc via the Hậu Giang River. With local Cambodian guidance, Nguyễn forces attacked Nam Vang, defeating the Siamese. Taksin fled back to Hà Tiên, and Nặc Nộn retreated to Kampot. The Nguyễn forces recaptured Nam Vang and La Bích (Lovek), restoring Nặc Tôn to the Cambodian throne. Nguyễn Cửu Đàm then built the Tân Hoa rampart, extending for approximately 4.7 mile ^{(7.5 km)} around the fort, to defend against future attacks. Taksin subsequently returned to Siam, killing Chiêu Thúy. In the spring of 1773, Mạc Thiên Tứ sent an envoy to Siam, offering tribute and seeking peace. Taksin agreed, returning the prisoners, and recalling Trần Liên, bringing a temporary end to the conflict in the south.
q=Hà Tiên|position=right

2.2. Tây Sơn Rebellion

The Tây Sơn Rebellion was a major internal uprising that capitalized on the Nguyễn lords' weakness and corruption, significantly contributing to their collapse.

2.3. Trịnh Invasion

Exploiting the Nguyễn lords' internal turmoil, the Trịnh lords from the north launched a major military campaign, further destabilizing the southern regime.

3.1. Power Struggles within the Nguyễn Faction

After the death of Tống Phước Hiệp in July 1776, the most influential Nguyễn generals remaining were Đỗ Thanh Nhơn and Lý Tài, whose rivalry escalated into open conflict. The animosity stemmed from Đỗ Thanh Nhơn's earlier disdain for Lý Tài, whom he had called "pig-dog" and deemed useless when Tài first surrendered to the Nguyễn. While Tống Phước Hiệp was alive, their mutual fear prevented direct confrontation. However, with Hiệp gone, Lý Tài, commanding the Hòa Nghĩa forces, launched a surprise attack on Đỗ Thanh Nhơn's Đông Sơn army from Châu Thới Mountain. Unable to resist, Thanh Nhơn was forced to construct defensive fortifications from the Bến Nghé River to Bến Than.

Meanwhile, Đông cung Nguyễn Phúc Dương, who had been held captive by Nguyễn Nhạc at Thập Tháp Pagoda in Quy Nhơn, managed to escape south. Nguyễn Phúc Thuần sent the crown prince to persuade Lý Tài to return to the Nguyễn fold. Upon seeing the crown prince, Lý Tài immediately pledged allegiance and escorted him to Dầu Mít. At this time, Nặc Ông Vinh, the King of Cambodia, seeing the Nguyễn lords' precarious situation, refused to pay tribute. Nguyễn Phúc Thuần dispatched Trương Phước Thận and Nguyễn Cửu Tuân to assist Nguyễn Ánh in a punitive expedition, forcing Nặc Ông Vinh to surrender.

3.2. Abdication to Nguyễn Phúc Dương

On 11 December 1776, Lý Tài brought Đông cung Thế tử to Gia Định. Three days later, on 14 December, Lý Tài pressured Nguyễn Phúc Thuần to abdicate in favor of the crown prince. Facing dire circumstances, Đông cung reluctantly accepted the throne, styling himself Tân Chính vương ("New Righteous King"), while Nguyễn Phúc Thuần was honored with the title Thái Thượng vương ("Retired King").

Nguyễn Ánh, then 16 years old and highly trusted by the Thái Thượng vương, recognized Lý Tài's arrogance and violent nature, deeming him an unsuitable ally. He advised the Thái Thượng vương to seek refuge with Đỗ Thanh Nhơn's Đông Sơn forces. Upon hearing this, Lý Tài brought his troops to force the Thái Thượng vương to move to Dầu Mít. Tân Chính vương was unable to prevent this and sent Trương Phước Dĩnh to escort the Thái Thượng vương. The next day, Lý Tài brought the Thái Thượng vương back to Gia Định to confine him. This effectively split the Nguyễn faction into two opposing camps: the Tân Chính vương-Lý Tài faction and the Thái Thượng vương-Vương tử Ánh-Đỗ Thanh Nhơn faction. This internal division proved disastrous for the Nguyễn forces as the Tây Sơn army drew closer.

In March 1777, Nguyễn Huệ launched a combined land and naval attack against the Nguyễn forces. Phúc Dương sent Lý Tài to confront them. At the same time, Trương Phước Thận brought reinforcements from Cần Bột (Kampot). Lý Tài, mistaking Trương Phước Thận's approaching flags for Đỗ Thanh Nhơn's Đông Sơn forces, unexpectedly retreated. The Tây Sơn army pursued them. Lý Tài's forces fled in disarray to Tam Phụ, Đỗ Thanh Nhơn's base, where they were all massacred by Thanh Nhơn's men. After Lý Tài's death, the two Nguyễn factions reconciled and united against the Tây Sơn. Trương Phước Thận escorted Tân Chính vương to Tranh Giang, while Thái Thượng vương stationed himself at Tài Phụ (in Ba Giồng). Nguyễn Phúc Thuần told Tân Chính vương, "You take charge of the rear at Tranh Giang, and I will handle the front at Tài Phụ."

4.1. Flight and Capture

During this tumultuous period, Vương tử Nguyễn Ánh remained loyal to Nguyễn Phúc Thuần. On one occasion, as the Tây Sơn forces closed in, Định vương offered his horse to Nguyễn Ánh, urging him to escape first. Ánh refused, prompting the lord to weep and say, "Now facing such hardship, my talent cannot quell this rebellion. The fate of our dynasty rests with you, my nephew; if you survive, our country will endure." Ánh reluctantly obeyed. However, after riding for a while, Ánh stopped to wait for the lord. When the Tây Sơn forces went in another direction, Nguyễn Phúc Thuần's carriage arrived, and Ánh welcomed him by the roadside. The lord was moved, saying, "You have a good heart, and Heaven knows it."

In May 1777, the Tây Sơn army launched a two-pronged attack on Tranh Giang and Tài Phụ. Thái Thượng vương fled to Long Hưng, narrowly escaping capture due to heavy rain that slowed the Tây Sơn pursuit. He then joined Mạc Thiên Tứ in Cần Thơ. Realizing Thiên Tứ's forces were small and weak, the lord dispatched Đỗ Thanh Nhơn and Cai đội Nguyễn Quân to Bình Thuận and Phú Yên to summon Châu Văn Tiếp and Trần Văn Thức for reinforcements. However, the relief forces were intercepted and defeated before reaching them; Trần Văn Thức died in battle, and Châu Văn Tiếp was forced to flee. The Tây Sơn forces subsequently recaptured all of southern Central Vietnam, and Chưởng cơ Tống Phước Hòa committed suicide. On 19 September 1777, Tân Chính vương and 18 of his followers were captured and executed by the Tây Sơn army.

Hearing of Tân Chính vương's death, Thái Thượng vương was terrified and fled to Long Xuyên, as the Tây Sơn army had already reached Trấn Giang. Mạc Thiên Tứ escorted Nguyễn Phúc Thuần by river from Cần Thơ to Kiên Giang, planning to escape to the islands if necessary. Thiên Tứ also ordered his son to block shallow parts of the river with wood. Nguyễn Phúc Thuần, filled with despair, expressed his doubts to Thiên Tứ about the possibility of restoring their dynasty against such a powerful enemy. Thiên Tứ, weeping, suggested seeking aid from the Qing Dynasty. Nguyễn Phúc Thuần agreed, and Thiên Tứ sent Cai cơ Kham to escort the lord to the coast to await a ship from Quách Ân, intending to flee to Guangdong.

4.2. Execution

Before their escape plan could materialize, their intentions were betrayed to the Tây Sơn. Nguyễn Huệ dispatched Chưởng cơ Thành to capture Nguyễn Phúc Thuần and his entourage. On 18 October 1777, Nguyễn Phúc Thuần was brought to Gia Định and executed. Among those executed with him were generals Trương Phước Thận and Tham mưu Nguyễn Danh Khoảng, as well as Nguyễn Phúc Đồng, Nguyễn Ánh's eldest brother. Upon hearing the news, Mạc Thiên Tứ immediately fled to the islands.

Nguyễn Phúc Thuần's head was buried in Bình Dương district. Almost the entire Nguyễn royal family was massacred, with only Nguyễn Ánh managing to escape. Nguyễn Ánh later rallied the remaining loyalists and continued the fight against the Tây Sơn, eventually founding the Nguyễn Dynasty. The deaths of Nguyễn Phúc Thuần and Tân Chính vương marked the end of a period of decline for the Nguyễn lords.

5.1. Historical Assessment

Nguyễn Phúc Thuần's role in the decline and fall of the Nguyễn lords is primarily seen as a tragic figure who inherited a fragile state and was unable to prevent its collapse. Ascending the throne as a 12-year-old puppet, he was manipulated by Trương Phúc Loan, whose tyrannical and corrupt rule alienated the populace and created the conditions for widespread rebellion. His reign saw the Nguyễn state plagued by internal strife, economic ruin, and the devastating Tây Sơn Rebellion, which was further complicated by the Trịnh invasion from the north. Despite efforts by some loyal generals, the Nguyễn forces were fragmented and ineffective. Nguyễn Phúc Thuần's inability to assert control or address the systemic issues contributed directly to the dynasty's temporary demise. His death, along with most of his family, marked the end of the Nguyễn lords' rule in southern Vietnam, paving the way for the Tây Sơn Dynasty before the eventual restoration by Nguyễn Ánh.

5.2. Criticisms and Controversies

Nguyễn Phúc Thuần's leadership has been heavily criticized by historians. He is often depicted as a pleasure-seeking ruler who neglected state affairs, preferring entertainment and trivial pursuits over governance. The Vietnamese historian Hồ Đắc Duy, in his epic poem Đại Việt sử thi, vividly describes Nguyễn Phúc Thuần's reign as one where "Trương Phước Loan usurped all power," and despite the presence of upright officials like Nguyễn Cư Trinh, "the chaotic situation could not be stopped." The poem further highlights Loan's abuse of power, his killing of honest officials, and his complete control over state affairs, leading to widespread suffering:
"Money flowed in, Phước Loan seized it all
Of ten parts of tax, only one or two reached the state
Loan abused his power, acting arrogantly
The people suffered from hunger, none were not resentful
Fields lay barren, dry grass choked the land
Many villages had no bamboo fences left
The people suffered terribly from hunger and sorrow
Disorder and banditry brought endless devastation."

The pervasive corruption under Trương Phúc Loan, including the sale of official titles, bribery, and heavy taxation, directly led to the economic crisis and widespread famine. Nguyễn Phúc Thuần's failure to curb Loan's power or to address the people's grievances is seen as a major failing that fueled the Tây Sơn Rebellion and contributed to the Nguyễn lords' loss of the Mandate of Heaven. His reign is a stark example of how unchecked power and neglect can lead to the downfall of a ruling dynasty.

5.3. Posthumous Honors

Despite the tragic end of his reign, Nguyễn Phúc Thuần received posthumous honors from his nephew, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh, who later unified Vietnam and established the Nguyễn Dynasty. In 1778, after re-establishing the Nguyễn authority, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh posthumously honored him with the title Thông Minh Khoan Hậu Anh Mẫn Huệ Hòa Hiếu Định Vương. In 1802, after defeating the Tây Sơn and unifying Vietnam, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh ascended as Emperor Gia Long. In 1806, he further elevated Nguyễn Phúc Thuần's posthumous title to Thông Minh Khoan Hậu Anh Mẫn Huệ Hòa Hiếu Định Hoàng Đế and bestowed upon him the temple name Duệ Tông. In 1809, during the 8th year of Gia Long's reign, Nguyễn Phúc Thuần's remains were reinterred at La Khê Mountain, Hương Thọ commune, Hương Trà town, Thừa Thiên Huế province, and his tomb was named Trường Thiệu Lăng (Trường Thiệu Lăng^Vietnamese, "Long and Bright Mausoleum").

6.1. Consorts and Children