Ding Ruchang

1.1. Childhood and Education

Ding Ruchang was born on 18 November 1836, in Lujiang (now part of Chaohu City in Anhui Province, China). His family was not wealthy, and he received only about three years of schooling in a private塾. By the age of ten, he had lost the opportunity for further formal education.

1.2. Early Military Career

In 1854, when the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom army occupied Lujiang, Ding Ruchang joined the Taiping forces under Ye Yunlai. However, in 1861, during the siege of Anqing by Zeng Guofan's Xiang Army, he surrendered along with Cheng Xueqi and defected to the imperial cause. He distinguished himself in the Anqing campaign and was appointed as a Qianzong (千総), a non-commissioned officer in the Green Standard Army equivalent to a captain. In 1862, he was incorporated into Li Hongzhang's Huai Army, where he continued to fight against the Taiping rebels. His bravery led to his recruitment into Liu Mingchuan's unit.

After the fall of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1864, Ding Ruchang followed Liu Mingchuan north to combat the Nian Rebellion. In 1868, after successfully repelling the East Nian Army, he was awarded the rank of Tidou Zongbingguan (提督総兵官), a high-ranking provincial commander in the Green Standard Army, and the honorific title "Xieyong Batulu" (協勇巴図魯), a Manchu term meaning "brave hero." However, in 1874, when the Qing court decided to reduce the size of its army, Ding Ruchang vehemently protested the reduction of his own unit in a letter to Liu Mingchuan. An enraged Liu Mingchuan reportedly plotted to assassinate Ding, but upon learning of the plan, Ding promptly resigned from his post and returned to his hometown, thereby escaping harm.

2.1. Role in the Self-Strengthening Movement

In 1875, Li Hongzhang, who had become the Minister of Commerce for the Northern Ports and Governor-General of Zhili, began organizing a Western-style navy. Aware of the past conflict between Ding Ruchang and Liu Mingchuan, Li Hongzhang recruited Ding to serve as a commander for the newly forming Beiyang Fleet, rather than reassigning him to the Xiang Army. Ding Ruchang became a staunch supporter of the Self-Strengthening Movement, advocating for China to establish its own shipyards capable of building modern armored cruisers, rather than relying solely on foreign imports. He actively participated in the development of crucial naval bases at Weihaiwei and Lushunkou.

2.2. Overseas Ship Acquisition and Inspection

In 1880, Ding Ruchang traveled to Newcastle upon Tyne in Great Britain to oversee the delivery of the cruisers Chaoyong and Yangwei, which were the first modern cruisers for China's new navy, ordered from the Armstrong Company. He was accompanied by crew members such as Lin Taizeng and Deng Shichang. During this period, he also visited Germany and France to familiarize himself with their advanced shipbuilding techniques and naval technologies.

2.3. Command of the Beiyang Fleet

Ding Ruchang was officially promoted to Admiral (水師提督, Shuishi Tidou), meaning fleet commander, and assumed command of the Beiyang Fleet in 1888, a position he held until 1894. In 1894, he was further promoted to the position of Vice Naval Minister. The Beiyang Fleet, under his command, was considered the most modern and powerful of China's regional navies, ranking among the world's top eight fleets.

In July and August 1891, Ding Ruchang led the Beiyang Fleet on a tour of Japanese ports. This visit, featuring state-of-the-art, massive warships, was partly intended as a show of force to intimidate Japan. During this tour, Ding Ruchang reportedly scoffed at Japan, remarking, "It is ridiculous for a poor small country that cultivates hillsides to challenge the vast Qing Empire with boundless fertile land to war." However, after 1891, the Qing dynasty's naval budget was drastically cut, reportedly to divert funds for projects such as the renovation of the Summer Palace (Yiheyuan) under the Empress Dowager Cixi. This severe financial constraint meant that Ding Ruchang had to operate the fleet under challenging conditions, and no new warships were purchased after this period.

3.1. Imo Incident

In 1882, when the Imo Incident erupted in Joseon (Korea), Ding Ruchang, under the command of Qing naval captain Wu Changqing, led five ships of the Beiyang Fleet to Korea. He played a crucial role in suppressing the rebellion and, along with Wu Changqing, was responsible for the arrest of Heungseon Daewongun, the father of King Gojong. This intervention led to the re-establishment of a pro-Qing government in Joseon, affirming China's traditional suzerainty and effectively curbing Japan's growing influence in the region.

3.2. Nagasaki Incident

In 1886, Ding Ruchang participated in a show of force with the Beiyang Fleet, touring various ports including Hong Kong, the Japanese port of Nagasaki, the Korean ports of Busan and Wonsan, and the Russian naval base of Vladivostok. While anchored in Nagasaki on 13 August 1886, a brawl erupted in a local brothel involving several drunken sailors from the Chinese turret ship Zhenyuan. During the altercation, a Japanese police officer was fatally stabbed. Two days later, on 15 August, a larger riot occurred between locals, police, and Ding's sailors, resulting in the deaths of six Chinese sailors and 45 wounded, along with five Japanese policemen killed and 16 wounded. This incident escalated into a significant diplomatic incident between China and Japan. Despite the severity of the event, Ding Ruchang was able to make a second trip to Japan with the Beiyang Fleet in 1891.

3.3. Sino-French War

During the Sino-French War of 1884, Ding Ruchang's contributions were recognized by the Qing Emperor, who awarded him the Yellow Riding Jacket. This was traditionally considered one of the highest military honors in the Qing Empire, signifying exceptional bravery and service.

4.1. Battle of the Yalu River

In 1894, the First Sino-Japanese War broke out. Initially, Li Hongzhang's strategy was to conserve the Beiyang Fleet, which had already integrated cruisers borrowed from the Guangdong Fleet due to budget shortfalls, and focus on land-based operations to defeat Japan. However, as the Japanese Combined Fleet began actively supporting land troop transport, public opinion within China mounted, questioning why the Beiyang Fleet remained inactive. On 10 August, when the Japanese Combined Fleet entered the Yellow Sea, even the Guangxu Emperor chastised Li Hongzhang, asking if Ding Ruchang was afraid of the Japanese Navy. Under immense pressure, Li Hongzhang reluctantly ordered the Beiyang Fleet to engage.

On 17 September 1894, the Beiyang Fleet encountered the Japanese Combined Fleet off the mouth of the Yalu River, leading to the Battle of the Yalu River. Ding Ruchang commanded the fleet from the bridge of his flagship, the Dingyuan. During the battle, the Dingyuan's bridge was destroyed by an accidental discharge of its own main gun, injuring Ding Ruchang and several other officers present. One theory suggests this was due to a construction defect, while another posits it was a deliberate misfiring by the commanding captain. This incident created a critical problem for the Beiyang Fleet: without a clear protocol for transferring command when the flagship became inoperable, individual ships began fighting independently. After approximately five hours of intense combat, the Beiyang Fleet suffered a devastating defeat, losing five of its twelve main ships.

4.2. Siege of Weihaiwei

Following the defeat at the Yalu River, Ding Ruchang, under Li Hongzhang's orders, moved the remaining Beiyang Fleet to its home base at Weihaiwei, changing his flagship to the Zhenyuan. He focused entirely on strengthening the defenses. Although he felt uneasy about the strength of the land forces defending Weihaiwei, these land-based artillery units were not under the Beiyang Fleet's jurisdiction, and his concerns remained unaddressed.

On 20 January 1895, Japanese forces landed at Rongcheng on the Shandong Peninsula. Itō Sukeyuki, the Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Combined Fleet, offered Ding Ruchang a chance to surrender, but Ding refused. The Japanese army then proceeded to capture the land-based artillery forts at Weihaiwei, effectively encircling the Beiyang Fleet from both land and sea. With the harbor boom lowered, Japanese torpedo boats launched attacks, rendering the situation for the trapped fleet hopeless.

5.1. Suicide

On 12 February 1895, facing an insurmountable situation at Weihaiwei, Ding Ruchang negotiated a surrender on the condition that the lives of his crew members would be spared. Rather than personally surrendering to the Japanese forces, he chose to commit suicide by an overdose of opium in his office at his Liugong Island headquarters. He was 58 years old. His deputy, Admiral Liu Buchan, also committed suicide after ordering his own warship to be scuttled with explosives. The remnants of the Beiyang Fleet subsequently surrendered to the Japanese.

Following Ding Ruchang's death, his body was transported back to China on a junk. In a gesture of respect, Admiral Itō Sukeyuki, on his own initiative, released one captured cargo ship, the Kangjihao, to carry Ding's remains. The ship, with the surviving crew, departed under a salute from the Japanese Navy.

6.1. Blame and Disgrace by the Qing Government

Upon hearing the news of the Beiyang Fleet's annihilation, the Guangxu Emperor was enraged. He blamed Ding Ruchang for the devastating defeat, posthumously stripping him of all his ranks and positions, confiscating his property, and forbidding a proper funeral. This official condemnation meant that Ding Ruchang remained in disgrace for many years.

6.2. Restoration of Honor

Despite the Qing government's initial condemnation, the manner of Ding Ruchang's death, choosing suicide over surrender, earned him the respect of the Japanese as well as many members of the Chinese military. His reputation began to be restored years later. In 1910, following petitions from figures such as Prince Zaixun (a younger brother of the Guangxu Emperor and then Navy Minister) and Sa Zhenbing, who was the Admiral of both the Southern and Northern Beiyang Fleets and the Guangdong Fleet, his honor began to be reinstated. In 1911, at the request of surviving generals, all of his ranks were posthumously restored. Finally, in 1912, after the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China, Ding Ruchang's family was able to give him a proper burial.