Military OfficerGermanGeneralWorld War II

Dietrich von Choltitz

Dietrich von Choltitz was a German general in World War II, known for surrendering Paris against Hitler's orders, whose legacy is complex due to war crime allegations.

1. Overview

Dietrich Hugo Hermann von Choltitz was a German general who served in the Royal Saxon Army during World War I, the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic, and the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany during World War II. He is primarily remembered for his controversial role as the last commander of Nazi-occupied Paris in 1944. Despite Adolf Hitler's direct orders to destroy the city, Choltitz chose to surrender it to Free French forces on 25 August 1944, earning him the moniker "Saviour of Paris." His decision is often attributed to military futility, his appreciation for Parisian culture, and his belief in Hitler's insanity, though other accounts suggest the French Resistance's actions limited his control over the city.

However, Choltitz's legacy is complex and subject to historical re-evaluation. While praised for saving Paris, his wartime actions, particularly on the Eastern Front, have led to serious allegations of complicity in war crimes, including the liquidation of Jews, based on secretly recorded conversations during his post-war captivity. These allegations highlight a critical aspect of his career, prompting scrutiny of his motivations and accountability within the context of Nazi atrocities.

2. Early life and background

Dietrich Hugo Hermann von Choltitz was born on 9 November 1894, into an aristocratic Prussian family with a long history of military service. His birthplace was his family's castle in Gräflich Wiese (now Łąka Prudnicka, Poland) in the province of Silesia, approximately 1.2 mile (2 km) from Neustadt (now Prudnik), within the Kingdom of Prussia, then part of the German Empire. His father, Hans von Choltitz (1865-1935), was a major in the Prussian Army, and his mother was Gertrud von Rosenberg. He had two brothers, Hans and Job. The family belonged to the Moravian-Silesian noble family of Sedlnitzky von Choltitz, associated with the Odrowąż coat of arms. His uncle, Hermann von Choltitz, served as the governor of Landkreis Neustadt O.S. from 1907 to 1920. The family also owned a forest situated between Prudnik and Niemysłowice.

In 1907, Choltitz began his military education at the Dresden Cadet School.

3. Military career

Choltitz's military career spanned three distinct eras of German history: World War I, the Weimar Republic, and Nazi Germany during World War II.

3.1. World War I

Just months before the outbreak of World War I, Choltitz joined the 8. Infanterie-Regiment Prinz Johann Georg Nr. 107 of the Royal Saxon Army as a Fähnrich (officer candidate) in March 1914. His unit was deployed on the Western Front, where he participated in major engagements including the First Battle of the Marne, the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Somme, and the Battle of St. Quentin (1914). Within a year of joining, he was promoted to Leutnant (second lieutenant) in September 1914 and became the adjutant of his regiment's third battalion. By the end of the war, he had been promoted to Oberleutnant (first lieutenant) on 1 November 1924.

3.2. Interwar period

After World War I, Choltitz remained in military service within the Reichswehr during the Weimar Republic, contributing to Germany's efforts to rebuild its armed forces. In April 1929, he was promoted to Rittmeister (cavalry captain) and served as a cavalry battalion commander. He continued his professional development, transferring to the riding school in Soltau, where he successfully competed in domestic and international riding competitions. In August 1935, he was promoted to major. In February 1937, he was appointed commander of the 3rd Battalion of Infanterie-Regiment 16 "Oldenburg", a unit within the 22. Luftlande-Division. His ascent continued with a promotion to Oberstleutnant (lieutenant-colonel) in April 1938. He also participated in the occupation of Sudetenland in 1938.

3.3. World War II

Choltitz's involvement in World War II saw him command various units across multiple theaters, progressing through the ranks to become a general. He was promoted to Oberst (colonel) on 1 April 1941, Generalmajor (major general) on 1 September 1942, Generalleutnant (lieutenant general) on 1 March 1943, and finally General der Infanterie (general of the infantry) on 1 August 1944.

3.3.1. Invasion of Poland

In preparation for Fall Weiss (Case White), the German invasion of Poland, Choltitz was appointed commander of the 16th Air Landing Regiment on 18 August 1939, based in Sagan (now Żagań, Poland). After the Battle of Łódź, his regiment was transported to the airport in Łódź by Junkers Ju 52 transport aircraft on 12 September 1939. On 15 September, the regiment was temporarily assigned to the 10th Infantry Division. It participated in the Battle of the Bzura, during which Choltitz was wounded. On 19 September, his forces captured 3,000 Polish soldiers and a substantial amount of military equipment.

3.3.2. Battle of the Netherlands

Choltitz in 1940
Choltitz in 1940

In May 1940, Choltitz played a significant role in the Battle of Rotterdam, leading an airborne assault to seize key bridges in the city. As commander of the 3rd Battalion of the 16th Air Landing Regiment, he organized his troops after landing at Waalhaven Air Force Base and directed them towards the bridges in Rotterdam. The Dutch forces in the southern part of the city, consisting primarily of butchers, bakers, and about 90 infantrymen reinforced by riflemen from the airfield, ambushed the advancing German troops from hidden positions in houses along the route. Both sides sustained casualties. The Germans eventually brought up an anti-tank gun, forcing the Dutch to yield under increasing pressure. The German force then moved towards the bridges, quickly followed by the main body of the 9th Company of the 16th Air Landing Regiment.

Meanwhile, the staff of the 3rd Battalion, 16th Air Landing Regiment, encountered Dutch defenders in the city square. Choltitz's adjutant led an assault on the Dutch position but was mortally wounded. The Germans then found an opening along the quays, allowing the bulk of the 3rd Battalion to make contact with the bridge defenders around 09:00.

Despite not regaining control of the city, the Dutch continued to launch assaults on German positions, causing mounting casualties on both sides. The German command grew increasingly concerned about the status of their 500 men in the heart of Rotterdam. Generalleutnant Kurt Student authorized Oberstleutnant von Choltitz to withdraw his men from the northern pocket if the operational situation required it.

During a crucial moment, as Captain Backer was being escorted by Choltitz back to the Maas bridges, German bombers appeared from the south. General Schmidt, joined by Generals Hubicki and Student, witnessed the planes and exclaimed, "My God, this is going to be a catastrophe!" Panic spread among German soldiers on the Noordereiland, who feared being attacked by their own bombers. Choltitz immediately ordered red flares to be launched, but the smoke from the first three bombers obscured them. Fortunately, the next 24 bombers in the southern formation closed their bomb hatches and turned westward, averting a larger friendly fire incident.

Following the bombardment of Rotterdam, during a meeting with the Dutch to discuss surrender terms, Generalleutnant Kurt Student was injured by a gunshot to the head. Student was highly popular with his troops, and when German forces moved to execute surrendering Dutch officers in reprisal, Choltitz intervened and successfully prevented the massacre. His actions during the assault on Rotterdam earned him the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 18 May 1940. In September of the same year, he was given command of the regiment, and the following spring was promoted to Oberst (colonel).

3.3.3. Eastern Front (1941-1943)

Choltitz in 1942
Choltitz in 1942

At the start of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, Choltitz's regiment was based in Romania, advancing as part of Army Group South into Ukraine. His route took him through Bessarabia, and he crossed the Dnieper river on 30 August 1941. By the end of October, he had fought his way to the Crimea.

As part of Erich von Manstein's 11th Army, Choltitz's regiment participated in the brutal siege of Sevastopol. The siege was exceptionally bloody for his regiment, which saw its numbers drastically reduced from 4,800 men to a mere 349. During the severe winter of 1941-1942, Choltitz suffered from heart problems and began to exhibit symptoms of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Despite his health issues, he was promoted to Generalmajor soon after and was made acting commander of the 260th Infantry Division in 1942. The following year, he was promoted to Generalleutnant and given command of the 11th Panzer Division, which he led during the Battle of Kursk. From August to October 1942, he also served as acting commander of the 260th Infantry Division, deputizing for Generalleutnant Walter Hahm. He subsequently commanded various other corps and panzer corps.

3.3.4. Western Front (1944)

In March 1944, Choltitz was transferred to the Italian theater of operations, where he served as deputy commander of LXXVI Panzer Corps and participated in the Battle of Anzio and Monte Cassino. In June 1944, he was transferred to the Western Front and took command of the LXXXIV Army Corps, leading it against the Allied breakout from Normandy.

4. Military Governor of Paris

Dietrich von Choltitz signing the Nazi surrender after the liberation of Paris
Dietrich von Choltitz signing the Nazi surrender after the liberation of Paris
Surrender of the German garrison in Paris, signed by General von Choltitz on 25 August, received by General Leclerc and countersigned by Colonel Rol-Tanguy
Surrender of the German garrison in Paris, signed by General von Choltitz on 25 August, received by General Leclerc and countersigned by Colonel Rol-Tanguy

On 7 August 1944, Choltitz was appointed the military governor of Paris, effectively making him "commander of a besieged stronghold." He arrived in Paris on 8 August and established his headquarters at the Hotel Meurice on the Rue De Rivoli. Upon arrival, he found limited resources at his disposal, with only about 20,000 troops, many of whom were unmotivated conscripts.

As the Allied forces rapidly advanced through France following the Normandy landings, the situation in Paris deteriorated for the German occupation forces. On 15 August 1944, the Paris police went on strike, which was followed by a general insurrection led by the French Communist Party on 19 August. The German garrison under Choltitz attempted to suppress the uprising but was far too small to effectively quell it. They lost control of many public buildings, numerous roads were blocked, and German vehicles and communications were severely disrupted.

With the assistance of the Swedish consul-general in Paris, Raoul Nordling, a ceasefire was brokered with the insurgents on 20 August. However, many Resistance groups did not accept the ceasefire, leading to continued skirmishes the following day. Choltitz also engaged in negotiations with Nordling and the president of the municipal council, Pierre Taittinger, hoping to limit bloodshed and damage to the city, which resulted in the release of some political prisoners.

On 23 August, as the Allied forces approached, Hitler transmitted a categorical order by cable: "Paris must not pass into the enemy's hands, except as a field of ruins" (Paris darf nicht oder nur als Trümmerfeld in die Hand des Feindes fallenGerman). In accordance with this directive, explosives were laid at various bridges and significant monuments across the city, though these later had to be de-mined.

With the arrival of Allied troops on the outskirts of Paris at dawn on 24 August, Choltitz made the momentous decision not to destroy the city. On 25 August, he surrendered the German garrison not to the Supreme Allied Command, but to representatives of the provisional government, the Free French. This act of disobeying Hitler's direct order led to Choltitz being widely regarded as the "Saviour of Paris." Hitler, enraged by the non-compliance, reportedly shouted, "Brennt Paris?" (Brennt Paris?Is Paris Burning?German) from Berlin, expressing his frustration that the city had not been razed. The Luftwaffe subsequently conducted an incendiary bombing raid on 26 August, and V-2 rockets were fired from Belgium, causing extensive damage, indicating Hitler's continued intent for destruction.

Dietrich von Choltitz with Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque and Jacques Soustelle in the M3 Scout Car
Dietrich von Choltitz with Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque and Jacques Soustelle in the M3 Scout Car

Choltitz later asserted that his defiance of Hitler's order stemmed from its obvious military futility, his affection for Paris's history and culture, and his conviction that Hitler had become insane. This version of events was detailed in his 1951 memoir, published in French in the 1960s as From Sevastopol to Paris: A soldier among the soldiers. His account formed the basis for the 1965 book and 1966 film, Is Paris Burning?, which popularized the narrative of him as Paris's savior. However, some historians suggest that Choltitz had limited control over the city due to the extensive operations of the French Resistance and that he might not have been able to carry out the destruction orders even if he had wished to. Other motivations proposed include a desire to ensure better treatment after capitulation, as destroying the city would have been a futile and destructive gesture.

His memoirs also claim that an all-night meeting with Nordling on the night of 24 August played a part in his decision to spare the city. This event was dramatized in the 2014 film Diplomacy, where Nordling persuades Choltitz to spare Paris in exchange for a pledge to protect his family. While some newspaper stories reported this as factual following the memoir's publication, it lacks independent corroboration.

5. Personal life

After World War I, Dietrich von Choltitz returned to Prudnik, where on 20 August 1929, he married Huberta (1902-2001), the daughter of General of the Cavalry Otto von Garnier. The couple had two daughters, Maria Angelika (1930-2016) and Anna Barbara (born 1936), and a son, Timo (born 1944).

6. Captivity and later life

Dietrich von Choltitz (standing far left) at Trent Park in London
Dietrich von Choltitz (standing far left) at Trent Park in London

After his surrender in Paris, Choltitz was held as a prisoner of war for the remainder of the war. He was initially interned at Trent Park in north London, alongside other senior German officers. Later, he was transferred to Camp Clinton in Mississippi, United States. No specific charges were ever filed against him, and he was released from captivity in April 1947.

In 1956, Choltitz visited his wartime headquarters at the Hôtel Meurice in Paris. Reportedly, the hotel's long-time head barman recognized the short, rotund man with "impossibly correct posture" wandering around the bar. After meeting the hotel manager, Choltitz asked to see his old room. Following a brief visit of no more than fifteen minutes, he declined the manager's offer of champagne and left to meet with Pierre Taittinger.

Grave of Dietrich von Choltitz and Otto von Garnier in Baden-Baden
Grave of Dietrich von Choltitz and Otto von Garnier in Baden-Baden

Dietrich von Choltitz died on 5 November 1966, from a longstanding war illness, specifically pulmonary emphysema, in the city hospital of Baden-Baden. Four days later, he was buried at the city cemetery of Baden-Baden, a city that served as the French headquarters in Germany after World War II. High-ranking French officers, including Colonels Wagner (Military Commander of Baden-Baden), Ravinel, and Omézon, were present at his funeral.

Choltitz was the last German owner of the castle in Łąka Prudnicka, his birthplace, which had been part of Germany as Gräflich Wiese until 1945. In 2016, his son, Timo, attempted to reclaim the property during a visit to Prudnik, but without success.

7. Controversies and evaluation

Choltitz's legacy is marked by significant controversies and differing historical interpretations, particularly regarding his actions in Paris and his alleged involvement in war crimes.

7.1. "Saviour of Paris" narrative

The most prominent aspect of Choltitz's legacy is the popular narrative of him as the "Saviour of Paris" for disobeying Hitler's orders to destroy the city. This narrative gained widespread acceptance, largely fueled by his own memoirs and subsequent adaptations like the book and film Is Paris Burning?. The decision to spare Paris is often framed as an act of moral courage, driven by his appreciation for the city's cultural heritage and his belief that Hitler had become irrational. This perspective highlights the significance of his choice in preserving one of the world's most iconic capitals from devastation, contrasting it sharply with the destruction inflicted upon cities like Stalingrad or Warsaw during the war.

However, scholarly re-evaluations have introduced nuances to this narrative. Some historians argue that Choltitz's decision was less about moral conviction and more about military pragmatism, given the futility of resistance against the advancing Allies and the extensive activities of the French Resistance, which had already severely hampered German control over the city. It is also suggested that he might have been motivated by a desire to secure better treatment as a prisoner of war. While the outcome undeniably saved Paris, the exact motivations and the extent of his agency remain subjects of historical debate.

7.2. Complicity in war crimes allegations

Beyond the "Saviour of Paris" narrative, serious allegations regarding Choltitz's potential involvement or awareness of Nazi war crimes, particularly the persecution and murder of Jews, have critically impacted his legacy. These allegations are primarily based on secretly recorded conversations during his internment at Trent Park in London.

In one such conversation, dated 29 August 1944, Choltitz was recorded stating, "The worst job I ever carried out - which however I carried out with great consistency - was the liquidation of the Jews. I carried out this thoroughly and entirely." This statement directly implicates him in the systematic murder of Jews. While some, including his son Timo, have questioned the reliability or context of these transcripts, the existence of such a direct admission from a high-ranking German officer is highly concerning and demands scrutiny from a perspective focused on accountability and human rights.

Furthermore, in October 1944, Choltitz was quoted as saying, "We all share the guilt. We went along with everything, and we half-took the Nazis seriously, instead of saying 'to Hell with you and your stupid nonsense.' I misled my soldiers into believing this rubbish. I feel utterly ashamed of myself. Perhaps we bear even more guilt than these uneducated animals." This statement, while not directly admitting to specific atrocities, suggests a profound awareness of the Nazi regime's crimes and a sense of personal and collective responsibility among German officers for their complicity.

At the very least, Choltitz was fully aware of the mass murder being committed against Jews. For instance, he estimated that the Nazis shot 36,000 Jews from Sevastopol. These revelations challenge the portrayal of Choltitz as a purely honorable military figure and underscore the pervasive nature of Nazi ideology and its crimes, even among those who later defied specific orders. The allegations highlight the importance of examining the full scope of an individual's actions during such a period, emphasizing the need for accountability for human rights violations.

7.3. Historical re-evaluation

The conflicting narratives surrounding Choltitz have led to ongoing scholarly and public re-evaluations of his actions and motivations. While the popular image of the "Saviour of Paris" persists, the revelations from the Trent Park recordings and other historical research have prompted a more critical assessment. This re-evaluation considers diverse historical interpretations, acknowledging the complexity of his character and the moral dilemmas faced by individuals within the Nazi regime. It seeks to balance the positive outcome of his decision in Paris with the disturbing allegations of his involvement in or knowledge of atrocities on the Eastern Front. This ongoing process aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of his legacy, moving beyond simplistic heroic or villainous portrayals to address the full spectrum of his wartime conduct.

8. Awards and honors

Dietrich von Choltitz received numerous military awards and decorations throughout his career, reflecting his service in both World War I and World War II.

  • Iron Cross (1914)
    • 2nd Class
    • 1st Class
  • Honour Cross of the World War (WWI)
  • Order of St. Henry (26 December 1917)
  • Albert Order, Saxony
  • Civil Order of Saxony
  • Wound Badge
    • Silver (1918)
    • Gold (25 March 1943)
  • Sudetenland Medal (1938)
  • Iron Cross (1939)
    • 2nd Class
    • 1st Class
  • Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross (18 May 1940)
  • Infantry Assault Badge, WWII
  • German Cross in Gold (8 February 1942)
  • Crimea Shield (July 1942)
  • Order of Michael the Brave, Romania (6 October 1942)
  • Order of the Star of Romania (1943)