Demetrius I Poliorcetes

1.1. Early life and education

Demetrius was born around 337 BC, the son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus ("the One-Eyed"), a high-ranking Macedonian general and one of Alexander the Great's most trusted companions, and his wife Stratonice. He also had a younger brother named Philippos, who later became a general. Some historians, including Plutarch, speculate that Demetrius might have been Antigonus's nephew, adopted after the early death of Antigonus's own son.

Antigonus belonged to an influential family from Elimiotis in western Macedon and was a close confidant of Philip II of Macedon. Demetrius was born in the same year that King Philip II was assassinated. His father participated in Alexander the Great's Persian campaign and was appointed governor of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia (in modern-day western Turkey) after the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC. This position gave Antigonus control over crucial supply routes between Europe and Asia. Little is known about Demetrius's childhood, but it is believed he grew up in Celaenae, his father's residence in Asia.

After Alexander's death in Babylon in 323 BC, Antigonus became a major rival of the regent Perdiccas. Antigonus allied with Antipater and Ptolemy I in the First Diadochi War against Perdiccas. Following Perdiccas's assassination in 320 BC, Antigonus gained significant advantages from the subsequent Triparadeisos conference. The new regent, Antipater, appointed him Commander-in-Chief of the army in Asia and confirmed his governorship. The close relationship between Antipater and Antigonus was further solidified when Demetrius married Phila, Antipater's daughter and the widow of Craterus.

1.2. Early military career

Demetrius served alongside his father, Antigonus I Monophthalmus, throughout the Second War of the Diadochi. He commanded the cavalry on the right flank at the Battle of Paraitakene in 317 BC. Despite heavy losses to the Antigonid center and the routing of the left flank, Demetrius's success on the right prevented a complete defeat. He was also present at the decisive Battle of Gabiene. Immediately after the battle, while Antigonus held the betrayed Eumenes, Demetrius was among the few who urged his father to spare Eumenes's life.

At the age of 21, Demetrius was tasked by his father with defending Syria against Ptolemy, the son of Lagus. He suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of Gaza in 312 BC. However, he partially redeemed this loss with a victory at the Battle of Myus against Cilles, one of Ptolemy's generals. In the spring of 310 BC, Demetrius was soundly defeated when he attempted to expel Seleucus I Nicator from Babylon. His father also suffered a defeat in the autumn of the same year. As a result of this Babylonian War, Antigonus lost nearly two-thirds of his empire, with all eastern satrapies falling under Seleucus's control.

2.1. Liberation of Greece and role in Athens

After several campaigns against Ptolemy along the coasts of Cilicia and Cyprus, Demetrius sailed with a fleet of 250 ships to Athens. In 307 BC, he successfully liberated the city from the control of Cassander and Ptolemy, expelling the garrison stationed there under Demetrius of Phalerum, and then besieged and captured Munychia. These victories led the Athenians to worship him as a tutelary deity under the title of Soter (Σωτήρ^{Greek, Modern}, "Saviour").

In 304 BC, Demetrius returned to Greece a second time as a liberator, reinstating the Corinthian League. However, his subsequent actions and personal conduct quickly eroded the goodwill he had earned. His licentiousness and extravagance made the Athenians regret his presence and long for the government of Cassander. Among his notable outrages, he pursued a young man named Democles the Handsome, who, to avoid Demetrius's advances, jumped into a cauldron of hot water, dying to preserve his honor and that of his city. In another instance, Demetrius waived a fine of 50 talents imposed on a citizen in exchange for the favors of the man's son, Cleaenetus. He also sought the attention of Lamia, a Greek courtesan, demanding 250 talents from the Athenians, which he then gave to Lamia and other courtesans to purchase soap and cosmetics, reportedly by imposing a tax on soap.

After Athens' capitulation in 294 BC, Demetrius established a new government that significantly altered traditional democratic forms, which his opponents viewed as an oligarchy. The cyclical rotation of the secretaries of the Council and the election of archons by allotment were both abolished. Between 294/3 and 293/2 BC, two of Athens' most prominent citizens, Olympiordoros and Phillipides of Paiania, were appointed by the Macedonian king, a move that Plutarch suggests was made to install archons "most acceptable to the Demos." These actions highlight Demetrius's tendency to centralize power and undermine democratic institutions, despite his initial role as a liberator.

2.2. Major naval and siege battles

In the spring of 306 BC, Demetrius sailed from Athens to Caria, where he unsuccessfully sought support from the Rhodians for his naval campaign. In the same year, he engaged Ptolemy and his brother Menelaus in the naval Battle of Salamis, decisively defeating them and completely destroying the naval power of Ptolemaic Egypt. Demetrius then conquered Cyprus, capturing one of Ptolemy's sons. Following this victory, Antigonus assumed the title of "king" and bestowed the same upon his son Demetrius.

In 305 BC, Demetrius attempted to punish the Rhodians for abandoning his cause by besieging their capital. Although the siege was ultimately unsuccessful, his ingenuity in devising new siege engines earned him the epithet Poliorcetes ("the Besieger of Cities"). Among his creations were a battering ram 180 ft long, which required 1,000 men to operate, and a wheeled siege tower named "Helepolis" (or "Taker of Cities"), which stood 125 ft tall and 60 ft wide, weighing 360.00 K lb ^{(360.00 K lb)}. After failing to conquer Rhodes, these massive weapons were abandoned, and the bronze from them was reportedly used by the Rhodians to construct the Colossus of Rhodes.

Demetrius's ambition and his father's growing power aroused the jealousy of the other Diadochi. Seleucus, Cassander, and Lysimachus formed an alliance to destroy Antigonus and Demetrius. The opposing armies met at the Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia in 301 BC. During the battle, Demetrius, leading the right flank, pursued the fleeing enemy too far, preventing him from returning to aid Antigonus's isolated main force. Antigonus was killed, and Demetrius, after sustaining severe losses, retreated to Ephesus. This reversal of fortune turned many enemies against him, with the Athenians even refusing him entry into their city. However, he soon ravaged Lysimachus's territory and reconciled with Seleucus, to whom he gave his daughter Stratonice in marriage.

2.3. Reign as King of Macedonia

In 294 BC, Demetrius gained possession of Athens after a protracted blockade, pardoning the inhabitants for their previous misconduct in 301 BC, a display of mercy he valued in a ruler. In the same year, he secured the throne of Macedonia by murdering Alexander V, the son of Cassander. He faced a rebellion from the Boeotians but secured the region after capturing Thebes in 291 BC. That year, he married Lanassa, the former wife of Pyrrhus.

However, his position as ruler of Macedonia was continually threatened by Pyrrhus, who exploited Demetrius's occasional absences to ravage the undefended parts of his kingdom. Eventually, the combined forces of Pyrrhus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus, aided by disaffected Macedonian subjects, compelled Demetrius to abandon Macedonia in 288 BC.

After an unsuccessful siege of Athens, Demetrius moved into Asia and attacked some of Lysimachus's provinces with varying success. Famine and pestilence decimated the greater part of his army, leading him to seek support and assistance from Seleucus. However, hostilities broke out before he reached Syria, and after gaining some initial advantages over his son-in-law, Demetrius was completely abandoned by his troops on the battlefield and surrendered to Seleucus.

4.1. Marriages and Children

Demetrius was married five times. His first wife was Phila, daughter of Regent Antipater, by whom he had two children: his daughter Stratonice of Syria and his son Antigonus II Gonatas.

His second wife was Eurydice of Athens, an Athenian noblewoman, who was the widow of Ophellas, Ptolemy's governor of Cyrene. By Eurydice, Demetrius had a son named Corrhabus.

His third wife was Deidamia, a sister of Pyrrhus of Epirus. Deidamia bore him a son named Alexander, who is said by Plutarch to have spent his life in Egypt, probably in an honorable captivity.

His fourth wife was Lanassa, the former wife of his brother-in-law Pyrrhus of Epirus.

His fifth wife was Ptolemais, daughter of Ptolemy I Soter and Eurydice of Egypt. With Ptolemais, he had a son named Demetrius the Fair, who later became King of Cyrene and was the father of Antigonus III Doson.

Additionally, Demetrius had a relationship with a celebrated Greek courtesan named Lamia of Athens, by whom he had a daughter also named Phila.

4.2. Personality and evaluation

Demetrius was described as a man of considerable talent and charisma. He was renowned for his handsome appearance, bravery, and loyalty to his friends. However, these positive traits were often overshadowed by his more problematic characteristics. He was known for being licentious, ostentatious, and arrogant.

Plutarch, in his biography of Demetrius, famously pairs him with the Roman general Mark Antony, drawing parallels between their lives. Both men were described as having strong passions, a love for drink, and a penchant for warfare. They were characterized by their generosity and extravagance, experiencing dramatic fluctuations in fortune, from the pinnacle of prosperity to sudden downfall, only to recover their power quickly. Demetrius's pursuit of young men, such as Democles the Handsome, and his financial demands on the Athenians to support his courtesan Lamia, exemplify the licentiousness and disregard for public sentiment that often undermined his political standing. His actions, such as abolishing traditional democratic forms in Athens and imposing heavy taxes, reflect a ruler who prioritized his own power and desires over the well-being and democratic principles of the populace, leading to significant criticism from his contemporaries and historians alike.

6.1. Military legacy

Demetrius proved to be an exceptionally effective commander throughout his 30-year military career, from the Battle of Paraitakene in 317 BC until his final defeat. He notably built upon and significantly scaled up the military innovations introduced by Alexander the Great, standardizing the widespread use of massive siege engines in Hellenistic warfare. His contributions to siegecraft were so profound that he earned his famous epithet, "Poliorcetes" (the Besieger).

Beyond his technological advancements, Demetrius was an excellent logistician, capable of maintaining sieges on scales previously unheard of. He also pioneered amphibious warfare, frequently conducting sieges from both sea and land. His campaigns were often characterized by a rapid, almost "blitzkrieg" strategy, allowing him to capture numerous cities in quick succession, such as Panactum, Phyle, Kechries, Epidaurus, Sicyon, Corinth, Bura, Scirus (Arcadia), Argos, and Orchomenus during his Greek campaigns. Although the reported figure of 110,000 soldiers under his command in 288 BC is likely an exaggeration by ancient authors, it underscores his ability to assemble and lead some of the largest armies of his time.

Demetrius also made significant contributions as a military engineer and fortifier of cities. He developed effective strategies for defensive siege warfare and personally oversaw the construction of numerous fortifications. His projects included one of the most significant fortification efforts in Athens' history (307-306 BC), the relocation and construction of a new, more defensible city at Sicyon (303 BC), and substantial fortification work in Corinth. These endeavors highlight his impact on both offensive and defensive military disciplines, cementing his reputation as a "builder king" in addition to a "besieger."

6.2. References in literature and art

Demetrius I Poliorcetes has been a subject of interest in various literary and artistic works throughout history.

Plutarch, the renowned Greek biographer, wrote a detailed biography of Demetrius, pairing him with the Roman general Mark Antony in his Parallel Lives. This pairing emphasizes their shared characteristics, such as their volatile fortunes, military prowess, and indulgent personal lives. The philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, in his Lectures on the History of Philosophy, mistakenly attributed the deification of Demetrius Poliorcetes in Athens to Demetrius of Phalerum, a contemporary figure. This error stemmed from a misreading of Plutarch's Life of Demetrius, where Plutarch describes the honors, including those usually reserved for the god Dionysus, that were bestowed upon Demetrius Poliorcetes by the Athenians after his liberation of the city. This account has historically caused confusion for other scholars as well.

The circumstances of Demetrius's departure from Macedonia in 288 BC inspired the Greek poet Constantine Cavafy to write "King Demetrius" (ὁ βασιλεὺς Δημήτριος^{Greek, Modern}) in 1906, one of his earliest surviving poems on a historical theme.

Demetrius is also the central character in the opera Demetrio a Rodi (Turin, 1789), with a libretto by Giandomenico Boggio and Giuseppe Banti, and music composed by Gaetano Pugnani. In literature, he appears under the Greek form of his name, Demetrios, in L. Sprague de Camp's historical novel, The Bronze God of Rhodes, which largely focuses on his famous siege of Rhodes. Additionally, Alfred Duggan's novel Elephants and Castles provides a lively fictionalized account of his life.