Cesare Borgia

1.1. Birth and Family

The exact date of Cesare Borgia's birth is a subject of historical dispute, with sources suggesting either 1475 or 1476. He was born in Subiaco in Lazio, Italy, or possibly in Rome, as the illegitimate son of Cardinal Rodrigo Llançol i de Borja, who later became Pope Alexander VI, and his Italian mistress Vannozza dei Cattanei. The Borgia family, originally from the Kingdom of Valencia in the Crown of Aragon (modern-day Spain), rose to significant prominence in the mid-15th century when Cesare's great-uncle, Alfonso Borgia, then Bishop of Valencia, was elected Pope Callixtus III in 1455. Alexander VI was notable as the first pope to openly acknowledge his children born out of wedlock.

Cesare had several siblings: Giovanni, Lucrezia Borgia, and Gioffre Borgia (Jofré in Catalan), all born to Vannozza dei Cattanei. He also had half-siblings, including Don Pedro Luis de Borja (1460-1488) and Girolama de Borja, from an unknown mother, and at least 11 other illegitimate children. The Italian historian Stefano Infessura controversially claimed that Cardinal Borgia falsely presented Cesare as the legitimate son of Domenico d'Arignano, Vannozza dei Cattanei's nominal husband. However, Pope Sixtus IV is said to have granted Cesare a dispensation from proving his birth in a papal bull issued on October 1, 1480.

1.2. Education and Upbringing

Cesare was initially groomed for a career within the Roman Catholic Church. He received his early education from tutors in Rome until the age of 12. He later studied law at the Studium Urbis (now the Sapienza University of Rome) and pursued further studies in law and humanities at the University of Perugia and University of Pisa, where he also delved into theology.

Despite his academic pursuits, Cesare also dedicated himself to physical activities, showing a keen interest in hunting, a pastime he enjoyed throughout his life, and various martial arts. Contemporaries described Cesare as a remarkably handsome man with grey eyes and orange hair, possessing an imposing presence. Niccolò Machiavelli, who later observed him, noted Cesare's "singularly beautiful and imposing appearance, and his bravery when taking up arms."

2.1. Appointment as Cardinal

With his father's elevation to the papacy as Pope Alexander VI in August 1492, Cesare's ecclesiastical career accelerated dramatically. At the young age of 15, he was appointed Bishop of Pamplona. By 17, he became Archbishop of Valencia. In 1493, he was also appointed bishop of both Castres and Elne, and in 1494, he received the title of abbot of the abbey of Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa. In September 1493, during a consistory, Alexander VI appointed Cesare as a cardinal at the age of 18, signaling his father's intention for him to be a successor within the Borgia family's ecclesiastical ambitions.

Alexander VI had initially placed his hopes for the Borgia family's military power on Cesare's elder brother, Giovanni, who was made captain-general of the papal forces. However, in June 1497, Giovanni was assassinated under mysterious circumstances in Rome. Several contemporaries, including the historian Francesco Guicciardini, suggested Cesare as the killer, citing jealousy over Giovanni's favored position and a rumored rivalry over Sancha of Aragon, wife of their younger brother Gioffre, who was allegedly mistress to both Cesare and Giovanni. Other theories suggest Giovanni's death might have been the result of a sexual liaison. Cesare's definitive motive remains unclear, as he was likely to gain a powerful secular position regardless of his brother's fate. Giovanni's death, however, cleared the path for Cesare to pursue a military career, a path he had long desired.

2.2. Resignation and Secularization

On August 17, 1498, Cesare Borgia made the historic decision to resign from the cardinalate, becoming the first person in history to do so, in order to pursue a military career. His resignation was unanimously approved by the College of Cardinals. On the same day, Louis XII of France named Cesare Duke of Valentinois. This title, Il Valentino, was chosen for its homophony with his nickname, derived from his father's papal epithet in Latin, Valentinus, indicating his birth in Xàtiva in the Kingdom of Valencia.

The arrangement was part of a broader agreement between Alexander VI and Louis XII, which included granting Cesare territory as a duke, military support, and the title of Knight of the Order of Saint Michael. On September 6, 1499, Cesare was officially released from all ecclesiastical duties and laicised from his diaconal orders, as he had only been ordained a deacon on March 26, 1494, and had never received higher orders such as priesthood or bishop consecration.

3.1. Ducal Titles and Ambitions

Cesare's ambitions were significantly bolstered by his father's papacy and a strategic alliance with France, solidified by his marriage to Charlotte of Albret, sister of John III of Navarre. In 1499, Louis XII invaded Italy, and Cesare accompanied the French king into Milan after its duke, Ludovico Sforza, was ousted. Seizing this opportune moment, Pope Alexander VI aimed to carve out a state for Cesare in northern Italy. To this end, he declared all his vicars in Romagna and Marche deposed. These rulers, though theoretically subjects of the pope, had operated as independent entities for generations. When Cesare eventually took control, he was often viewed by the local populace as a significant improvement over the cruel and petty existing vicars.

Cesare acquired several prestigious titles reflecting his growing power and ambition. He was named Duke of Valentinois by Louis XII upon his secularization. In May 1501, he was created Duke of Romagna, a title that underscored his efforts to consolidate a personal domain in central Italy. His other titles included Prince of Andria and Venafro, Count of Dyois, and Lord of Piombino, Camerino, and Urbino. He also held the significant ecclesiastical military titles of Gonfalonier and Captain-General of the Church, positions that granted him supreme command of the papal armies. His overarching ambition was to forge a powerful, independent state under his direct control, consolidating fragmented territories and establishing a new political order in the heart of Italy.

3.2. Military Campaigns in Italy

Cesare was appointed commander of the papal armies, supported by a force of Italian mercenaries, 300 cavalry, and 4,000 Swiss infantry provided by the King of France. His initial campaign focused on capturing Imola and Forlì, which were ruled by Caterina Sforza, mother of the renowned Medici condottiero Giovanni dalle Bande Nere. Despite Caterina's fierce resistance and an alleged attempt to poison Pope Alexander VI, Cesare successfully captured both cities. After these conquests, although deprived of his French troops, Borgia returned to Rome to celebrate a triumph, reminiscent of ancient Roman generals, and was formally declared Papal Gonfalonier by his father.

In 1500, the creation of twelve new cardinals provided Alexander VI with sufficient funds for Cesare to hire new condottieri, including Vitellozzo Vitelli, Gian Paolo Baglioni, Giulio Orsini, Paolo Orsini, and Oliverotto Euffreducci, allowing him to resume his Romagna campaign. Giovanni Sforza, Lucrezia Borgia's first husband, was soon ousted from Pesaro, and Pandolfo IV Malatesta lost Rimini. Faenza surrendered after a prolonged siege, with its young lord, Astorre III Manfredi, later drowned in the Tiber by Cesare's order, a controversial act that cemented his reputation for ruthlessness. In May 1501, Cesare was officially created Duke of Romagna. Subsequently, hired by Florence, he added the lordship of Piombino to his expanding territories.

While his condottieri continued the siege of Piombino, which concluded in 1502, Cesare personally led French troops in the sieges of Naples and Capua, defended by Prospero Colonna and Fabrizio Colonna. On June 24, 1501, Borgia's forces stormed Capua, ending its siege.

In June 1502, Cesare launched a campaign into Marche, where he cunningly captured Urbino and Camerino through acts of treason. He then set his sights on conquering Bologna. However, his own condottieri, particularly Vitellozzo Vitelli and the Orsini brothers (Giulio, Paolo, and Francesco), grew fearful of Cesare's escalating cruelty and began to plot against him. This conspiracy, known as the Magione Conspiracy, led to Guidobaldo da Montefeltro and Giovanni Maria da Varano returning to Urbino and Camerino, respectively, and a revolt in Fossombrone. Despite these setbacks, Cesare's subjects had largely appreciated his rule, making it harder for his opponents to rally widespread support. He strategically recalled his loyal generals to Imola, where he patiently waited for his opponents' loose alliance to collapse.

Cesare then called for a reconciliation, but in a masterful act of deception, he imprisoned his rebellious condottieri in Senigallia (then called Sinigaglia) on December 31, 1502. This feat was described as a "wonderful deceiving" by the historian Paolo Giovio. After interrogation, Vitellozzo Vitelli and Oliverotto da Fermo were executed on the spot for treason. Paolo and Francesco Orsini were executed later, on January 18, 1503, after Cesare's brother Gioffre had arrested other Orsini family members in Rome. In 1503, Cesare also conquered the Republic of San Marino.

3.3. State Building and Governance

Cesare Borgia's efforts to establish and govern his territories, particularly the Duchy of Romagna, were characterized by a blend of ruthlessness and effective administration aimed at consolidating power and ensuring stability. After conquering various cities, he sought to integrate them into a unified state, moving the capital of his "Duchy of Romagna" to Imola, near the border with Bologna, his next target.

One notable aspect of his governance was his use of trusted lieutenants to administer his newly acquired lands. For instance, he appointed Ramiro de Lorca as his governor in Romagna, tasking him with bringing order to the region. Lorca's rule was notoriously harsh, suppressing dissent and administering justice with extreme severity. However, in a calculated move to gain popular favor and deflect criticism from himself, Cesare had Lorca brutally executed in December 1502, displaying his body in the main square of Cesena. Machiavelli famously interpreted this act as a demonstration of Cesare's political acumen, showing that he was willing to be ruthless when necessary but also understood the importance of public perception and the need to distance himself from unpopular measures.

Cesare's administrative methods aimed to replace the chaotic rule of the petty tyrants with a centralized, efficient government. He invested in infrastructure, such as the canal from Cesena to Porto Cesenatico, and sought to establish a more stable legal and economic environment. Despite the violence inherent in his conquests, many citizens in his new domains initially welcomed his rule, viewing it as an improvement over the previous fragmented and often oppressive local lordships. However, the challenges of maintaining his state without continuous papal support ultimately proved insurmountable.

4.1. Relationship with Pope Alexander VI

The relationship between Cesare Borgia and his father, Pope Alexander VI, was the cornerstone of Cesare's meteoric rise to power. Alexander VI, born Rodrigo Borgia, openly acknowledged his illegitimate children, a rare and controversial stance for a pope. He harbored immense ambitions for his family, particularly for Cesare, whom he saw as the instrument for establishing a powerful dynastic state in Italy.

Alexander VI provided Cesare with unwavering support, distributing vast patronage, securing crucial alliances, and leveraging the full authority of the papacy to fund and legitimize Cesare's military campaigns. He appointed Cesare to high ecclesiastical positions from a young age, including cardinal, and later, upon Cesare's secularization, bestowed upon him the titles of Duke of Valentinois and Duke of Romagna. The Pope also designated Cesare as Captain-General of the Church and Gonfalonier of the Church, giving him command of the papal armies and the mandate to conquer territories for the nascent Borgia state.

Their relationship was characterized by a symbiotic pursuit of power: Alexander VI used Cesare to expand papal influence and secure the Borgia family's dynastic interests, while Cesare relied entirely on his father's financial, political, and military backing. Alexander VI was willing to go to great lengths, including controversial methods such as the creation of new cardinals to raise funds, to ensure Cesare's success. He also strategically used Cesare's forces to suppress powerful Roman noble families like the Colonna and Orsini, who challenged papal authority. Alexander VI even expressed a desire for the next pope to be either a Venetian or someone aligned with Cesare's interests, underscoring his deep commitment to his son's future. This absolute dependence on his father's goodwill, however, would prove to be Cesare's ultimate vulnerability.

4.2. Influence on Niccolò Machiavelli and The Prince

Cesare Borgia's actions and political philosophy served as a profound inspiration for Niccolò Machiavelli's seminal work, The Prince. Machiavelli, serving as Secretary of the Florentine Chancellery, had the opportunity to observe Cesare firsthand during a diplomatic mission to his court from October 7, 1502, to January 18, 1503. During this period, Machiavelli sent regular dispatches to his superiors in Florence, many of which have survived and offer unique insights into Cesare's character and methods.

In The Prince, Machiavelli uses Cesare Borgia as a prime example of an ideal, albeit ruthless, ruler who successfully acquired and maintained power through his own virtue and fortune. Machiavelli particularly highlights two episodes attributed to Cesare: the method by which Romagna was pacified, detailed in Chapter VII of The Prince, and the assassination of his captains in Senigallia on New Year's Eve of 1502. Machiavelli admired Cesare's ability to impose order and loyalty through decisive, often brutal, actions. He famously argued that while it is ideal for a prince to be both loved and feared, if one must choose, it is safer to be feared, as love is easily broken by self-interest, whereas fear is maintained by the dread of punishment.

Machiavelli's admiration for Borgia is a subject of ongoing controversy. Some scholars view Machiavelli's portrayal as a precursor to the state crimes of the 20th century, while others, like Macaulay and Lord Acton, contextualize it within the widespread criminality and corruption of the era. Machiavelli noted Cesare's "high spirit and vast designs," believing that a new prince should emulate him. He even suggested that Cesare "seemed to be sent by God to redeem Italy" from foreign invasion, particularly in Chapter XXVI of The Prince.

Historian Francesco Guicciardini, while acknowledging Cesare's "treachery, sensuality, and enormous cruelty," also recognized him as a capable ruler who was loved by his soldiers, contrasting his effectiveness with the chaotic state of Florence at the time. Conversely, 19th-century historian Jacob Burckhardt described Cesare as a "great criminal" and "conspirator," accusing him of being "bloodthirsty and insatiable," taking "demonic pleasure in destroying people," particularly in reference to the alleged Borgia poisons and the Senigallia incident.

4.3. Employment of Leonardo da Vinci

Cesare Borgia briefly but significantly employed the renowned artisan Leonardo da Vinci as a military architect and engineer between 1502 and 1503. During this period, Cesare provided Leonardo with an unlimited pass to inspect and direct all ongoing and planned construction within his domain. While in Romagna, Leonardo was instrumental in designing and overseeing projects, including the construction of the canal from Cesena to Porto Cesenatico. He also created detailed maps and designs for fortifications, showcasing his genius in engineering and urban planning.

Before working for Cesare, Leonardo had served at the Milanese court of Ludovico Sforza for many years until Sforza was expelled from Italy by Louis XII of France. After his brief but intense period with Cesare, Leonardo struggled to find another stable patron in Italy. He eventually entered the service of King Francis I of France, spending the last three years of his life working in France. Although Leonardo left behind numerous sketches and studies from his time with Cesare, including what appears to be a portrait of Borgia, he notably left no personal written assessment of Cesare's character, unlike Machiavelli.

5.1. Marriage and Children

On May 10, 1499, Cesare Borgia married Charlotte of Albret (1480 - March 11, 1514), a sister of John III of Navarre, the King of Navarre. This marriage was a strategic political alliance, part of a plan by the Navarrese monarchs to ease tensions with the newly proclaimed French King Louis XII by offering a royal bride in his dealings with the Holy See. The couple had one daughter, Louise Borgia (1500-1553), who later married into a branch of the House of Bourbon.

In addition to his legitimate daughter, Cesare was known to have fathered at least 11 illegitimate children. Among them were Girolamo Borgia, who married Isabella Contessa di Carpi, and Camilla Lucrezia Borgia (the younger), who, after Cesare's death, was moved to Ferrara to the court of her aunt, Lucrezia Borgia (the elder).

Contemporaries, particularly Machiavelli during his diplomatic visits, provided varied accounts of Cesare's personal character. Machiavelli observed that Cesare could be secretive and taciturn at times, yet at other times, he was loquacious and boastful. He exhibited alternating bursts of intense activity, staying up all night receiving and dispatching messengers, followed by moments of inexplicable sloth, remaining in bed and refusing to see anyone. He was quick to take offense and maintained a certain distance from his immediate entourage, yet he was remarkably open with his subjects, enjoying local sports and cutting a dashing figure. Machiavelli also noted Cesare's "inexhaustible" energy and unrelenting genius in military and diplomatic affairs, capable of going days and nights without apparent need for sleep. Towards his later years, Cesare's face was reportedly disfigured, possibly by syphilis.

6.1. Political Decline and Loss of Power

Despite his immense capabilities as a general and statesman, Cesare Borgia's domain was fundamentally dependent on the continuous patronage and authority of his father, Pope Alexander VI. Niccolò Machiavelli identified this reliance as the principal disadvantage of Cesare's rule, arguing that his failure to secure the favor of the new Pope after Alexander VI's death was the ultimate cause of his downfall.

The news of his father's death in August 1503 arrived when Cesare was planning the conquest of Tuscany. At the time, he was convalescing in Castel Sant'Angelo from a severe attack of malaria, likely contracted during the same period Alexander VI succumbed to his fatal illness. Although his troops initially controlled the September 1503 papal conclave, the subsequent political machinations proved too complex to navigate from his weakened state.

The new pope, Pope Pius III, initially supported Cesare Borgia and reconfirmed him as Gonfalonier. However, Pius III's pontificate was brief, lasting only twenty-six days before his death. Cesare's deadly enemy, Giuliano Della Rovere, then skillfully manipulated the weakened Cesare Borgia into supporting his election by offering money and promising continued papal backing for Borgia policies in Romagna. These promises were immediately disregarded upon Della Rovere's near-unanimous election as Pope Julius II in the October 1503 papal conclave. Realizing his grave error, Cesare attempted to rectify the situation, but Pope Julius II actively ensured his failure at every turn. For instance, Julius II forced Cesare to relinquish San Marino after he had occupied the republic for six months.

6.2. Imprisonment, Escape, and Death

Facing the hostility of Ferdinand II of Aragon, Cesare Borgia was betrayed while in Naples by Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, a man he had considered an ally. He was imprisoned in Naples, and his hard-won lands were swiftly retaken by the papacy. In 1504, he was transferred to Spain and initially imprisoned in the Castle of Chinchilla de Montearagón in La Mancha. Following an attempted escape, he was moved further north to the Castle of La Mota, in Medina del Campo, near Segovia.

Despite the formidable security, Cesare managed to escape from the Castle of La Mota with assistance. After a daring flight across Santander, Durango, and Gipuzkoa, he arrived in Pamplona on December 3, 1506. He was warmly welcomed by King John III of Navarre, his brother-in-law, who was in need of an experienced military commander in anticipation of a feared Castilian invasion.

Borgia recaptured Viana, Navarre, which had been held by forces loyal to Louis de Beaumont, the Count of Lerín and Ferdinand II of Aragon's ally in Navarre. However, the castle itself remained under siege. In the early morning of March 11, 1507, during a heavy storm, an enemy party of knights fled from the castle. Outraged by the slow progress of the siege, Borgia impulsively pursued them alone. The knights, realizing he was isolated, ambushed him. Cesare received a fatal spear injury and was left lying naked, stripped of his luxurious garments, valuables, and a leather mask that covered half his face, which was disfigured, possibly by syphilis, in his later years. He was found with only a red tile covering his genitals.

7.1. Mortal Remains and Burial

Cesare Borgia was originally interred in a marbled mausoleum that King John III of Navarre had ordered built at the altar of the Church of Santa María in Viana, Navarre, in northern Spain. The church was located on one of the stops along the Camino de Santiago. In the 16th century, Antonio de Guevara, the Bishop of Mondoñedo, published an epitaph he recalled seeing on the tomb, which, through various changes over the years, is most commonly cited today in the version published by the priest and historian Francisco de Alesón in the 18th century:

As an old enemy of Ferdinand of Aragon, and having fought the count who facilitated Ferdinand's 1512 invasion against John III and Catherine of Navarre, Cesare's tomb faced opposition. Sometime between 1523 and 1608, during renovations and expansions of Santa María, the tomb was destroyed. Tradition holds that a Bishop of Calahorra deemed it inappropriate for the remains of "that degenerate" to lie within the church. Consequently, Borgia's bones were expelled and reburied under the street in front of the church, intended to be trodden upon by all who passed through the town.

Vicente Blasco Ibáñez, in A los pies de Venus, suggests that the bishop's decision was motivated by his own father's death after being imprisoned under Alexander VI. For many years, the bones were believed lost, though local tradition accurately marked their location, and folklore emerged around Borgia's death and ghost. The bones were, in fact, exhumed twice by historians (in 1886, involving French historian Charles Yriarte, and again in 1945). Forensic examinations confirmed the bones belonged to Borgia.

Cesare Borgia's remains were then kept at Viana's town hall, directly across from Santa María, until 1953. They were then reburied immediately outside the Church of Santa María, no longer under the street. A memorial stone was placed over the grave, declaring Borgia the Generalissimo of both papal and Navarrese forces. A movement in the late 1980s to reinter Borgia inside Santa María was rejected by church officials, citing a ruling against the interment of anyone not holding the title of pope or cardinal. Although Cesare had renounced the cardinalate, the Archbishop of Pamplona, Fernando Sebastián Aguilar, reportedly considered allowing the transfer in 2007, but an Archbishopric spokesman denied authorization, stating that while the church had "nothing against the transfer of his remains" and believed he "deserves to be forgiven now," such practices were not authorized.

7.2. Historical Assessments

Cesare Borgia has been the subject of varied and often conflicting historical interpretations, reflecting the complex and controversial nature of his life and actions.

Niccolò Machiavelli, his most famous contemporary observer, presented Cesare as a model for the ideal prince in The Prince. Machiavelli admired Borgia's "high spirit and vast designs," praising his ability to establish order and loyalty through decisive, even ruthless, actions. He argued that Cesare, despite being considered cruel, had brought peace and unity to Romagna through his severity. Machiavelli's assessment formed the core of what would become known as Machiavellianism, emphasizing pragmatism and the effective use of power over moral considerations. He even suggested that Cesare seemed like a figure sent by God to redeem Italy from its fragmented and chaotic state.

In contrast, Francesco Guicciardini, another prominent Italian historian of the period, offered a more balanced but still critical view. While acknowledging Cesare's "treachery, sensuality, and enormous cruelty," Guicciardini also recognized his effectiveness as a ruler and his ability to command the loyalty of his soldiers. He noted Cesare's administrative competence, especially when contrasted with the political instability prevalent in Florence at the time.

Later historians, particularly from the 19th century, tended to adopt a harsher perspective. Jacob Burckhardt, in his influential work The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, characterized Cesare as a "great criminal" and "conspirator." Burckhardt depicted him as "bloodthirsty and insatiable," taking "demonic pleasure in destroying people," particularly in his discussions of the alleged Borgia poisons and the infamous Senigallia incident. This view contributed significantly to the popular image of Cesare as a villainous and immoral figure. The 16th-century poet Ercole Strozzi also wrote a commemorative poem for Cesare, lamenting his downfall in 1503 despite having placed all hope in him and his father, suggesting he was a divinely promised figure.

7.3. Criticisms and Controversies

Cesare Borgia's life is steeped in criticisms and controversies, primarily concerning his alleged cruelty, political assassinations, and moral transgressions. He is frequently accused of employing extreme violence and deception to achieve his political aims, contributing to the Borgia family's notorious reputation.

One of the most persistent accusations against Cesare is his alleged involvement in the assassination of his own brother, Giovanni, in 1497. While the circumstances remain mysterious, contemporary rumors and historical accounts often point to Cesare as the perpetrator, driven by jealousy over Giovanni's favored position or a desire to clear his path to a military career.

His military campaigns and state-building efforts were marked by acts of brutal suppression. The drowning of Astorre III Manfredi, the young lord of Faenza, after his city had surrendered under a promise of safety, is a frequently cited example of Cesare's ruthlessness. Similarly, the execution of his former condottieri at Senigallia, after luring them into a trap, solidified his image as a treacherous and unforgiving leader. The execution of Ramiro de Lorca, his harsh governor in Romagna, though politically shrewd, also underscored his willingness to eliminate even his own agents when it served his interests.

Cesare and his family were also widely accused of using poison, particularly a substance known as Cantarella, to eliminate political rivals and seize their wealth. While the historical evidence for these specific poisonings is often anecdotal and exaggerated by their enemies, the perception of the Borgias as master poisoners became deeply ingrained in popular culture. The deaths of several cardinals and noblemen, and even the fatal illness of Pope Alexander VI himself, were attributed to poison, though malaria is now considered a more likely cause for the latter.

Beyond specific acts, critics argue that Cesare's relentless pursuit of power, disregard for conventional morality, and willingness to employ any means to achieve his ends had a negative impact on the social and political fabric of Renaissance Italy. His actions, while effective in the short term, contributed to a climate of fear and instability, undermining trust and fostering a cynical view of leadership. The French author Alexandre Dumas even controversially claimed in his work Famous Crimes that some Renaissance-era paintings of Jesus Christ were modeled after Cesare Borgia, suggesting a pervasive influence on the era's imagery.

8.1. Portrayals in Arts and Media

Cesare Borgia's life and character have been extensively explored in literature, film, television, and other media, often emphasizing his Machiavellian traits, ambition, and controversial legacy.

In **philosophy and non-fiction literature**, Cesare Borgia is primarily known through Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince (1532), where he is presented as a pragmatic model of princely conduct. Later philosophers like Friedrich Nietzsche referenced Borgia in works such as The Antichrist (1895), Beyond Good and Evil (1886), and Twilight of the Idols (1889), often in discussions of power, morality, and the Übermensch. Other philosophical works that discuss him include Minima Moralia (1951) by Theodor Adorno, The Philosophy of the Encounter (2006) by Louis Althusser, and Egoism and Freedom Movements: On the Anthropology of the Bourgeois Era (1982) by Max Horkheimer.
Numerous non-fiction biographies and historical analyses have been written about him, including The Life of Cesare Borgia (1912) by Rafael Sabatini, Cesare Borgia: The Machiavellian Prince (1942) by Carlo Beuf, A Triptych of Poisoners (1958) by Jean Plaidy, Cesare Borgia (1976) by Sarah Bradford, The Borgias (1981) by Sarah Bradford and John Prebble, The Artist, The Philosopher and the Warrior (2009) by Paul Strathern, The Borgias: The Hidden History (2013) by G. J. Meyer, and Cesare Borgia in a Nutshell (2016) by Samantha Morris.

Cesare Borgia features prominently in **fictional portrayals**:

• Novels**: He is a character in Prince of Foxes (1947) by Samuel Shellabarger, The Family by The Godfather author Mario Puzo, and The Devil's Strip by Miguel M. Abrahão. He is also mentioned in Alexandre Dumas's The Count of Monte Cristo and is a central figure in historical fiction novels such as Madonna of the Seven Hills and Light on Lucrezia by Jean Plaidy, Mirror Mirror by Gregory Maguire, The Banner of the Bull by Rafael Sabatini, The Borgia Bride by Jeanne Kalogridis, The Borgias by Alexandre Dumas, The Borgia Testament by Nigel Balchin, Lusts of The Borgias by Marcus Van Heller, City of God, A Novel of the Borgias by Cecelia Holland, and Then and Now by W. Somerset Maugham. Pär Lagerkvist's 1944 novel The Dwarf features an amoral prince possibly based on Borgia.
• Manga and Comics**: He is the subject of Cantarella by You Higuri, Cesare: Il Creatore che ha distrutto by Fuyumi Soryo (which chronicles his life from age 15), Kakan no Madonna by Chiho Saito, Yōjo Densetsu "Borgia-ke no Dokuyaku" by Hoshino Yukinobu, Babylon made nani mile? by Izumi Kawahara, and Bloody M - Shiroi Dokuyaku by Yukari Ito. Italian cartoonist Milo Manara also created a three-part comic series depicting the Borgia family, with text by Alejandro Jodorowsky.
• Film**: In the 1949 film adaptation of Prince of Foxes, he is portrayed by Orson Welles. Other cinematic portrayals include Lucrezia Borgia (1926, silent film), Lucrèce Borgia (1935), The Black Duke (1961), Bride of Vengeance (1948), and Los Borgia (2006).
• Television**: He has been portrayed in several TV series, including the 1981 BBC series The Borgias (by Oliver Cotton), the 2011 American series The Borgias (by François Arnaud), and the 2011 European series Borgia (by Mark Ryder). He also appeared in a parody sketch in series 4 of Horrible Histories, portrayed by Mathew Baynton.
• Video Games**: Cesare appears as the main antagonist in the 2010 video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood, voiced by Andreas Apergis.
• Music**: The Hatsune Miku & KAITO song "Cantarella" by WhiteFlame is based on Cesare Borgia and his sister Lucrezia.
• Stage**: A musical adaptation of Cesare: Il Creatore che ha distrutto premiered in 2023, with Akinori Nakagawa portraying Cesare. The Takarazuka Revue also staged Cesare Borgia - Yabō no Kiseki.