Barbados

3.1. Geological history

Barbados emerged from the ocean approximately 700,000 years ago. This occurred as a body of soft rock, known as a diapir, rose from the Earth's mantle beneath its current location. This geological uplift is an ongoing process, causing Barbados to rise at an average rate of 12 in ^{(30 cm)} per thousand years. Dozens of inland sea reefs, remnants of its submerged past, still dominate coastal features, forming terraces and cliffs across the island.

3.2. Pre-colonial period

Archaeological evidence suggests that humans may have first settled or visited Barbados around 1600 BC. More permanent Amerindian settlement of Barbados dates to about the 4th to 7th centuries AD, by a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid people. Settlements of Arawak people from South America appeared by around 800 AD and again in the 12th-13th century. The Kalinago, referred to as "Island Caribs" by the Spanish, visited the island regularly, although there is no evidence of permanent settlement by them. These Indigenous groups established cultures and societies adapted to the island environment long before European contact.

3.3. European arrival

It is uncertain which European nation first arrived in Barbados, likely occurring sometime in the late 15th or 16th century. Some sources suggest Spanish navigators may have been the first. However, many believe the Portuguese, en route to Brazil, were the first Europeans to discover the island. The Portuguese explorer Pedro A. Campos is said to have stopped at the island in 1536 while on his way to Brazil and named it Los Barbados ("the bearded ones"). The Portuguese Empire claimed the island between 1532 and 1536 but abandoned it in 1620, leaving behind only wild boars, introduced to supply meat for future visits. The island was largely ignored by Europeans for a period, though Spanish slave raiding is believed to have significantly reduced the native population, with many Indigenous people fleeing to other islands or being forcibly taken as slaves to Hispaniola for labor, leading to the island becoming largely depopulated by the time of English arrival. Barbados first appeared on a Spanish map in 1511.

3.4. English settlement in the 17th century

The initial English claim to Barbados occurred when an English ship, the Olive Blossom, arrived on May 14, 1625, and its men took possession of the island in the name of King James I. The first permanent English settlement began on February 17, 1627, near what is now Holetown (formerly Jamestown), led by Henry Powell, younger brother of Captain John Powell. This group consisted of 80 settlers and 10 English indentured labourers. Some sources suggest that some Africans were amongst these first settlers.

The settlement was established as a proprietary colony, funded by Sir William Courten, a City of London merchant who acquired the title to Barbados and several other islands. The first colonists were effectively tenants, with much of the profit from their labor returning to Courten and his company. Courten's title was later transferred to James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle, in an event known as the "Great Barbados Robbery." Carlisle appointed Henry Hawley as governor, who established the House of Assembly in 1639. This was an effort to appease the planters, who might otherwise have opposed his controversial appointment, and it marked the beginning of a long tradition of parliamentary governance on the island, the second oldest in the English colonies after Bermuda.

During the period 1640-1660, the West Indies attracted more than two-thirds of the total number of English emigrants to the Americas. By 1650, there were 44,000 settlers in the West Indies, compared to 12,000 in the Chesapeake and 23,000 in New England. Most English arrivals were indentured. After five years of labor, they were given "freedom dues" of about £10 (equivalent to 10 GBP at the time), usually in goods. Before the mid-1630s, they also received 5.0 acre ^{(5 acre)} to 10 acre ^{(10 acre)} of land, but after that time, the island filled up, and free land became scarce. Initially, the colony's economy was based on the export of tobacco and cotton, but tobacco prices fell in the 1630s as Chesapeake production expanded. Parish registers from the 1650s show that for the white population, there were four times as many deaths as marriages, indicating harsh living conditions.

3.4.2. Irish people in Barbados

Beginning with Oliver Cromwell's conquest of Ireland, a large percentage of the white laborer population in Barbados consisted of indentured servants and involuntarily transported people from Ireland. Irish servants in Barbados were often subjected to poor treatment, and Barbadian planters gained a reputation for cruelty. The declining appeal of indenture in Barbados, combined with the enormous demand for labor due to sugar cultivation, led to involuntary transportation to Barbados being used as a punishment for crimes or for political prisoners. Additionally, laborers were kidnapped and deported to Barbados.

Irish indentured servants formed a significant portion of the population throughout the period when white servants were used for plantation labor. While a "steady stream" of Irish servants entered Barbados throughout the 17th century, Cromwellian efforts to pacify Ireland created a "veritable tidal wave" of Irish laborers sent to Barbados during the 1650s. This practice became known as being "Barbadosed." Due to inadequate historical records, the total number of Irish laborers sent to Barbados is unknown, and estimates have been contentious. While one historical source estimated that as many as 50,000 Irish people were deported to either Barbados or Virginia during the 1650s, this estimate is likely exaggerated. Another estimate of 12,000 Irish prisoners arriving in Barbados by 1655 has also been described as probably exaggerated. Historian Thomas Bartlett suggests it is "generally accepted" that approximately 10,000 Irish were deported to the West Indies, while approximately 40,000 came as voluntary indentured servants, and many others traveled as voluntary, un-indentured emigrants. Their experiences contributed to the complex social fabric of the early colony, often under harsh and exploitative conditions.

3.5. 18th and 19th centuries

The 18th and 19th centuries in Barbados were marked by the brutal conditions of slavery, significant resistance by enslaved people, the eventual abolition of slavery, and subsequent socio-economic adjustments, all while the plantocracy maintained its dominance.

The harsh conditions endured by the enslaved Africans led to several planned slave rebellions. The largest of these was Bussa's rebellion in 1816, led by an enslaved African man named Bussa. Although extensive and involving thousands of enslaved people across many plantations, the rebellion was rapidly and brutally suppressed by the colonial authorities. In 1819, another slave revolt broke out on Easter Day; it too was put down with force, with heads of executed rebels reportedly displayed on stakes as a deterrent. The severity of these repressions, however, contributed to growing anti-slavery sentiment in Britain and strengthened the abolitionist movement.

Growing opposition to slavery eventually led to the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire in 1833, with full emancipation taking effect in Barbados in 1838 after a period of "apprenticeship." Despite emancipation, the plantocracy (the wealthy white planter class) retained control of political and economic power on the island. Most formerly enslaved people continued to live in relative poverty, often forced to work on the same plantations under new forms of labor control due to limited access to land and economic opportunities. This period highlighted the struggle for genuine freedom and social justice beyond formal emancipation.

Significant natural disasters also impacted the island. The Great Hurricane of 1780 killed more than 4,000 people on Barbados. In 1854, a cholera epidemic killed more than 20,000 inhabitants. These events exacerbated the hardships faced by the majority of the population.

3.6. 20th century before independence

The early 20th century in Barbados was characterized by significant social and economic challenges, leading to growing labor unrest and demands for political reform. Deep dissatisfaction with the socio-economic conditions led many Barbadians to emigrate. The Great Depression of the 1930s exacerbated these issues, leading to widespread labor disturbances as Barbadians began demanding better conditions for workers, the legalization of trade unions, and a widening of the electoral franchise, which was then limited to male property owners.

In response to the increasing unrest across its Caribbean colonies, the British government sent the West Indies Royal Commission (Moyne Commission) in 1938. The commission's report recommended enacting many of the requested social and political reforms. As a result, Afro-Barbadians began to play a much more prominent role in the colony's politics. Universal suffrage was introduced in 1950, a crucial step towards greater democracy.

Prominent among the early political activists was Grantley Herbert Adams, who helped found the Barbados Labour Party (BLP) in 1938. He became the first Premier of Barbados in 1953, followed by fellow BLP co-founder Hugh Gordon Cummins from 1958 to 1961. In 1955, a group of left-leaning politicians who advocated for swifter moves towards independence broke off from the BLP and founded the Democratic Labour Party (DLP). The DLP, under the leadership of Errol Barrow, subsequently won the 1961 Barbadian general election, and Barrow became Premier.

Full internal self-government was enacted in 1961. Barbados joined the short-lived British West Indies Federation from 1958 to 1962, an attempt at regional political union that ultimately failed. Following the federation's collapse, Barbados moved towards full independence, achieving it on November 30, 1966.

3.7. Post-independence era

Barbados gained full independence on November 30, 1966, with Errol Barrow of the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) becoming its first prime minister. The country opted to remain within the Commonwealth of Nations as a Commonwealth realm, with Elizabeth II as Queen of Barbados, represented locally by a governor-general.

The Barrow government focused on diversifying the economy away from its historical dependence on agriculture, particularly sugar. Efforts were made to boost industry and develop the tourism sector, which would become a cornerstone of the Barbadian economy. Barbados was also at the forefront of regional integration efforts, spearheading the creation of the Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) in 1968, which later evolved into the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) in 1973.

The DLP lost the 1976 Barbadian general election to the Barbados Labour Party (BLP) under J.M.G.M. "Tom" Adams. Adams adopted a more conservative and strongly pro-Western foreign policy stance, controversially allowing the United States to use Barbados as a launchpad for its invasion of Grenada in 1983. Adams died in office in 1985 and was replaced by Harold Bernard St. John. However, St. John lost the 1986 Barbadian general election, which saw the return of the DLP under Errol Barrow, who had been highly critical of the US intervention in Grenada. Barrow also died in office in 1987 and was replaced by Lloyd Erskine Sandiford, who remained Prime Minister until 1994.

Owen Arthur of the BLP won the 1994 Barbadian general election and remained prime minister until 2008, serving three terms. Arthur was a strong advocate of republicanism, although a planned referendum to replace Queen Elizabeth II as Head of State in 2008 did not take place. The DLP won the 2008 Barbadian general election, and David Thompson became Prime Minister. Thompson died in office in 2010 and was succeeded by Freundel Stuart. The BLP returned to power in the 2018 Barbadian general election under Mia Mottley, who became Barbados's first female prime minister, marking a significant milestone in the nation's political history. Her administration would later oversee the country's transition to a republic.

4.1. Geology

Barbados lies on the boundary of the South American Plate and the Caribbean Plate. The subduction of the South American Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate scrapes sediment from the South American Plate and deposits it above the subduction zone, forming an accretionary prism. The rate of this material deposition allows Barbados to rise at a rate of about 1.0 in ^{(25 mm)} per 1,000 years.
Geologically, the island is composed primarily of coral limestone, approximately 295 ft ^{(90 m)} thick, where reefs formed above the sediment. The land slopes in a series of "terraces" in the west and inclines more steeply in the east. A large proportion of the island is circled by coral reefs. The erosion of limestone in the northeast of the island, in the Scotland District, has resulted in the formation of various caves and gullies. On the Atlantic east coast, coastal landforms such as stacks have been created due to the limestone composition of the area. Also notable on the island is the rocky cape known as Pico Teneriffe, which is named after the belief by locals that the island of Tenerife in Spain is the first land east of Barbados.

4.2. Climate

Barbados generally experiences two seasons: a wet season from June to December, characterized by noticeably higher rainfall, and a dry season from December to May. Annual precipitation ranges between 0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)} and 0.1 K in ^{(2.30 K mm)}.
Average temperatures range from 69.8 °F ^{(21 °C)} to 87.8 °F ^{(31 °C)} from December to May, while between June and November, they range from 73.4 °F ^{(23 °C)} to 87.8 °F ^{(31 °C)}.
On the Köppen climate classification scale, much of Barbados is regarded as a tropical monsoon climate (Am). However, breezes of 7.5 mph ^{(12 km/h)} to 9.9 mph ^{(16 km/h)} are common throughout the year, giving Barbados a moderately tropical climate.
Infrequent natural hazards include earthquakes, landslides, and hurricanes. Barbados lies outside the Main Development Region for tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic and is often spared the worst effects of the region's storms. On average, a major hurricane makes landfall in Barbados about once every 26 years. The last significant hurricane to cause severe damage to Barbados was Hurricane Janet in 1955. In 2010, the island was struck by Hurricane Tomas, but this caused only minor damage as it was at Tropical Storm strength at the time of impact.

4.3. Environmental issues

Barbados is susceptible to various environmental pressures. As one of the world's most densely populated islands, the government worked during the 1990s to aggressively integrate the growing south coast of the island into the Bridgetown Sewage Treatment Plant to reduce contamination of offshore coral reefs. A second treatment plant has been proposed for the island's west coast. Due to its high population density, Barbados has made great efforts to protect its underground aquifers.

As a coral-limestone island, Barbados is highly permeable to the seepage of surface water into the earth. The government has placed great emphasis on protecting the catchment areas that lead directly into the vast network of underground aquifers and streams. Illegal squatting in these areas has occurred, and the government has taken action to remove squatters to preserve the cleanliness of the underground springs that provide the island's drinking water.

The government has strongly emphasized keeping Barbados clean to protect the environment and preserve the offshore coral reefs surrounding the island. Many initiatives to mitigate human pressures on coastal regions and seas come from the Coastal Zone Management Unit (CZMU). Barbados has nearly 56 mile ^{(90 km)} of coral reefs just offshore, and two protected marine parks have been established off the west coast. Overfishing is another threat facing Barbados.

Although located on the opposite side of the Atlantic, some 3.0 K mile ^{(4.80 K km)} west of Africa, Barbados experiences heightened levels of mineral dust from the Sahara Desert. Some particularly intense dust episodes have been blamed partly for impacts on the health of coral reefs and for asthmatic episodes, though evidence has not wholly supported the former claim.

Access to biocapacity in Barbados is much lower than the world average. In 2016, Barbados had 0.4 acre ^{(0.17 ha)} of biocapacity per person within its territory, significantly less than the world average of 4.0 acre ^{(1.6 ha)} per person. In 2016, Barbados used 2.1 acre ^{(0.84 ha)} of biocapacity per person-their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use approximately five times as much biocapacity as Barbados contains. As a result, Barbados is running a biocapacity deficit.

4.4. Wildlife

Barbados is an important nesting site for four species of sea turtles: green turtles, loggerheads, hawksbills, and leatherbacks. It hosts the second-largest hawksbill turtle breeding population in the Caribbean. Driving vehicles on beaches can crush nests buried in the sand, and such activity is discouraged in nesting areas.

Barbados is also home to the green monkey. The green monkey is found in West Africa from Senegal to the Volta River. It was introduced to the Cape Verde islands off north-western Africa, and the West Indian islands of Saint Kitts, Nevis, Saint Martin, and Barbados. It was introduced to the West Indies in the late 17th century when slave trade ships traveled to the Caribbean from West Africa. The green monkey is often considered a curious and sometimes mischievous animal by locals.

5.1. Governmental structure

Barbados has been an independent country since November 30, 1966. It functions as a parliamentary republic, modeled on the British Westminster system. The head of state is the President of Barbados - currently Sandra Mason - elected by the Parliament of Barbados for a four-year term. The President is advised on matters of the Barbadian state by the Prime Minister of Barbados, who is the head of government.

The Parliament of Barbados is bicameral. The House of Assembly (the lower chamber) has 30 representatives, elected by popular vote for a term of up to five years. The Senate (the upper chamber) has 21 senators appointed by the President: 12 on the advice of the Prime Minister, 2 on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition, and 7 at the President's discretion to represent various social, religious, or economic interests, or other individuals of distinction.

The Constitution of Barbados is the supreme law of the country. Legislation is passed by the Parliament of Barbados but does not have the force of law unless the President grants assent to that law. The right to withhold assent is absolute and cannot be overridden by Parliament. The Attorney General heads the independent judiciary.

5.2. Political culture

Barbados functions as a two-party system. The dominant political parties are the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) and the incumbent Barbados Labour Party (BLP). Both parties are broadly center-left, with the DLP aligning more with social democracy and the BLP with democratic socialism. Since independence on November 30, 1966, the DLP has governed from 1966 to 1976, 1986 to 1994, and from 2008 to 2018. The BLP has governed from 1976 to 1986, 1994 to 2008, and from 2018 to the present. This regular alternation of power reflects a stable democratic process, and elections are generally considered free and fair. Political discourse often centers on economic management, social welfare programs, and, more recently, issues of sovereignty and national identity, as seen in the transition to a republic.
During the 1990s, at the suggestion of Patrick Manning, then Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados attempted a political union with Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana. The project stalled after the then Prime Minister of Barbados, Lloyd Erskine Sandiford, became ill and his Democratic Labour Party lost the subsequent general election. Barbados continues to share close ties with Trinidad and Tobago and with Guyana, having a significant number of Guyanese immigrants.

5.3. Administrative divisions

Barbados is divided into 11 parishes. These historical divisions were originally based on the Anglican Church system and continue to serve as administrative units. The parishes are:

• Christ Church
• Saint Andrew
• Saint George
• Saint James
• Saint John
• Saint Joseph
• Saint Lucy
• Saint Michael (contains the capital, Bridgetown)
• Saint Peter
• Saint Philip
• Saint Thomas

These parishes vary in size and population, with Saint Michael being the most populous due to the presence of Bridgetown. Each parish has its unique characteristics, from the rugged east coast in Saint Joseph and Saint Andrew to the tourist-popular west and south coasts in Saint James and Christ Church.

5.4. Foreign relations

Barbados pursues a policy of nonalignment and seeks cooperative relations with all friendly states, emphasizing diplomacy, human rights, and sustainable development in its international engagements. It is a full and participating member of several key regional and international organizations:

• The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME), playing an active role in regional integration.
• The Association of Caribbean States (ACS).
• The Organization of American States (OAS).
• The Commonwealth of Nations, transitioning to a republic within the Commonwealth in 2021.
• The Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ), which replaced the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as Barbados's final court of appeal in 2005. This was a significant step in asserting judicial sovereignty.
• Barbados has been a member of The Forum of Small States (FOSS) since its founding in 1992.

Barbados is an original member (1995) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and participates actively in its work, granting at least MFN treatment to all its trading partners. Relations and cooperation with the European Union are carried out both bilaterally and regionally. Barbados is party to the Cotonou Agreement and is linked by an Economic Partnership Agreement with the European Commission through the Caribbean Forum (CARIFORUM) subgroup of the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States (ACP). CARIFORUM is the only part of the wider ACP-bloc that has concluded a full regional trade pact with the European Union. There are also ongoing EU-CELAC and EU-CARIFORUM dialogues. Trade policy has also sought to protect a small number of domestic activities, mostly food production, from foreign competition, while recognizing that most domestic needs are best met by imports.

On July 6, 1994, Barbados, along with representatives of seven other Caribbean countries (Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago), signed the Double Taxation Relief (CARICOM) Treaty 1994 at the Sherbourne Conference Centre. Guyana signed a similar treaty on August 19, 1994. These treaties aim to prevent double taxation and facilitate economic cooperation within the region.

Barbados maintains diplomatic missions in several key countries and international organizations, focusing on trade, investment, and development partnerships. Its foreign policy often highlights issues pertinent to small island developing states (SIDS), such as climate change, disaster preparedness, and access to concessional financing.
Barbados is a party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.

5.5. Military and law enforcement

The Barbados Defence Force (BDF) has approximately 800 members. It comprises the Barbados Regiment (the army component) and the Barbados Coast Guard. Within the BDF, service members aged 14 to 18 years make up the Barbados Cadet Corps, a youth development program. The defense preparations of the island nation are closely tied to defense treaties and cooperation with the United Kingdom, the United States, the People's Republic of China, and other eastern Caribbean countries through the Regional Security System (RSS). The BDF's roles include national defense, disaster relief, counter-narcotics operations, and support to civil authorities.

The Barbados Police Service (formerly the Royal Barbados Police Force) is the sole law enforcement agency responsible for maintaining law and order, crime prevention, and detection on the island of Barbados. It operates under the Ministry of the Attorney General and Legal Affairs.

6.1. Economic profile

Barbados is recognized as a high-income economy by the World Bank, possessing a well-developed mixed economy and a moderately high standard of living. In terms of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) per capita, it ranks among the wealthier nations in the Caribbean region, and was the 52nd richest country in the world by this measure at one point. The country was ranked 77th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

Historically, the Barbadian economy was heavily dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities. However, since the late 1970s and early 1980s, it has significantly diversified. Key sectors now include tourism, international business services (offshore finance), and light manufacturing. Offshore finance and information services have become important foreign exchange earners.

Partly due to the staging of the 2007 Cricket World Cup, the island saw a construction boom, with the development and redevelopment of hotels, office complexes, and homes. This growth slowed during the 2008 to 2012 world economic crisis and subsequent recession. The economy showed strength between 1999 and 2000 but entered a recession in 2001 and 2002 due to decreases in tourism and consumer spending, compounded by the impact of the September 11, 2001, attacks in the United States and the July 7, 2005, London bombings. The economy rebounded in 2003 and grew from 2004 to 2008, then entered another recession from 2008 to 2013 before experiencing growth from 2014 to 2017. It declined again from 2017 to 2019. The economy showed signs of recovery in 2019 but then faced another decline due to the COVID-19 recession.

Traditional trading partners include Canada, the Caribbean Community (especially Trinidad and Tobago), the United Kingdom, and the United States. Recent government administrations have continued efforts to reduce unemployment, encourage foreign direct investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises. Unemployment was 10.7% in 2003 but had increased to 11.9% by the second quarter of 2015. The European Union has assisted Barbados with a 10.00 M EUR program for modernizing its International Business and Financial Services Sector. Barbados maintains the third largest stock exchange in the Caribbean region.

A 2012 self-study in conjunction with the Caribbean Development Bank revealed that 20% of Barbadians live in poverty, and nearly 10% cannot meet their basic daily food needs, highlighting ongoing challenges in social equity despite its high-income status.

6.2. Sovereign default and restructuring

By May 2018, Barbados's outstanding public debt had climbed to over 7.50 B USD, exceeding 170% of the country's GDP, one of the highest debt-to-GDP ratios in the world at the time. This unsustainable debt level led to a severe economic crisis. In June 2018, the newly elected government under Prime Minister Mia Mottley announced that it would default on its sovereign debt, failing to make a coupon payment on Eurobonds maturing in 2035. The country's outstanding bond debt reached approximately 4.40 B USD.

Following the default, the Barbadian government entered into negotiations with domestic and external creditors to restructure its debt. An IMF-supported economic recovery plan was implemented, which included fiscal consolidation measures and structural reforms. In October 2019, Barbados concluded restructuring negotiations with a creditor group that included investment funds such as Eaton Vance Management, Greylock Capital Management, Teachers Advisors, and Guyana Bank for Trade and Industry. Under the agreement, creditors exchanged existing bonds for a new debt series maturing in 2029. The new bonds involved a principal reduction ("haircut") of approximately 26% and included an innovative clause allowing for the deferment of principal and capitalization of interest in the event of a natural disaster, providing some fiscal space if the country were to be hit by a major hurricane. This restructuring was a critical step in stabilizing the nation's finances and restoring economic confidence.

7.1. General statistics

The 2010 national census conducted by the Barbados Statistical Service reported a resident population of 277,821, of which 144,803 were female and 133,018 were male. The population density is high, making Barbados one of the most densely populated countries in the Americas.

The life expectancy for Barbados residents as of 2020 is approximately 80 years. The average life expectancy is 83 years for females and 79 years for males (2020). Barbados and Japan have among the highest per capita occurrences of centenarians in the world.

The crude birth rate is approximately 12.23 births per 1,000 people, and the crude death rate is 8.39 deaths per 1,000 people. The infant mortality rate was 11.057 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 2021, according to UNICEF.

7.2. Ethnicity

Close to 90% of all Barbadians (also known colloquially as "Bajans") are of Afro-Caribbean ancestry ("Afro-Bajans") and mixed ancestry, largely descendants of enslaved Africans brought to the island during the colonial era. The remainder of the population includes groups of Europeans ("Anglo-Bajans" or "Euro-Bajans"), mainly from the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Portugal, with some presence of individuals with German, Italian, French, Austrian, Spanish, and Russian ancestry.

Other significant minority groups include:

• Indo-Guyanese**: Immigrants from Guyana of Indian descent form an important part of the economy. There are reports of a growing Indo-Bajan diaspora originating from Guyana and India, starting around 1990. Predominantly from southern India, their numbers are smaller than equivalent communities in Trinidad or Guyana. Muslim Barbadians of Indian origin are largely of Gujarati ancestry, and many small businesses are run by Muslim-Indian Bajans.
• Euro-Bajans**: Constituting about 4-5% of the population, they have settled in Barbados since the 17th century. More commonly known as "White Bajans", they introduced folk music, such as Irish music and Highland music, and certain place names (e.g., "Scotland District"). Among White Barbadians, there exists an underclass historically known as Redlegs, descendants of Duke of Monmouth's defeated rebels, Irish indentured laborers, and prisoners imported to the island. Many Redlegs later became early settlers of the Carolinas in the United States. Today, their numbers are small, around 400.
• Chinese-Barbadians**: A small portion of Barbados's wider Asian population. Chinese food and culture are increasingly part of Bajan life.
• Arab-Barbadians**: People of Lebanese and Syrian descent form the island's Arab Barbadian community.
• Jewish Community**: Jews arrived in Barbados shortly after the first English settlers in 1627. Bridgetown is home to the Nidhe Israel Synagogue, one of the oldest Jewish synagogues in the Americas, dating from 1654, though the current structure was erected in 1833. Tombstones in the neighboring cemetery date from the 1630s. The site was deserted in 1929 but was saved and restored by the Jewish community beginning in 1986 and is now under the care of the Barbados National Trust.
• Romani people**: In the 17th century, Romani people were sent from the United Kingdom to work as slaves on plantations in Barbados.

Barbadians who return after years of residence in the United States, and children born in America to Bajan parents, are sometimes called "Bajan Yankees," a term that can be considered derogatory by some. Generally, Bajans recognize and accept all "children of the island" as Bajans.

7.3. Languages

English is the official language of Barbados and is used for communications, administration, and public services throughout the island. The standard of English tends to conform to vocabulary, pronunciations, spellings, and conventions similar to, but not identical to, those of British English.

For most Barbadians, however, Bajan Creole (often referred to simply as Bajan) is the language of everyday life and informal communication. Bajan is an English-based creole language with West African and British English influences. While it does not have a standardized written form, it is spoken by over 90% of the population and is a vital part of Barbadian cultural identity, rich in unique idioms and expressions.

7.4. Religion

Christianity is the largest religion in Barbados. The largest denomination is Anglican (Church of England), accounting for 23.9% of the population in 2019. The Church of England was the official state religion until its legal disestablishment by the Parliament of Barbados following independence, though it continues to hold significant cultural importance.

Other Christian denominations with significant followings include Pentecostalism (19.5%), the Catholic Church (administered by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Bridgetown, 3.8%), Methodism (4.2%), Seventh-day Adventists (5.9%), Wesleyans (3.4%), Church of God (2.4%), Jehovah's Witnesses, and Spiritual Baptists. Various other Protestant groups also exist.

As of 2019, approximately 21% of Barbadians report having no religion (including atheists and agnostics), making the non-religious the second-largest group after Anglicans.

Smaller religions in Barbados include Hinduism, Islam (0.66%), the Baháʼí Faith (0.04%), and Judaism. There is also a presence of the Rastafari faith (1.14%).

The state is considered secular, guaranteeing freedom of religion or belief to all citizens in its constitution, which features only symbolic allusions to a higher power in its preamble.

8.1. System and institutions

The education system in Barbados is modeled on the British system and is highly regarded, contributing to a literacy rate ranked close to 100%. The government of Barbados has historically invested significantly in education, with expenditure around 6.7% of its GDP in 2008.

Education is compulsory for children until the age of 16. Barbados has over 70 public primary schools and over 20 public secondary schools throughout the island. There are also a number of private schools, including those offering Montessori and International Baccalaureate education. Student enrollment in private schools represents less than 5% of the total enrollment of public schools.

Tertiary education is provided by several institutions:

• The Barbados Community College (BCC) offers a wide range of associate degree, bachelor's degree, and certificate programs.
• The Samuel Jackman Prescod Institute of Technology (SJPI) provides vocational and technical training.
• Codrington College, an Anglican theological college, is the oldest institution of higher learning in the Caribbean, affiliated with the University of the West Indies.

• The Cave Hill campus of the University of the West Indies (UWI) is a major regional university offering undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. The UWI Open Campus also serves Barbadian students.

Barbados is also home to several overseas medical schools, such as the Ross University School of Medicine (though it relocated from Barbados) and the American University of Integrative Sciences, School of Medicine, which attract international students.

8.2. Educational testing

The Barbadian education system utilizes several key national examinations and assessments:

• Barbados Secondary Schools' Entrance Examination (BSSEE)**: Commonly known as the "Common Entrance Exam," children who are between the ages of 11 and 12 years old on August 31st in the year of the examination are required to take this exam as a means of allocation to secondary school. It assesses proficiency in English, Mathematics, and Composition.
• Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC)**: These examinations are usually taken by students after five years of secondary school (typically at age 16+) and mark the end of standard secondary education. CSEC examinations are administered by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) and are equivalent to the British Ordinary Level (O-Level) examinations.
• Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE)**: These examinations are taken by students who have completed their secondary education (usually CSEC) and wish to continue their studies, often as a prerequisite for university entrance. CAPE, also administered by CXC, is equivalent to the British Advanced Levels (A-Levels) and offers a range of subjects at a higher academic level.

These examinations play a crucial role in the progression of students through the education system and into higher education or the workforce.

10.1. Art

Barbadian art has evolved over centuries, influenced by the island's complex history, which includes Indigenous cultures, colonial periods, and the subsequent emergence of a vibrant post-colonial identity. The interplay of African, European, and Caribbean influences has given rise to a unique artistic heritage. Early art forms included Indigenous pottery and carvings. During the colonial period, art often reflected European styles, depicting landscapes and portraits of the planter class.

Following independence, and particularly in the latter part of the 20th century and into the 21st, there has been a cultural renaissance in Barbadian art, documented by publications like Raskal Magazine. Artists began to explore diverse mediums and techniques, blending traditional practices with contemporary expressions. This period of experimentation contributed to the dynamic and multifaceted nature of Barbadian art, reflecting the island's openness to cultural exchange and adaptation. Contemporary Barbadian artists explore themes of identity, history, social issues, and the natural environment. They engage with international artistic trends while simultaneously contributing to the broader discourse on Caribbean and diasporic art, showcasing their work both locally and internationally through galleries and exhibitions.

10.2. Media

The mass media landscape in Barbados includes a variety of print, broadcast, and online outlets. The state-owned Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) operates television (CBC TV8) and radio stations, playing a significant role in public broadcasting. There are several privately-owned radio stations offering diverse programming. Major newspapers include the Daily Nation and Barbados Today (an online publication), which provide local and international news coverage. Internet accessibility is widespread, contributing to a growing online media presence and use of social media for information dissemination and discussion. Media freedom is generally respected in Barbados.

10.3. Cuisine

Barbadian cuisine, or Bajan cuisine, is a rich fusion of African, Indian, Irish, Creole, and British culinary influences. A typical meal consists of a main dish of meat or fish, often marinated with a distinctive mixture of herbs and spices (known as Bajan seasoning), accompanied by hot side dishes and one or more salads. Common Bajan side dishes include pickled cucumber, fish cakes (a popular street food and appetizer), and "bake" (a type of fried dough).

The national dish of Barbados is cou-cou and flying fish. Cou-cou is made from cornmeal and okra, similar to polenta, while flying fish is typically steamed or fried and served with a spicy gravy. Another traditional and popular meal is "pudding and souse," a dish of pickled pork (souse) served with spiced sweet potatoes (pudding). A wide variety of seafood, including kingfish, snapper, and mahi-mahi, as well as meats like chicken, pork, and beef, are also readily available and incorporated into local dishes. Rice and peas, macaroni pie, and sweet potato pie are common accompaniments. Barbados is also known for its rum production. The Mount Gay Rum visitor's centre in Barbados claims it to be the world's oldest remaining commercial rum distillery, with the earliest confirmed deed from 1703. Cockspur Rum and Malibu (a coconut-flavored liqueur) also originate from the island. Barbados is home to Banks Barbados Brewery, which brews Banks Beer, a popular pale lager, as well as Banks Amber Ale and Tiger Malt (a non-alcoholic malted beverage). 10 Saints beer, brewed in Speightstown, is aged for 90 days in Mount Gay 'Special Reserve' Rum casks. The island is also considered the birthplace of the grapefruit.

10.4. Music

The music of Barbados is diverse, reflecting its mixed cultural heritage. Indigenous genres include calypso and its energetic derivative, soca music, which are central to the Crop Over festival and other celebrations. Folk music traditions also persist, often incorporating storytelling and reflecting historical experiences. Spouge, a unique Barbadian musical genre created by Jackie Opel in the 1960s, blends Jamaican ska with Trinidadian calypso, American R&B, and traditional Barbadian influences.

Barbados has produced several influential musicians. Internationally acclaimed pop star Rihanna is a native of Barbados. She has achieved global fame, selling over 200 million records worldwide and winning numerous Grammy Awards. In 2009, she was appointed as an Honorary Ambassador of Youth and Culture for Barbados by the late Prime Minister David Thompson. In 2021, upon Barbados's transition to a republic, Rihanna was declared a National Hero by Prime Minister Mia Mottley. Other notable Barbadian artists have contributed to various genres, including jazz, reggae, and gospel music.