1. Overview
Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel, was a distinguished British Royal Navy admiral and a prominent Whig politician. Born into an influential aristocratic family in 1725, Keppel embarked on a naval career at a young age, participating in significant global voyages and numerous conflicts. His service spanned the War of the Austrian Succession, the Seven Years' War, and the American Revolutionary War, where he commanded various ships and fleets, rising through the ranks to become a full Admiral. Beyond his naval achievements, Keppel also served as a Member of Parliament for several constituencies and held key political offices, including First Lord of the Admiralty. His career was marked by both notable successes, such as his role in the capture of Havana, and significant controversies, most notably the Keppel-Palliser affair following the inconclusive Battle of Ushant in 1778, which led to highly publicized courts-martial. Elevated to the peerage as Viscount Keppel in 1782, he remained a vocal political figure, reflecting his strong Whig affiliations. This article provides a comprehensive overview of his life, examining his dual roles in naval command and political leadership within the social and political contexts of 18th-century Britain.
2. Early Life and Education
Augustus Keppel's early life was shaped by his aristocratic lineage and an early entry into the Royal Navy, leading to formative experiences that included a significant circumnavigation voyage.
2.1. Birth and Family
Augustus Keppel was born on April 25, 1725, as the second son of Willem van Keppel, 2nd Earl of Albemarle, and Anne van Keppel, Countess of Albemarle. His mother was a daughter of the 1st Duke of Richmond, who was an illegitimate son of King Charles II. The Keppel family was a leading Whig aristocratic family, having arrived in England with William of Orange in 1688.
3. Naval Career
Keppel's naval career was extensive, marked by service in several major conflicts, diverse commands, and significant engagements that shaped his reputation as an admiral.
3.1. War of the Austrian Succession
Keppel was actively employed throughout the remainder of the War of the Austrian Succession until the peace was signed in 1748. In June 1747, while chasing a French vessel near Belle Île, his ship, the Maidstone, ran aground. Despite this incident, he was honorably acquitted by a court-martial and reassigned to another command, the fourth-rate Anson.
Early in 1749, Keppel was introduced to Sir Joshua Reynolds. On May 11, 1749, Keppel sailed from Plymouth to the Mediterranean Sea as Commodore, commanding the Mediterranean Fleet with his pennant in his old ship HMS Centurion. His mission was to persuade the Dey of Algiers to curb the piratical activities of the Barbary pirates. Reynolds accompanied him as far as Menorca, where he painted the first of his six portraits of Keppel, along with other officers of the British garrison. Upon arriving in Algiers, the Dey reportedly expressed dissatisfaction that the British King had sent "a boy without a beard." Keppel, known for his wit, retorted that if a beard was a prerequisite, he could have brought a goat. Keppel successfully concluded an agreement with the Dey of Algiers, which protected British commerce, and after negotiating treaties at Tripoli and Tunis, he returned to England in July 1751.
3.2. Seven Years' War
Keppel served continuously throughout the Seven Years' War.
3.2.1. Commodore on the North America and West Indies Station
From 1751 to 1755, he served as Commodore on the North American Station, flying his broad pennant in the fourth-rate Norwich. In 1755, he was active on the coast of North America.
3.2.2. Gorée Expedition and Battle of Quiberon Bay
In 1756, Keppel was stationed off the coast of France. In 1758, he was detached to lead an expedition to conquer Gorée, a French island off the west coast of Africa, which was successfully captured. His ship, the Torbay (74 guns), was the first to engage the enemy in the Battle of Quiberon Bay in November 1759.
In 1757, Keppel was part of the court-martial that condemned Admiral John Byng. He actively sought a pardon for Byng, but neither he nor his allies could present compelling reasons to overturn the sentence. In March 1761, Keppel transferred to the third-rate Valiant and was given command of a squadron tasked with reducing Belle Île, a mission successfully completed in June 1761.
3.2.3. Havana Expedition
When Spain allied with France in 1762, Keppel was dispatched as second-in-command alongside Sir George Pocock for the British expedition against Cuba, which resulted in the capture of Havana. Keppel's health suffered significantly from the fever that afflicted a large proportion of the soldiers and sailors during the campaign. However, the 25.00 K GBP in prize money he received from the expedition liberated him from the financial difficulties caused by his father's extravagance.
3.3. Achievement of Flag Rank
Keppel was promoted to rear admiral on October 21, 1762, and later that year became Commander-in-Chief of the Jamaica Station. He served as a member of the Board of Admiralty in the First Rockingham ministry from July 1765 and was appointed Senior Naval Lord in the Chatham ministry from September 1766, a position he held until leaving the Admiralty Board in December 1766. In 1768, he acquired Elveden Hall in Suffolk. On October 24, 1770, he was promoted to vice admiral. During the Falklands Crisis in 1770, he was slated to command the fleet against Spain, but a diplomatic settlement was reached, and he did not have occasion to hoist his flag.
3.4. American War of Independence
The period of the American Revolutionary War marked the most prominent and controversial phase of Keppel's career. A staunch supporter of the Whig faction led by the Marquess of Rockingham and the Duke of Richmond, Keppel was politically aligned against George III's ministers.
3.4.1. Copper Sheathing Debate
Prior to 1778, Keppel advocated for the copper sheathing of naval ships, believing it would significantly enhance the strength of the navy. However, he failed to persuade Lord Sandwich, then First Lord of the Admiralty, to adopt the technology due to perceived technical difficulties. Keppel later used this issue to his political advantage, particularly in The London Magazine in March 1781, where he publicly reproached Lord Sandwich for initially refusing his request to sheath "only a few ships with copper" only to later order the entire navy to be sheathed. The delay in coppering the Navy was cited by some as a contributing factor to Britain's setbacks in the war, including the loss of the Thirteen Colonies.
3.4.2. Battle of Ushant (1778)
Keppel was promoted to full admiral on January 29, 1778, and appointed to command the Western Squadron, the main fleet prepared to confront France. Given his strong Whig convictions and deep distrust of the King's ministers, particularly Lord Sandwich, Keppel believed that the First Lord would welcome his defeat.
One of Keppel's subordinate admirals was Sir Hugh Palliser, who was also a member of the Admiralty Board and a Member of Parliament. Keppel, along with a widely held public opinion, considered Palliser responsible, among others, for the poor state of the Royal Navy. The First Battle of Ushant, fought between Keppel's fleet and the French on July 27, 1778, ended inconclusively. While Keppel's own command decisions contributed to the outcome, Palliser's failure to obey orders also played a role. Although a later investigation acknowledged that Palliser's flagship, the Formidable, was unnavigable, Keppel became convinced that Palliser had deliberately betrayed him through insubordination.
3.5. Keppel-Palliser Affair and Courts-Martial
Following the Battle of Ushant, despite praising Palliser in his official public dispatch, Keppel privately attacked his subordinate. This led to a bitter public dispute, known as the Keppel-Palliser affair. The Whig press, supported by Keppel's allies, launched a campaign of calumny against Palliser. The ministerial papers retaliated in kind, with both sides accusing the other of deliberate treason. This escalated into a scandalous series of confrontations in Parliament and resulted in two highly publicized courts-martial.
Keppel was court-martialed on February 11, 1779, and subsequently acquitted. He then resigned from his command of the Channel Fleet in March 1779. Palliser was also later tried by court-martial and acquitted. The Battle of Ushant and the subsequent scandal were widely perceived as indicators of the declining state of the British Navy. In commemoration of Keppel's acquittal, Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, commissioned John Carr to design Keppel's Column in Rotherham, which was constructed in the late 18th century.
4. Political Career
Augustus Keppel's political career paralleled his naval service, marked by his steadfast Whig affiliations, his tenure as a Member of Parliament, and his significant roles within the Admiralty.
4.1. Member of Parliament
Keppel served as a Member of Parliament for several constituencies throughout his career. He represented Chichester from 1755 until 1761, Windsor from 1761 until 1780, and then Surrey from 1780 to 1782. As a staunch Whig partisan, he was consistently hostile to the King's inner circle, known as the King's Friends.
4.2. Admiralty and Government Service
When the North ministry fell in 1782, Keppel was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. In recognition of his service, he was raised to the peerage as Viscount Keppel, of Elveden in the County of Suffolk, and was sworn into the Privy Council.
4.3. Resignation and Coalition Ministry
Keppel's tenure as First Lord of the Admiralty was not particularly distinguished. He resigned from office in protest against the signing of the Peace of Paris in 1783. He further diminished his political standing by subsequently joining the controversial Fox-North coalition ministry, formed by North and Fox. With the fall of this coalition in December 1783, Keppel largely withdrew from public life.
5. Personal Life
Augustus Keppel's personal life was characterized by his unmarried status and the assessments of his character by his contemporaries.
5.1. Marriage and Death
Augustus Keppel remained unmarried throughout his life. He died on October 2, 1786. His peerage became extinct upon his death as he had no legitimate issue. Edmund Burke, who held Keppel in high regard, affectionately described him as having "something high in his nature, and that it was a wild stock of pride on which the tenderest of all hearts had grafted the milder virtues."
6. Legacy
Augustus Keppel's legacy is preserved through various geographical and architectural commemorations, as well as his portrayal in popular culture.
6.1. Commemorations and Naming
Several places have been named in honor of Augustus Keppel. These include Great Keppel Island and Keppel Bay in Australia, and Keppel Island in the Falkland Islands. Additionally, Keppel's Column in Rotherham was specifically constructed to commemorate his acquittal in the highly publicized courts-martial following the Battle of Ushant.
6.2. In Popular Culture
Augustus Keppel appears as a character in Patrick O'Brian's 1956 novel The Golden Ocean. In the novel, he is depicted as a midshipman aboard the Centurion, often serving as a source of comic relief, and is characterized by the physical privations of the voyage, which leave him bald and toothless.