Senjūrō Hayashi

3.1. Education and Early Service

After enlisting in July 1894 at the onset of the First Sino-Japanese War, Hayashi attended the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. He graduated from the academy in November 1896 as part of the 8th class, with notable peers including Jōtarō Watanabe. In June 1897, he was commissioned as an Infantry Second Lieutenant and assigned to the IJA 7th Infantry Regiment stationed in Kanazawa Castle. He was promoted to Infantry First Lieutenant in November 1899. Hayashi furthered his military education at the Army Staff College, from which he graduated in 1903 as part of its 17th class, ranking 12th out of 45 students. This marked him as an elite officer, paving the way for a distinguished career. Among his classmates at the Army Staff College were Jōtarō Watanabe, Eitarō Hata, and Jirō Minami.

3.2. Service in Wars

With the commencement of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, Hayashi participated in the conflict as an Infantry Captain. He served as an adjutant to the IJA 6th Infantry Brigade, which was part of the IJA 9th Division from Kanazawa. He notably took part in the brutal Siege of Port Arthur. During the attack on the eastern battery of Panlongshan on August 22, he reportedly defied a withdrawal order, leading his remaining 70 soldiers to successfully capture the position. This act earned him the nickname "Demon Captain" and a personal commendation from Third Army Commander General Nogi Maresuke.

3.3. Commands and Promotions

Hayashi's career progressed through a series of significant commands and promotions. In January 1904, he was promoted to Infantry Captain. He was made Infantry Major in December 1908 and assigned to the Korean Army Headquarters in January 1910. From July 1913 to November 1916, he underwent military studies in Germany and England. He was promoted to Infantry Lieutenant Colonel in January 1914 and Infantry Colonel in August 1917.

From July 1918 to January 1920, Hayashi served as the commanding officer of the IJA 57th Infantry Regiment in Sakura, Chiba. He then briefly held positions attached to the Technical Research Headquarters as an acting Military Investigator. In July 1921, he was promoted to Major General and appointed head of the Preparatory Course at the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. From June 1923 to September 1924, he served as the Japanese Army Representative to the League of Nations' Permanent Advisory Commission on Military, Naval and Air Questions, spending this period in France.

Upon his return, he commanded the IJA 2nd Infantry Brigade in 1925. In March 1926, he was promoted to Lieutenant General and appointed Commandant of the Tokyo Bay Fortress. In March 1927, he became the Commandant of the Army War College, followed by his appointment as Deputy Inspector-General of Military Training in August 1928. In August 1929, he assumed command of the Imperial Guards Division.

3.4. Mukden Incident and Manchurian Invasion

In December 1930, Lieutenant-General Senjūrō Hayashi was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Korean Army. His command became pivotal during the Mukden Incident and the subsequent Japanese invasion of Manchuria. On September 18, 1931, the Mukden Incident occurred, an event orchestrated by elements of the Kwantung Army. The very next day, on September 19, acting without explicit authorization from the Emperor or the central government in Tokyo, Hayashi ordered a portion of his command, the IJA 20th Division, to form the 39th Mixed Brigade. He then unilaterally commanded this brigade to cross the Yalu River into Manchuria.

This independent military action was a grave violation of the Military Criminal Code, which stipulated severe penalties, including death or life imprisonment, for commanders who initiated combat without orders or moved troops without proper authorization. For example, Article 35 stated that a "commander who without cause commences combat against a foreign country shall be punished by death," and Article 37 specified death or severe imprisonment for commanders who "move or retreat troops without cause in matters outside their authority and without unavoidable reasons." The chief of staff of the 20th Division, Colonel 森五六_{Mori Goroku}^Japanese, was reportedly troubled by the unauthorized crossing and detained the brigade in Sinuiju for three days, highlighting the illegality of the order.

Hayashi's decision, which he later compared to Julius Caesar crossing the Rubicon, significantly escalated the conflict. Faced with a fait accompli, the Japanese Cabinet was compelled to retrospectively approve the movement of the 39th Mixed Brigade from Korea on September 22. This event underscored the growing power of the military, particularly its more aggressive factions, over the civilian government, setting a dangerous precedent for future military adventurism without central oversight and contributing to the deepening of Japan's involvement in a policy of aggressive expansion.

3.5. Later Military Roles and Awards

Following his controversial command in Korea, Hayashi continued to rise in the military hierarchy. In April 1932, he was promoted to the rank of Army General. He was then appointed Inspector General of Military Training, one of the three most senior positions in the Japanese Army, and concurrently served as a member of the Supreme War Council from 1932 to 1934.

Throughout his distinguished military service, Hayashi received numerous honors and decorations. In 1932, he was awarded the Order of the Sacred Treasure (1st class), and in 1934, he received the Order of the Rising Sun (1st class). His promotion to General and his appointments to these prestigious military bodies further solidified his influence within the Imperial Japanese Army, even amidst the controversies surrounding his actions in Manchuria.

4.1. Ministerial Appointments

From January 1934 to September 1935, Hayashi served as the Army Minister in the Saitō Cabinet and subsequently in the Okada Cabinet. During this period, he was also a member of the Supreme War Council until his retirement from active military service in March 1936, at which point he was transferred to the reserve.

As Army Minister, Hayashi became involved in the intense factional struggles within the Imperial Japanese Army. He supported Major General Tetsuzan Nagata, who was the Chief of the Military Affairs Bureau and a leading figure of the 統制派_Tōseiha^Japanese faction. This support, particularly Hayashi's decision to appoint Nagata as Military Affairs Bureau Chief, intensified the conflict between the Tōseiha and its rival, the 皇道派_Kōdōha^Japanese. In July 1935, a significant victory for the Tōseiha occurred when General Jinzaburō Masaki, a prominent leader of the Kōdōha faction, was removed from his position as Inspector General of Military Training. This dismissal, reportedly backed by Prince Kan'in Kotohito-shinnō, the Chief of the Army General Staff, and General Jōtarō Watanabe, was widely seen as a bold decision at the time. However, it quickly led to tragic consequences: Nagata was assassinated the following month in the infamous Aizawa Incident, orchestrated by a Kōdōha officer. The Japanese source notes that Army General Kanji Ishiwara, a key architect of the Mukden Incident, reportedly commented that "General Hayashi can be made into a cat or a tiger as we please," suggesting his perceived malleability by elements of the Tōseiha. After losing Nagata, Hayashi resigned as Army Minister the following month, succeeded by General Yoshiyuki Kawashima. Interestingly, Hayashi was not targeted during the February 26 Incident of 1936, which claimed the life of his contemporary Jōtarō Watanabe.

In February 1937, upon his appointment as Prime Minister, Hayashi briefly served concurrently as Minister for Foreign Affairs until March 1937. He also concurrently held the position of Minister of Education from February 1937 until June 1937.

4.2. Prime Ministership

On February 2, 1937, Senjūrō Hayashi assumed office as the 33rd Prime Minister of Japan. His cabinet faced immediate challenges and was notable for its attempt to transcend the intense factionalism among political parties. Hayashi demanded that members of his cabinet renounce their existing party affiliations, an unusual move designed to create a non-partisan government, which he referred to as a "one-man, two-legged cabinet" due to the numerous concurrent ministerial roles he and others held. This approach, however, proved highly unpopular with the established political parties and the public, drawing widespread criticism and ridicule.

His brief tenure as Prime Minister, lasting only 123 days until June 4, 1937, was marked by political instability. Facing demands for his resignation from political parties, Hayashi famously responded by dissolving the House of Representatives in what became known as the "食い逃げ解散_{kuinige kaisan}^Japanese", or "eating-and-running dissolution," which was a snap election called without the typical political consultation or clear agenda. Despite this, the election did not significantly improve his political standing or resolve the deep-seated political divisions, and he was ultimately forced to resign. His premiership was one of the shortest in Japan's history.

4.3. Privy Councillor

After his resignation as Prime Minister, Hayashi continued to serve in advisory capacities. From October 1940 to 1941, he was appointed a Privy Councillor, a prestigious position within the Emperor's advisory council. In May 1942, he also became the president of the Greater Japan Koa Alliance (大日本興亜同盟_{Dai Nihon Kōa Dōmei}^Japanese).

5.1. Military Factionalism

Hayashi navigated the complex and often volatile landscape of military factionalism within the Imperial Japanese Army. Initially, his career advancement was aided by his alliance with Jinzaburō Masaki, a key figure of the Kōdōha faction. However, as Army Minister, he sided with the Tōseiha faction, led by figures like Tetsuzan Nagata, who he appointed as Chief of the Military Affairs Bureau. This alignment positioned him against the Kōdōha, leading to significant events such as the ousting of Masaki as Inspector General of Military Training in July 1935. This act, while seen by some as a decisive move to consolidate military power, directly contributed to the heightened tensions that culminated in the Aizawa Incident and, subsequently, the February 26 Incident. The Japanese source notes that Hayashi, despite his association with powerful factions, did not possess a strong, independent power base, and was at times perceived as a figure who could be manipulated by the Tōseiha, as suggested by Kanji Ishiwara's comment.

5.2. Political and Social Views

Hayashi was a proponent of militarist doctrines and aligned himself with prominent militarist politicians. He supported the policies of Fumimaro Konoe, an influential figure who advocated for a one-party system and the rejection of democratic principles, positioning himself as a "right-winger" among militarists against more radical "left-wing" militarists who sought a revolutionary military Shogunate. His actions, particularly his unauthorized order for troops to enter Manchuria, demonstrated a clear commitment to military expansion and a disregard for civilian governmental authority, reflecting the escalating influence of the military on Japan's national policy. His premiership, though short-lived, was an attempt to establish a government that transcended party politics, further signaling a move away from democratic processes towards a more centralized, military-influenced state.

5.3. Greater Japan Muslim League

An unusual aspect of Hayashi's political associations was his presidency of the Greater Japan Muslim League (大日本回教協会_{Dai Nihon Kaikyō Kyōkai}^Japanese). This organization aimed to establish mosques, Muslim community centers, theological schools, libraries, and accommodation for Muslims in Japan, and it published a journal called "回教世界_{Kaikyō Sekai}^Japanese" (Islamic World). This affiliation was unexpected for a Japanese military leader of his era, given Japan's predominantly Shinto and Buddhist religious landscape. While the league's precise motivations and impact are debated by historians, it suggests an interest in or strategic engagement with Islamic populations, potentially for geopolitical reasons related to Japan's expansionist goals in Asia, which included cultivating relationships in regions with Muslim populations.

8.1. Positive Contributions

Hayashi's early military career demonstrated courage and strategic acumen, earning him the moniker "Demon Captain" during the Russo-Japanese War for his daring actions at the Siege of Port Arthur. His rapid rise through the ranks, including graduation from the Army Staff College as an elite officer, underscores his capabilities as a military professional. He held numerous high-ranking commands, such as Commandant of the Army War College and Inspector General of Military Training, positions that indicated trust in his leadership and administrative abilities within the Imperial Japanese Army.

8.2. Criticism and Controversy

Hayashi's legacy is heavily shadowed by his controversial role in escalating Japan's military aggression. His unilateral decision, as Commander of the Korean Army, to order troops into Manchuria following the Mukden Incident in 1931, without the authorization of the central government or the Emperor, was a critical turning point. This act of insubordination, though later retroactively approved by a civilian government pressured by the military, gravely undermined democratic governance and set a dangerous precedent for future military adventurism. It demonstrated the military's increasing autonomy and its willingness to disregard civilian authority to pursue its expansionist agenda, directly contributing to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and the subsequent establishment of Manchukuo. This unilateral military action had profound negative geopolitical impacts, intensifying international condemnation of Japan and contributing to its isolation from the League of Nations.

Furthermore, his involvement in the intense factional struggles within the Imperial Japanese Army, particularly his shifting alliances and his role in the ousting of Jinzaburō Masaki, heightened internal military tensions and contributed to the climate of political assassinations, such as the Aizawa Incident. While he became Army Minister, his perceived susceptibility to manipulation by the Tōseiha faction suggests a lack of independent political strength, further contributing to the narrative of a military establishment increasingly driven by its own factions rather than unified national interest. His brief premiership, characterized by political instability and his confrontational approach with political parties, further highlights his inability to effectively bridge the growing divide between military and civilian spheres, ultimately accelerating Japan's descent into a more authoritarian and militaristic state.