1. Early Life and Military Career
Sakuma Samata's early life and military service were foundational to his later prominence in the Imperial Japanese Army and his role in the administration of Taiwan.
1.1. Birth and Education
Sakuma Samata was born on November 19, 1844, in Abu District, Nagato Province (present-day Hagi, Yamaguchi) in Japan. He was the younger son of Okamura Magoshichi, a samurai of the Chōshū Domain, and was later adopted into the Sakuma family. From an early age, he pursued military studies, learning Western military science under the guidance of Ōmura Masujirō, a key figure in the modernization of the Japanese military.
1.2. Early Military Service and Domestic Campaigns
Sakuma began his military career by joining the Kiheitai, a volunteer militia from the Chōshū Domain. In 1866, during the Second Chōshū Expedition mounted by the Tokugawa shogunate, he served as a company commander within the Chōshū Domain's forces, defending the domain at Geishu-guchi as the battalion commander of the Kameyama-tai. Following the Meiji Restoration, he distinguished himself in the Boshin War, fighting across various fronts, including Tanagura, Nihonmatsu, and notably, the Battle of Aizu.
In 1872, Sakuma formally joined the nascent Imperial Japanese Army as a captain, assigned to the Saikai Chindai (Western Sea Garrison). His early assignments included participating in the suppression of the Saga Rebellion in February 1874. During this conflict, he led a column of troops from Kumamoto Castle and was subsequently appointed Chief of Staff of the Kumamoto Chindai (Kumamoto Garrison). Later that year, he participated in the Taiwan Expedition of 1874, where on May 22, he commanded a force of 150 soldiers that encountered an ambush by indigenous peoples, which initiated the Battle of Stone Gate. In 1877, during the Satsuma Rebellion, he served as the commander of the IJA 6th Infantry Regiment. He was promoted to colonel in 1878.
Sakuma continued to rise through the military ranks. In February 1881, he was promoted to major general and appointed commander of the Sendai Chindai (Sendai Garrison). In May 1885, he was given command of the IJA 10th Infantry Brigade. The following year, in December 1886, he was promoted to lieutenant general. In May 1887, he was elevated to the title of Danshaku (Baron) under the kazoku peerage system.
1.3. Sino-Japanese War and Subsequent Appointments
With the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894, Sakuma Samata commanded the IJA 2nd Division, leading his troops in the Battle of Weihaiwei. Following the successful conclusion of the war in May 1895, he was appointed military governor of the occupied territory of Weihaiwei in Shandong Province, China. His service during the war earned him the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun, and in August 1895, he was further elevated to Shishaku (Viscount).
After the war, Sakuma held several other significant positions. In May 1896, he was appointed commander of the Imperial Guards. In October 1896, he became the Chūbu Totoku (Central Governor), overseeing a central military district. In September 1898, he was promoted to the highest rank of full general. After a brief period on leave beginning in October 1902, he returned to active duty in May 1904 as commander of the Tokyo Garrison.
2. Governor-General of Taiwan Tenure
Sakuma Samata's tenure as the 5th Governor-General of Taiwan, from 1906 to 1915, was one of the longest and most impactful periods of Japanese colonial rule on the island. During this time, he implemented policies focused on both the expansion of Japanese control and the development of infrastructure.
2.1. Colonial Policies and Pacification Campaigns
Upon his appointment, a primary focus of Sakuma's administration shifted from pacifying resistance among the Han Taiwanese population to asserting control over the mountain-dwelling aboriginal tribes. Sakuma was specifically chosen for this role due to his previous experience in the 1874 Taiwan Expedition. His mission was to extend Japanese administrative and military control into the aboriginal territories, which had largely remained outside effective governance.
During his nine-year term, Sakuma led several extensive armed campaigns, collectively known as the 理蕃事業Ribann JigyōJapanese ("pacification campaigns"), against various indigenous peoples, including the Atayal, Bunun, and Truku tribes. These campaigns were often brutal, involving military expeditions and the forced displacement or subjugation of indigenous communities. While the colonial authorities viewed these as necessary for securing the island and its resources, these policies had profound and often devastating social and human rights implications for the aboriginal populations, leading to significant loss of life, cultural disruption, and the imposition of colonial authority.
2.2. Infrastructure Development and Cultural Contributions
Despite the controversial nature of his pacification policies, Sakuma Samata's administration also oversaw significant infrastructure development and socio-economic projects that reshaped Taiwan. He was highly regarded for his efforts in developing Taiwan's east coast, particularly expanding the port of Hualien and opening up the Taroko Gorge area.
Under his leadership, urban infrastructure was improved, and the main railway line, the Longitudinal Line, was completed, significantly enhancing transportation across the island. He also contributed to the establishment of museums and initiated the logging operations in the Alishan forest, which was rich in natural resources. In a notable cultural contribution, Sakuma is also credited with introducing baseball to Taiwan in 1910, a sport that would later become immensely popular on the island.
3. Chronology
This timeline outlines key events, military appointments, and promotions in Sakuma Samata's life.
- 1844: Born on November 19.
- 1866: Served as a company commander during the Second Chōshū Expedition.
- 1872: Appointed Imperial Japanese Army Captain on April 8.
- 1874: Participated in the suppression of the Saga Rebellion in February. Appointed Chief of Staff of the Kumamoto Garrison on April 5. Participated in the Taiwan Expedition of 1874.
- 1875: Appointed Commander of the 6th Infantry Regiment on April 14.
- 1877: Participated in the Satsuma Rebellion.
- 1878: Promoted to Colonel on November 21.
- 1881: Promoted to Major general and appointed Commander of the Sendai Garrison on February 7.
- 1885: Appointed Commander of the 10th Infantry Brigade on May 21.
- 1886: Appointed Commander of the Sendai Garrison on March 16. Promoted to Lieutenant general on December 23.
- 1887: Conferred the title of Baron on May 24.
- 1888: Appointed Commander of the 2nd Division on May 14.
- 1894: Participated in the First Sino-Japanese War as Commander of the 2nd Division.
- 1895: Appointed Governor of the occupied territory on April 5. Conferred the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun and elevated to Viscount on August 20. Awarded the Sino-Japanese War Medal on November 18.
- 1896: Appointed Commander of the Imperial Guards on May 10. Appointed Chūbu Totoku (Central Governor) on October 14.
- 1898: Promoted to full General on September 28.
- 1900: Appointed Commander for the Imperial Army New Year Review on December 25.
- 1902: Temporarily retired (placed on leave) on October 29.
- 1904: Appointed Commander of the Tokyo Garrison on May 1.
- 1906: Appointed 5th Governor-General of Taiwan on April 11. Conferred the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers and awarded the Russo-Japanese War Medal on April 1.
- 1907: Elevated to the title of Count on September 21.
- 1909: Achieved Senior Second Rank (正二位) on September 20.
- 1915: Resigned as Governor-General of Taiwan and retired from military service on May 1. Died on August 5.
4. Honors and Decorations
Sakuma Samata received numerous honors and decorations throughout his distinguished military and administrative career, reflecting his service to the Japanese Empire.
- Ranks and Peerage:**
- 1886, October 28: Conferred Junior Fourth Rank (従四位).
- 1887, May 24: Conferred the title of Baron (男爵).
- 1895, December 20: Conferred Senior Third Rank (正三位).
- 1895, August 20: Elevated to the title of Viscount (子爵).
- 1901, January 31: Conferred Junior Second Rank (従二位).
- 1907, September 21: Elevated to the title of Count (伯爵).
- 1909, September 20: Conferred Senior Second Rank (正二位).
- Orders and Medals:**
- 1882, November 1: Awarded the Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd Class (勲三等旭日中綬章).
- 1887, November 25: Awarded the Order of the Rising Sun, 2nd Class (勲二等旭日重光章).
- 1889, November 25: Awarded the Commemorative Medal for the Promulgation of the Imperial Constitution.
- 1895, August 20: Awarded the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (勲一等旭日大綬章).
- 1895, November 18: Awarded the Meiji 27-28 War Medal (Commemorating the Sino-Japanese War).
- 1906, April 1: Awarded the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (勲一等旭日桐花大綬章) and the Meiji 37-38 War Medal (Commemorating the Russo-Japanese War).
5. Later Life and Death
After a tenure of over nine years, Sakuma Samata stepped down as Governor-General of Taiwan on May 1, 1915, and retired from military service. He died shortly thereafter, on August 5, 1915. Following his death, his peerage title and family headship were succeeded by his third son, Shun'ichi Sakuma.
6. Historical Assessment and Legacy
Sakuma Samata's historical assessment presents a dichotomy, reflecting both his significant contributions to the modernization of Taiwan and the controversial nature of his colonial policies.
6.1. Positive Contributions
Sakuma Samata is positively recognized for his extensive contributions to the infrastructure and economic development of Taiwan during his term as Governor-General. His initiatives led to the significant development of Taiwan's east coast, including the expansion of Hualien port and the opening of the Taroko Gorge area to further development. He also oversaw the improvement of urban infrastructure, the completion of the island's main railway line, the establishment of various museums, and the commencement of the Alishan forest logging industry. His efforts were aimed at integrating Taiwan more closely into the Japanese Empire's economic and administrative framework. Additionally, he is credited with introducing baseball to Taiwan in 1910, a sport that would become an integral part of the island's cultural fabric.
6.2. Criticisms and Controversies
Despite his developmental achievements, Sakuma Samata's legacy is heavily criticized for his harsh "pacification campaigns" (Ribann Jigyō) against the indigenous Taiwanese tribes. These campaigns, which involved extensive military operations against groups such as the Atayal, Bunun, and Truku peoples, resulted in widespread violence, forced displacement, and the severe suppression of indigenous cultures and autonomy. Critics highlight these methods as brutal colonial policies that caused immense suffering and violated the human rights of the aboriginal populations, reflecting a dark chapter in Taiwan's colonial history.
6.3. Memorials
After his death, Sakuma Samata was enshrined as a kami under State Shinto, the official religion of Japan at the time. Several shrines were erected in his honor. A notable shrine exists in Sagamihara, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, which continues to stand today. Another shrine was established in Taihoku (present-day Taipei), Taiwan, though it has since been abolished. There have been unsuccessful efforts to reconstruct the shrine in Taiwan. A street in Taipei, Sakuma-chō, was also named after him, reflecting his influence during the colonial period.