King of BaekjeMonarchBuddhism6th century

Muryeong of Baekje

Muryeong of Baekje was the 25th monarch who revitalized the kingdom's strength and expanded its diplomatic relations with China and Japan.

1. Overview

King Muryeong (reigned 501-523 CE) was the 25th monarch of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. His reign is renowned for restoring stability and national strength to Baekje, which had experienced internal turmoil and territorial losses following Goguryeo's capture of its former capital, Hansung (modern-day Seoul). During this period, King Muryeong solidified Baekje's alliance with Silla against Goguryeo and actively expanded diplomatic and trade relationships with China and Japan. Born in either 461 or 462 CE, his personal name was Sama, also known as Yung. Historical accounts describe him as a tall and handsome individual with a generous character. He ascended to the throne under challenging circumstances, succeeding King Dongseong after his assassination, and immediately moved to suppress internal rebellions, laying the foundation for a revitalized Baekje.

2. Background

This section details King Muryeong's origins, including his birth year, various personal names, and the often-conflicting accounts of his parentage and birthplace found in different historical records.

2.1. Birth and Parentage

King Muryeong was born in either 461 or 462 CE. The inscription from his tomb, the Tomb of King Muryeong, records his birth year as 462 and identifies his name as Sama (사마SamaKorean). The Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) refers to him as King Muryeong, with the personal name Sama (斯摩SamaKorean), and states he was the second son of the 24th Baekje monarch, King Dongseong. However, the Liang Shu from China records his surname as Yeo (餘YeoChinese) and personal name as Yung (隆YungChinese), noting that he restored Baekje to a powerful nation.

Conflicting accounts arise from Japanese historical texts. The Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan) states his birth date as June 25, 461, and describes him as the son of King Gaero, the 21st king of Baekje. It also mentions that King Gaero's younger brother, Buyeo Gonji, traveled to Japan with Muryeong's mother, who was already pregnant. She gave birth on a small Japanese island, leading to him being called Semakishi (嶋君SemakishiJapanese, "Island Lord") or King Shima (斯麻王Shima-ōJapanese) in Japanese records, signifying his birth on an island. The Shoku Nihongi, citing the Baekje Sinchan (New Record of Baekje), further elaborates that King Muryeong's personal name was Shima-o and that he was a son of Prince Gonji, making him the half-brother of King Dongseong. Some theories even suggest that King Gaero engaged in incest with his concubine, who then bore Muryeong through Gonji, though this is debated as a means to legitimize his claim to the throne. The discrepancy in parentage, particularly concerning whether he was Dongseong's son or half-brother, is a subject of scholarly discussion, with the proximity of their ages suggesting the latter.

2.2. Early Life and Japanese Connection

Accounts from the Nihon Shoki suggest that Muryeong's mother fled to Japan with Prince Gonji to escape attacks from Goguryeo. As their ship passed by a small island in Tsukushi Province (modern-day Kyushu), she went into labor and gave birth to him in a cave or on the beach. This event led to his name "Shima-kimi" or "King Shima," meaning "Island Lord," reflecting his unique birthplace. Baekje people reportedly called this island "Nirimusema" (주도JudoKorean), meaning "Lord's Island."

While specific details of his early life remain largely unknown, the Samguk Sagi describes King Muryeong as being very tall, approximately 8 ft, with a handsome appearance and a generous character. Some historians propose that he might have ruled a region in Yamato Province as "King Bu" prior to his return to Baekje to assume the throne, further emphasizing his deep connections with Japan before his accession.

3. Reign

King Muryeong's reign was characterized by significant political stability, military successes, and robust diplomatic engagements, all aimed at restoring Baekje's national strength.

King Muryeong's crown, discovered in his tomb
King Muryeong's crown, discovered in his tomb

3.1. Accession to the Throne

King Muryeong ascended to the throne in November 501 CE, following the assassination of his predecessor, King Dongseong. King Dongseong's policies, perceived as autocratic, had alienated the aristocracy, leading to his murder by the court official Baekga, who held the position of Wisajwapyeong (Commander of the Royal Guard). The Nihon Shoki also suggests that King Dongseong's disrespectful attitude towards Wa envoys provided the aristocracy with a pretext for his assassination, paving the way for Sama's enthronement.
Upon his accession, Muryeong immediately faced the challenge of Baekga, who had entrenched himself in Garimseong (modern-day Buyeo County, Chungcheongnam-do). In January 501, Muryeong, aided by Hansol Haemyong, led his forces to decisively crush Baekga's rebellion. Baekga surrendered and was executed, his body thrown into Baekgang River, thus solidifying Muryeong's control over the kingdom.

3.2. Military Activities

King Muryeong actively engaged in military campaigns to defend and expand Baekje's territory, particularly against Goguryeo and the Mohe.
In November 501, he dispatched troops to invade Goguryeo's border, though this initial campaign was unsuccessful. However, Muryeong soon achieved significant victories. In 503, he successfully repelled an attack by the Mohe on Gomokseong (High Tree Fortress) and sent Dalsol Uyeong with 5,000 troops to counter-attack Goguryeo's Sugokseong. In 507, when the Mohe, instigated by Goguryeo, again attacked Gomokseong, Muryeong responded by constructing two defensive forts and the extensive Jangnyeongseong fortress to fortify the northern border.
A pivotal military engagement occurred in 512 when Goguryeo captured two Baekje fortresses, Gabulseong and Wonsanseong. King Muryeong personally led an army of 3,000 men to the north of Wicheon River, where he decisively defeated the Goguryeo forces, inflicting heavy losses and reclaiming the lost territories. In 523, he further bolstered Baekje's defenses by ordering Jwapyeong Inu and Dalsol Sao to construct Ssanghyeonseong fortress. These military efforts helped to stabilize Baekje's borders and establish a balance of power with Goguryeo.
Beyond the northern conflicts, Muryeong also directed campaigns against the Gaya states. He secured areas around Imsil County and Namwon City, expanding Baekje's influence eastward into the interior along the Seomjin River basin and advancing towards the southwestern coast of Gyeongsangnam-do. In these newly acquired territories, he established military commands and appointed fortress lords, further centralizing control.

3.3. Foreign Relations

King Muryeong's reign marked a period of flourishing diplomatic activity with both China and Japan.
Baekje significantly increased its contact and trade with China. In 512, Muryeong dispatched Baekje's first diplomatic mission to the newly established Liang Dynasty. A second, more prominent mission followed in 521, during which Baekje envoys proudly reported their various military victories over Goguryeo. In recognition of Baekje's renewed strength and its diplomatic efforts, Emperor Wu of Liang bestowed upon King Muryeong several prestigious titles, including "Great General Tranquilizing the East" (寧東大將軍Níngdōng DàjiāngjūnChinese) and "King of Baekje." These titles were notably inscribed on a tablet discovered within King Muryeong's tomb, confirming the historical accounts.

Relations with Japan were also actively cultivated. In 503, Muryeong sent a bronze mirror, known as the Sudahachiman Shrine Mirror, to the Japanese emperor. In 513, he sent the distinguished Ogyeong Haksa (Five Classics scholar) Dan Yang-i to Japan, followed by another scholar, Go An-mu, in 516. These cultural exchanges played a crucial role in transmitting Baekje's advanced culture and scholarship to Japan, fostering close ties. There were also individuals from Japan residing in Baekje during this period, who later appeared in historical records as Baekje officials of Japanese descent.
Furthermore, the Nihon Shoki records that in 512 and 513, during the reign of Emperor Keitai, certain territories in Mimana (also known as Gaya) - specifically the four counties of Okoshitari, Arositari, Sada, and Muro, and later Kimun and Tasa - were ceded by Japan to Baekje, indicating a strong diplomatic understanding and mutual cooperation between the two powers.

3.4. Governance and Reforms

King Muryeong undertook significant reforms to consolidate royal authority and strengthen the kingdom's administration. Despite initial opposition from aristocrats who had been involved in King Dongseong's assassination, Muryeong systematically enhanced the power of the throne.
A key reform was the centralization of local governance. According to the Liang Shu, King Muryeong restructured the 22 existing administrative units, known as Damro, placing them under the direct control of royal family members. This measure effectively strengthened central authority, enabling the crown to conscript labor for large-scale construction projects and expand the influence of the royal house throughout the provinces.
He also reformed the Jwapyeong system, which organized the aristocracy into a ranked hierarchy and assigned them specific roles in state affairs. This reorganization allowed Muryeong to manage and control both established and emerging aristocratic factions, leading to a more streamlined and loyal government apparatus. He also shifted towards a more royal-centric government, as evidenced by his decision to replace the non-royal Managun, who had been dispatched to Japan, with the royal Sa'agun in the fifth year of his reign, ensuring that key diplomatic and administrative roles were held by trusted members of the royal family. These reforms contributed substantially to Baekje's stability and laid the groundwork for its resurgence as a formidable regional power.

4. Tomb and Legacy

King Muryeong's historical impact is primarily characterized by his successful revitalization of Baekje's national strength and stability, with significant discoveries related to his life and reign further cementing his place in history.

The entrance to the Tomb of King Muryeong
The entrance to the Tomb of King Muryeong

4.1. Tomb of King Muryeong

The Tomb of King Muryeong was discovered in 1971 in Songsan-ri, Gongju, Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea, a discovery that proved to be one of the most significant archaeological finds in Korean history. Prior to its excavation, the tomb's occupant was unknown. The tomb is a brick-chambered tomb (전실분jeonsilbunKorean), where King Muryeong was interred alongside his queen.
A crucial artifact unearthed was the tomb inscription tablet (지석jisukKorean), which definitively identified the king and provided precise dates for his birth, death, and the tomb's construction. The inscription reads: "Ningdong Da Jiangjun Baekje Sama Wang, aged 62, died on the 7th day of the 5th month of Gye-myo year (523 CE). On the 12th day of the 8th month of Eul-sa year (525 CE), he was reburied in the great tomb in Deunggwan." This confirmed his birth year as 462 and clarified that he was initially temporarily interred before being formally reburied two years later.
The excavation yielded nearly 3,000 artifacts, offering invaluable insights into Baekje's royal culture and its interactions with neighboring states. Notable items include exquisite gold crown ornaments, gold heart-shaped earrings, gold hairpins, silver bracelets, a bronze sacred beast mirror, and various ceramics. The coffin wood itself was identified as Koyamaki (Japanese umbrella pine), a species native only to Japan, which generated considerable interest regarding Baekje's strong ties with the archipelago.

4.2. Historical Assessment

King Muryeong is highly regarded by historians for his instrumental role in stabilizing Baekje after a period of decline and internal turmoil. He is credited with restoring the kingdom's national strength, centralizing royal authority, and effectively countering external threats from Goguryeo and the Mohe. His strategic military campaigns and robust diplomatic initiatives with China and Japan laid the foundation for the subsequent golden age of Baekje under his successor, King Seong. His reign marked a crucial turning point, shifting Baekje from a defensive posture to a period of revitalization and expansion.

The Sudahachiman Shrine Mirror, a national treasure housed in Wakayama Prefecture, Japan, provides further insight into King Muryeong's reign. Its inscription, dated to 503 CE, mentions "Sama" making the mirror to pray for the longevity of a "King's younger brother" (男弟王OtōtoōJapanese) who was at Oshisaka Palace. Many scholars interpret "Sama" as King Muryeong, suggesting an early exchange of valuable artifacts and a clear recognition of the Japanese imperial lineage.

4.3. Relationship with the Japanese Imperial Family

The historical connections between King Muryeong and the Japanese Imperial Family have been a subject of considerable interest. The Shoku Nihongi contains a passage stating that Takano no Niigasa (720-790), the mother of Emperor Kanmu (the ancestor of the modern Japanese Imperial Family), was a descendant of the Yamato no Fuhito clan, which traced its lineage to King Muryeong's son, Prince Junda. Prince Junda is recorded in the Nihon Shoki (Chapter 17) as having died in Japan in 513.

In 2001, Emperor Akihito of Japan publicly acknowledged this historical connection, stating to reporters, "I, on my part, feel a certain kinship with Korea, given that it is recorded in the Chronicles of Japan that the mother of Emperor Kanmu was one of the descendants of King Muryong of Baekje." This marked the first time a Japanese emperor publicly referred to a Korean bloodline in the imperial lineage.
However, there are scholarly discussions regarding the precise nature of this lineage due to a significant time gap of approximately 200 years between the death of King Muryeong (523) and Prince Junda (513) and the birth of Takano no Niigasa (c. 720). Despite these chronological considerations, the historical records and the emperor's statement highlight a strong and acknowledged cultural and familial tie between the Baekje royal house and the Japanese imperial line.
Furthermore, some South Korean scholars, including No Jung-guk and Kim Hyun-gu, have proposed that several Baekje queens, including the wife of King Jeonji (Queen Pal-su) and potentially the queens of Princes Gonji and Kings Dongseong and Muryeong, might have been of Japanese origin, suggesting a policy of intermarriage by the Wa (Japanese) royal family.

5. Family

King Muryeong's family tree presents varying accounts across different historical sources, particularly regarding his parentage.

According to the Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa, King Muryeong was the second son of King Dongseong, the 24th monarch of Baekje. However, the Nihon Shoki presents an alternative lineage, asserting that King Muryeong was the son of Buyeo Gonji, King Gaero's younger brother, which would make King Dongseong his half-brother. This latter perspective is also supported by the Baekje Sinchan.

His known family members include:

  • Father: The historical records conflict, listing either Dongseong of Baekje or Buyeo Gonji.
  • Mother: Unnamed in most records, but referred to in the Nihon Shoki as accompanying Prince Gonji to Japan.
  • Wife: An unnamed queen, who was buried alongside him in the Tomb of King Muryeong.
  • Sons:
    • King Seong (성왕Seong-wangKorean, ?-554): The 26th King of Baekje, known as Buyeo Myeong (부여명Buyeo MyeongKorean) or Buyeo Myeongnong (부여명농Buyeo MyeongnongKorean) before his accession. He succeeded King Muryeong to the throne.
    • Prince Junda (淳陀太子Junda TaishiJapanese, ?-513): Also known in Baekje as Buyeo Junta. He is recorded to have settled in Japan and is considered an ancestor of the Yamato no Fuhito clan, a prominent immigrant family in Japan. The Nihon Shoki states he died in Japan in 513. There is a theory that he was the original heir apparent to King Muryeong but died prematurely in Japan, leading to Seong's succession.
    • Shigakishi (斯我君ShigakishiJapanese, ?-?): Also known in Baekje as Buyeo Sa'a. He was sent to Japan in 505 CE, potentially as a political hostage to Emperor Buretsu of Japan, as part of diplomatic exchanges.